Dissertation final version

1
Globalisation of the Premier
League, Football Migration and
the English National Team
Thomas Horton
March 2015
Dissertation Mentor: Kate Manzo

2
Abstract
A popular fan and media association between the England national football team’s declining
success and high levels of foreign players in the English Premier League (EPL) stimulated
this investigation into how and why migration to English football has changed and the effects
of this for England’s national football team performance. Through this the investigation
helped gain an understanding into the process of globalisation and the impacts of migration.
Quantitative data was collated from various sources due to the limited existing empirical
research in this field. The results from this revealed increased and increasingly global
migration of foreign players to top flight English football clubs as a result of
commodification and globalisation. Transnationalisation was found not to be the cause of
migration increases as the significance of transnational ties has reduced. Football migration
levels were also discovered to be globally unequal with many more players migrating from
Western Europe. This highlights the inherent unevenness of globalisation. The impact of the
discovered migration changes were found to have no negative impact on English national
team performance until 2006 when foreign player levels had become higher than two-thirds
in England’s top football league, the EPL. Evidence was actually found that foreign
migration benefited national performance before this. The impacts of immigration were
therefore found to have no negative affects before foreign players dominate the indigenous
population suggesting the wider discourse that UK immigration levels are too high is greatly
exaggerated.
Words: 10,471
Acknowledgements
Many thanks to my mentor, Kate Manzo, for all her help and advice during the dissertation.
Also thanks to Alison Copeland for her help in constructing the maps seen in Figures 3-7.

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Contents Page No.
Abstract 2
Acknowledgements 2
Contents 3
List of Appendices 4
List of Figures 4-5
1. Introduction 6-7
2. Footballer Migration Causes 8-11
3. Foreign Migration and English National Team Performance 12-13
4. Methodology 14-16
5. Migration Changes – Globalisation or Transnationalisation? 17-33
6. Foreign Players and National Performance 34-39
7. Conclusion 40-41
Bibliography 42-48
Appendices 49-57

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List of Appendices Page No.
Appendix 1. Table Showing Number of Players by Nation who have Played 49-53
at Least 10 Matches (11 matches in 1994/95) for Each Season of the
Investigation.
Appendix 2. Table Showing Total Number of Appearances Made by Youth 54
Players and the Number of Players that Played for Their Senior Team,
and the Number Of Players That Left Their Senior Team Within the 2
Year Periods Between 2004/05 and 2012/13.
Appendix 3. Table Showing the Methodology Used To Construct Appendices 55-57
1&2 and Each Figure.
List of Figures
Figure 1. England’s ELO world rankings in world Cup years between 1966 6
and 2014.
Figure 2. Percentage of English players that have played in at least 10 EPL 18
matches in a season.
Figure 3. Map showing nationalities of footballers in the EPL by region for the 20
1994/95 season.
Figure 4. Map showing nationalities of footballers in the EPL by regions for the 21
1998/99 season.
2003/04 season.
2008/09 season.
2013/14 season.
Figure 8. Table showing the number of footballers in the EPL from each region 25
in selected seasons.
Figure 9. Number of nations non-English players were from for the 1994/95, 26
2003/04 and 2013/14 seasons.
Figure 10. Level of players from African and all other nations in 1994/95. 27

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Figure 11. Level of players from African and all other nations in 2013/14. 27
Figure 12. Level of players from Scandinavian and all other nations in 1994/95. 28
Figure 13. Level of players from Scandinavian and all other nations in 2013/14. 29
Figure 14. Level of players from British, Irish and other nations in 1994/95. 29
Figure 15. Level of players from British, Irish and other nations in 2013/14. 30
Figure 16. The number of nations by region in the top-40 ELO world ranked 31
teams on December 25th 2014.
Figure 17. Average appearances made by players in EPL youth academies 34
within 2 seasons.
Figure 18. Levels of English and non-English players in 2004/05 EPL youth 36
academies.
Figure 19. Levels of English and non-English players in 2011/12 EPL youth 36
academies.

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1. Introduction
Since England’s success in winning the 1966 World Cup the English national football team’s
performances have failed to reach the same level. This is shown by their declining ELO
world rankings from the best to the fourteenth best team in the world (see Figure 1.).
England’s decline has created considerable debate as to whether an increasing number of
foreign footballers in England’s highest league, the English Premier League (EPL), have had
a negative impact on English national team performance. This debate has stimulated this
investigation into first, how the migration of foreign footballers into the EPL has changed
over time and why, and second, to investigate how this has affected English national team
performance. Through this investigation it is possible to understand the process of
globalisation and the impacts of migration.
Figure 1. England’s ELO World Rankings in World Cup Years Between 1966 and 2014.
There has been a clear, if inconstant, decline in English national performance. England’s
ranking fell after winning the World Cup in 1966 to eleventh in 1994 when England failed to
even qualify for the tournament (FIFA 2014). Their performance then improved by reaching
the round of sixteen at the 1998 World Cup and the quarter finals at both the 2002 and 2006
World Cups (FIFA 2014). Following this England’s performance took a rapid decline with a
large 4-1 defeat against Germany in the round of sixteen at the 2010 Wold Cup (FIFA 2014)
before being knocked out at the group stages at the 2014 World Cup for the first time since
1958 (BBC Sport 2014d) having failed to win a single match (FIFA 2014).
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 2014
EnglandELOWorldRanking
Year

