The document discusses various theories of gender inequalities, including biological, psychoanalytic, sociobiology, and gender role theories. It defines key concepts like gender, feminism, and compares feminist and gender theories. Biological theories see gender differences as innate and natural, stemming from brain structure, hormones, and physical abilities. However, critics argue culture and environment also strongly influence gender roles and behaviors. Later theories view gender as a social construct rather than determined by biology alone.

1. Theories of gender
THEORIES OF GENDER INEQUALITIES
2.1 Introduction
Theories of Gender Inequalities do not only offer explanations of gender differences but also help to
clarify differences between gender and sex as well as gender and feminism which are often
misconstrued and confused. This unit discusses first, biological theories that explain gender differences
in terms of natural biology and innate abilities which were dominant theories before the rise of gender
and feminism. Gender theories view and locate differences between males and females in social
constructs (created by society.) This chapter covers both macro and micro theories of gender
inequalities. Macro theories tend to be comprehensive and include a variety of factors while micro
theories centre explanations on individual aspects like environment, biology, culture or ecology. Origins,
major expositions and applicability of each theory are discussed in this chapter. Also activities are
provided at the end of each theory to enhance your understanding of it through interaction.

2. What is a theory ?????
 Henslin (1999) defines a theory as a general statement that explains how two
or more facts are related to one another. Haralambos and Holborn (1990:8)
define a theory as a set of ideas which claim to explain how something works:
it provides a logical explanation for why things happen the way they do. A
theory therefore defines the causal factors of a relationship and explains the
nature of that relationship.

3. What is feminism?????
 According to Magezis‘ (1996) feminism is a broad social movement which allows
different points of view that work for women‘ rights. It is the organizational movement
which promotes equality for both men and women in political, economic and social
spheres of life (Different Types of Feminist Theories, 2006). Feminists focus on why and
how women are oppressed in different spheres of life and work for their liberation.
Feminism can be viewed in the following three ways:
 As a social and political movement that fight for the rights of women and their equality
with men in all spheres of life.
 As an ideology or philosophy or way of thinking that questions oppressive
 relations of men and women using women‘s perspectives.
 A theory that questions relations of men and women and aims at transforming them
(Mannathoko in Meena, 1992).
 To Henslin (1999:292) Feminism is the view that;
 Biology is not destiny and therefore stratification by Gender is wrong and should be
resisted, met with strong opposition both by men who have privileges to lose and by
women who accepted their status as normally correct.

4. The rise of feminism
 It rose as a challenge to functionalism which is conservative and views sexual
division of labour and the subordinate position of women as functional for the
stability of society. It was also a reaction to the biological theories that viewed
the position of women as natural. Feminism also questioned the dominant views or
philosophies that viewed women as les human than males. Examples of these
philosophies are: The female is female by virtue of a certain lack of qualities(
Aristotle) A woman is an imperfect man (St Thomas Aquinas).
 The chief distinction in the intellectual powers of the two sexes is shown by man
attaining to a higher eminence in whatever he takes up, than women can
attainwhether requiring deep thought, reason, imagination or merely the use of
senses and hands( Charles Darwin).
 (Sandi, 1997; 1)
 The feminist movement gave rise to a body of theory which attempts to explain
discrimination of women. The theory is not unified but is made of a variety of
theories that focus on women though differing in causes of subordination and
strategies of women‘s liberation.

5. Different focus points of feminism
The feminist movement gave rise to a body of theory which attempts to explain
discrimination of women. The theory is not unified but is made of a variety of theories
that focus on women though differing in causes of subordination and strategies of
women‘s liberation.
Common aspects shared by Feminists
 Gender is not natural but a social construct.
 They take the position that women are unfairly treated in all spheres of life.
 Strategies can be developed to make the world a better place for women.
Feminist Differences
 Explanations of women‘s oppression.
 Areas of focus e.g. cultural stereotypes, biology, patriarchy, capitalism, class etc.
 Direction of change or what constitute women‘s liberation.

6. What is gender????
 Sifuniso et al (2000:2) define gender as:
 The social meanings given to being either a man or a woman in a
given society and the expectations held as to the character,
attitude and likely behaviour of men and women.
 Gender, unlike sex which is biological, is socially constructed. Gender
influences the different behaviours, roles, responsibilities, identities and
treatment of males and females in society. Gender depends on the culture
and history of a particular society and differs from culture to culture (Refer to
unit 1).
 Though gender theories do not differ much from feminist theories, they focus
on both males and females, while feminist theories centre on women.

7. Differences between Feminist and Gender
Theories
Feminist Theories Gender Theories
Are women centered Men and Women centered
Focus on experiences of women Focus on experiences of women and men
View issues from women‘s social world View issues from a gender perspective
Seek to produce a better world for women Seek to produce a better world for both
Are about fighting back (revenge) Are about peaceful co-existence of males and females not
fighting back
View males as enemies and to blame for subordinate
position of women
Males are viewed as victims of sociocultural institutions
created by society
Reject assistance by males in their struggles Accept assistance by gender sensitive males
Ask questions like: What about women?
The question is: What about men and women?