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The clear decline in English performance has often been associated by the fans and the media
(e.g. BBC Sport 2015a, Jewell 2014, Kelso 2014, Sky Sports 2014, Telegraph Sport 2014)
with increasing numbers of foreign players in English football, similar to arguments that UK
immigration levels are too high (e.g. BBC News 2014a, Chorley 2015, Malik 2014, Warner
2013). Examining the impacts of increased foreign migration to the EPL connects with these
at a narrow scale and helps determine the extent to which these discourses are true.
Sport is a useful way to understand the processes of globalisation (Bi 2015, Giulianotti &
Robertson 2004) and investigating the changes in sport migration helps to gain a better
understanding of wider global changes (Giulianotti & Robertson 2007b, Maguire 1994a). The
increasing foreign migration to English football has potential causes of globalisation and
commodification. In order to investigate this the study focuses on the period since the
formation of the EPL since when there has been an acceleration in foreign player migration
(Frick 2009, Magee & Sugden 2002, Millward 2011, Millward 2013a).
This study seeks to determine the causes and consequences of increased foreign migration by
collecting quantitative data. Empirical data is vital to understanding the process of sport
labour migration but existing empirical studies on the migration of sports players are limited
(Maguire 2004). Only a few studies have examined the composition of the EPL with even
fewer examining the changes over time. This study aims to fill this gap and to add more
recent data, important to checking existing theories on the causes of sport migration (Maguire
2004).
Structure
Reasons for the increase in foreign migration to the EPL cited in existing literature are first
examined within chapter 2. Chapter 3 discusses the theoretical impacts of this for the English
national team. Chapter 4 discusses the investigation’s aims and the methods used to test them.
Chapters 5 and 6 discuss the investigation’s results. Chapter 5 examines how the composition
of the EPL has changed and what caused the changes, revealing the unevenness of
globalisation. Chapter 6 investigates the impacts of increased foreign migration on English
national performance since England’s success at the 1966 World Cup, linked to a wider
debate on the effects of immigration. Finally chapter 7 summarises the findings of the
investigation.

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2. FootballerMigrationCauses
The EPL has experienced processes of commodification and
globalisation/transnationalisation leading to higher foreign player numbers, facilitated in part
by the Bosman Ruling. As seen in chapter 3 this has potential impacts for national team
performance.
EPL’s Commodification
The EPL was formed for the 1992/93 season and has been an era of accelerated
commodification of English football. Commodification is a process where objects are turned
into commodities which then have value that can be exchanged (Castree et al. 2013, Goss
2005). Definitions sometimes include attitudes about objects such as Anderson’s (1993)
belief that objects considered to have monetary value are commodified. In football it is the
players themselves that are commodities (Poli 2010) as they are deemed valuable even if
clubs do not wish to sell them (Walsh & Giulianotti 2001). Commodification is undoubtedly
occurring in football seen in higher ticket prices and increased revenue from sponsorship
(Kennedy & Kennedy 2012, Moor 2007). It is also seen in high wages and transfer fees,
determined by consumers’ desire for their teams’ success (Lucifora & Simmons 2003). Three
of the top ten sporting world teams paying the highest average wage are from the EPL
including the highest, Manchester City (BBC Sport 2014b). The record transfer fee for a
player increased from £1.18 million before the Premier League was formed to £7 million in
1995 and £59.7 million in 2014 (Keogh 2014). Accelerated EPL commodification is clear to
see.
Commodification can also be seen in the introduction of pay-tv subscriptions. Crucial was the
Broadcasting Act of 1990 which allowed the exclusive showing of live matches by private
broadcasters resulting in consumers having to pay to watch (Moor 2007). This was vital in
stimulating football’s commodification as broadcasting became a major revenue source for
football clubs allowing higher transfer fees and wages (Brown 2000, Giulianotti and
Robertson 2009). The first TV rights deal to broadcast EPL matches in the EPL was sold for
£305 million (Conn 1999), in 2012 the rights were sold for £3.018 billion (BBC News
2014b), and rights from 2016/17 have just been sold for £5.1 billion (BBC Sport 2015b).
These vast increases demonstrate the massively accelerating commodification of football in
the EPL era.
A further process of EPL commodification is the increasingly business-like approach of its
clubs. The clubs themselves have evolved to operate as businesses and thus seek profit (Boon
2000, Brown 2000, Walsh & Giulianotti 2001). Although football has clearly experienced
commodification, football clubs are not just profit-seeking businesses (Kennedy & Kennedy
2012). Clubs have though become more business-like and taken on many characteristics of
transnational corporations (Giulianotti & Robertson 2009). This has made EPL clubs actors
in the globalisation of football.