8. Points of convergence
 Gender differences are socially rather than biologically constructed.
 Gender differences can be deconstructed
 Both questions and challenge oppressive gender relations
 Gender differences are embedded in socio-economic structures such as:
 capitalism
 sexism or patriarchy
 racism
 social and cultural institutions

9. Biology theories
 Brain Laterisation and Hormonal Explanations
 Scientists believe that behaviour, personality and emotional disposition are
controlled by hormones in males and females. Studies by Nicholson showed that
there is correlation between levels of testosterone and male aggression. Girls
with high levels of oestrogen exhibit ‗tomboy‘ characteristics. John Nicholson
cited in Haralambos and Holborn (2004) argue that the Right and left wings of the
brain specialize in different tasks because of hormones which have effects on the
brain. The right specializes in visiospatial abilities while the left specializes in
verbal and language skills. This is supported by Gray and Buffery (Ibid) who
pointed out that the left is dominant in girls hence girls have verbal ability, while
boys perform better in mathematical texts. However, not all boys score higher in
maths and lower in languages. Similarly not all girls score low marks in maths and
higher in language. There are also differences in ability at infant stage where girls
score higher in all subjects. This shows that there are other factors that influence
ability.

10. Biological theories
 Biology has been the most widely accepted explanation for inequalities
between men and women for a long time. Scientists observe natural
differences ranging from hormones, chromosomes, brain size and genetics as
responsible for innate differences in behaviour of women and men (Giddens,
2001). Even stereotypical behaviours like men‘s physical strength, superior
intelligence aggression women‘s softness, care, passivity and love are all
attributed to biological determinism.
 Biologists argue that the above characteristics are evident across cultures.
However, critics of biological theories reveal that the level, for example of
passivity of women and aggression of males vary depending on cultures. They
argue that, if a trait is not universal, then it cannot be natural. Giddens
(2001) notes that such theories neglect the vital role of social interaction in
shaping human behaviour.

11. Theories continued
 Psycho-analytic theory (by Sigmund Freud)
 Freud in Giddens (2001) argues that gender differences at infant are centred on the presence or
absence of the penis. Having a penis is equivalent to being a boy while being a girl means one lacks
a penis. The boy views the father as a rival in the affection of the mother. The boy suppresses
feelings for the mother and identifies with the father in fear of threats, discipline and demand for
autonomy by the father. Girls suffer from penis envy and devalue the mother who does not have
one. She identifies with the mother and takes dependency and submissive attitudes. The above
theory assumes that the penis is superior to the vagina and that gender learning is concentrated at
the age of 4-5years. There are more factors and processes that contribute to gender learning,
genetic factors are not enough
 Socio-biology
 The theory was propounded by William (1975) and applied to gender by David Barash (Haralambos
and Holborn, 2004). Barash argues that genetics are governed by instructions to maximize the
chances of passion on the genes to future generations from breeding. Males produce more sperms
hence have interest in making many females pregnant. As a result males are likely to be
promiscuous than females. Men compete for scarce reproductive capacities of females. Females
invest more time and energy in one off-spring and gestate the foetus in her womb. Women are sure
that children are genetically theirs hence devote time to child care. It is assumed that women can
tolerate men‘s infidelity more readily than men. The theory falls short of the realization that
human behaviour is governed by the environment not instincts. It is conservative and views human
behaviour as natural, inevitable and universal.

12. Theories continued
 Biology and Practicality
 George Murdock in Haralambos and Holborn (2004) views males and females differences in physical strength, as
leading to differences in roles. Sexual division of labour is taken to be the most efficient way of organizing society.
He points out that a survey of 224 societies showed that men‘s tasks were those demanding physical strength eg,
mining, hunting, quarrying etc. Women were limited to less strenuous tasks like fetching water, cooking, gathering
firewood, preparing clothes. Women were tied to the home, child bearing and care. To Murdock, physical strength
and child bearing are biological and determine roles and spheres of operation in the home and public place. The
findings from the survey of 224 societies are not enough to conclude that sexual division of labour is biological.
Societies construct roles but these roles are not universal. What would be the biological explanation in these
societies which do not stick to the roles given above?
 2.7.5 Biology: Expressive and Instrumental Roles (Talcott Parsons)
 Though a sociologist, Parsons starting point in explaining sexual division of labour was in biology. He argues out that
childbearing and early nursing is linked to biology. The male is achievement oriented; playing instrumental role
that has stress and anxiety. The woman‘s role is expressive, that is providing warmth, emotional support and
stabilizing adult personalities. She relieves stress by providing the breadwinner with love, consideration and
understanding. Clear sexual division of labour is for efficiency as a social system. Expressive and instrumental
roles complement each other and promote family solidarity. Each sex is biologically suited for these tasks. Parsons
did not foresee the future of the modern industrial society where women also perform instrumental roles that are
stressful. Mothers can have substitutes in childcare for love and affection (O‘Donnell, 1992). This is because
although child bearing is biological, child rearing is not. In a modern industrial society even the type of work has
changed and sexual division of labour is not universal.