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Globalisation, Commodificationand IncreasedInternational Migration
Globalisation has been important in increasing foreign migration to the EPL as globalisation
results in greater labour mobility (Cornelissen & Solberg 2007). Globalisation is believed to
increase flows of commodities and labour of which footballers are both (Giulianotti &
Robertson 2004). Globalisation is ‘the process whereby people, places, regions, and countries
become more interlinked and more interdependent at a planetary scale’ (Castree et al. 2013:
191). This involves intense and wide global relationships (Dicken 2011).
A popular scholarly view is football players are increasingly geographically and socially
mobile due to globalisation, seen in the recruitment of foreign players from a widening range
of countries (Maguire & Pearton 2000a, McGovern 2002). Globalisation has caused a rapid
increase in international migration (Castles 2000, Maguire & Bale 1994), especially of
foreign footballers since the formation of the EPL (Elliott & Weedon 2011).
The link between globalisation and commodification to increased migration of footballers can
be seen in TV rights. Digital TV was a relatively new technology when the EPL started and,
as pay-tv subscriptions are largely driven by broadcasters’ exclusive sports rights, this
increased club revenues (Brown 2000). The high revenue received was partly from a global
audience with the EPL being a global football league as matches were broadcast in 211
countries (Millward 2013b). As a result an ability to pay higher wages attracted foreign
players to the EPL from lower-waged leagues (Millward 2013b) allowing the EPL to become
‘the most popular league for players to ply their trade’ Jones (2008: 2). This supports the
notion that commodification is connected to increased migration of sports players (Maguire
& Pearton 2000a).
Globalisationor Transnationalisation?
Although some believe that globalisation is responsible for the migration of football players
to the EPL others believe it is the result of existing networks. This engages with the debate
whether there has been a globalisation or transnationalisation of the EPL.
Transnationalisation is a process where ties connect individuals and social groups in different
countries (Giulianotti & Robertson 2007a). This is different to globalisation as globalisation
involves further integration with other countries (Dicken 1998, McGovern 2002). The EPL
can be considered a transnational league as the number of foreign players and managers has
increased (Giulianotti & Robertson 2007a, Millward 2011). The determining factors in the
links between players from certain nations migrating to England include economic and
historical relationships, social and cultural connections, and geographical proximity (Dobson
& Goddard 2011, Guilianotti & Robertson 2004, Maguire 1994b, Maguire 2004, Maguire &
Pearton 2000a, Maguire & Stead 1998, McGovern 2002, Poli 2010).
Migration networks still exist with players recruited from culturally similar or historically
connected nations (Giulianotti & Robertson 2009, Taylor 2006). Spatial selectivity in
migration patterns is indicated by higher Spanish, French and Italian recruitment from

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different continents than English and German clubs (Poli 2010). It is argued that clubs aim to
recruit foreign players who are the most similar to indigenous players due to fears whether
non-similar players could adapt to English football (McGovern 2002). Studies have shown
that networks are important in the flows of labour migration as migration only occurs when
actors make the decision for it to happen and the decisions are based on existing links (Poli
2010). The need to reduce uncertainty when employing players creates a preference to form
relationships through repeated transactions (McGovern 2002). Clubs therefore recruit at a
regional rather than global scale (McGovern 2002, Taylor 2006).
Despite many scholars highlighting the importance of transnationalisation in player
recruitment choices many still believe globalisation to be the cause of increased international
migration. Dicken (1998) highlights that globalisation is an uneven process with differing
mobilities, seen in Massey (1994) finding greater mobility of some social groups than others.
Poli (2010) reveals how the international division of labour results in a hierarchical system of
connections. Guilianotti and Robertson (2004) believe globalisation is the driving force of
migration changes but through interactions with the local. In contrast McGovern (2002)
believes globalisation theories related to labour markets are flawed as they do not account for
social interactions. There are therefore opposing global and transnational schools so further
investigation is required.
TransnationalTies
Previous studies have identified evidence for transnational ties to English football in several
regions. Western Europe is one such tie (Cornelissen & Solberg 2007, Poli 2010). Maguire
and Stead (1998) identified a high number of players migrating to the EPL from this region
due to their ability to speak English, their ability to adapt, and their professionalism. Maguire
and Pearton (2000b) found Northern Europe to be the main source of migration to the EPL
with a particularly large Norwegian contingent.
A second region deemed to be part of the EPL’s recruitment network is Africa. Many believe
this network exists as a result of England’s colonial history with the region (Darby 2007,
Littlewood et al. 2011). The evidence from France makes this likely as over 57% of African
footballers were found to play there (Poli 2010). It is also supported by an increasing
majority of African footballers playing in Europe and the highest level of African footballers
playing in former colonial nations (Darby 2007).
The BosmanRuling
The increase in foreign migration to the EPL, whether caused by globalisation or
transnational links, has been influenced by the Bosman Ruling. This was a legal change
resulting in increased foreign player recruitment (Walters & Rossi 2009). The number of
foreign players migrating to Western football leagues had been increasing since the 1960s but
the Bosman Ruling led to a vast acceleration in the process after it came into operation for the

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1995/96 season (Crolley & Hand 2002, Frick 2009). Before this in most European leagues
out-of-contract players still required a fee to be agreed with their previous club to allow them
to join a new one (Frick 2009). The Belgian footballer Bosman challenged this in order to
move to a new club (Simmons 1997). The failure to allow Bosman to move was found to be
incompatible with EU law (Frick 2009). It was also ruled that the European governing body
of football, UEFA, was violating EU law by restricting the number of non-national players a
team could play (two players) in a match (Arnedt 1998). The result of the ruling was the
abandonment of the transfer restrictions allowing free movement of all out-of-contract EU
players within the EU and UEFA having to allow more than two non-indigenous EU players
to play in a match thus creating easier migration for EU players (Binder & Findlay 2012,
Ericsson 2000). England’s rule that only three overseas players could play was also no longer
permitted (Magee & Sugden 2002). Since the ruling there have been significant increases in
foreign players in the ‘Big Five’ leagues of England, France, Germany, Italy and Spain (Frick
2009). However, despite the ruling non-EU player movement can, and is, still legally
restricted (Maguire & Pearton 2000a). The Bosman Ruling was clearly a key event in
facilitating larger movements of foreign EU players, but cannot be a factor for footballer
migration outside this region. The processes of commodification and some degree of
globalisation/transnationalisation must therefore account for increases in foreign migration
from elsewhere. The extent to which the debated causes of globalisation and
transnationalisation have altered the composition of the EPL requires investigation.

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3. ForeignMigrationand English NationalTeamPerformance
Commodification and globalisation/transnationalisation causing increased foreign migration
to the EPL has several theoretical impacts for the English national team. Their higher level
could restrict playing opportunities for both senior and young English players, thus damaging
English player development. However, there are some who believe higher foreign player
levels actually benefits the national team due to knowledge spillovers. If this is the case then
the popular discourse that foreign players are responsible for the English national team’s
decline could be due to xenophobia.
English PlayerDevelopment
A high level of foreign players could reduce the development of indigenous players to the
detriment of the national team. Magee and Sugden (2002) note that England has experienced
a more dramatic increase in foreign players than any other nation, potentially negatively
impacting on English player development due to lower playing opportunities. This might
explain England’s recent poor performance.
The restricted playing opportunities for senior players could have the same impact in youth
academies. The higher the quality of players in the senior team, the less likely youth players
are given opportunities to play (Baur and Lehmann 2008). As teams purchase foreign instead
of English players it seems likely that the foreign players increase the quality of their senior
team resulting in fewer playing opportunities for youth players; reduced playing opportunities
limits playing experience to improve their skills leading to a long term negative impact on the
national team as English players become under-developed (Baur and Lehmann 2008, Elliott
& Weedon 2011, Madichie 2009, Maguire & Pearton 2000a, Skey 2014).
There appears to be a shift in clubs’ emphasis toward purchasing ‘finished’ players rather
than focusing on indigenous player development (Littlewood et al. 2011). Whether clubs
develop indigenous players or prefer to sign finished foreign talent is of vital importance as
there is a clear link between nations producing footballers and national team success (Baur &
Lehmann 2008). If the level of foreign players in the EPL is affecting youth player
development then this could explain England’s decline.
Another impact on youth player development is foreign players in youth academies. Youth
academies have increasingly imported foreign players, potentially further restricting the
development of indigenous players (Giulianotti & Robertson 2009). However, the increase
may actually be beneficial to indigenous player development as a result of ‘feet-exchange’
where skills and knowledge are learned from foreign youth academy players (Elliott &
Weedon 2011).

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Previous Findings
Despite theories suggesting player development could be affected by the purchase of foreign
players the majority of studies found this not to be the case in the EPL. Baur and Lehmann’s
(2008) results suggested that foreign players had not increased competition to such an extent
that causes under-development of indigenous players. Walters and Rossi (2009) also found
no evidence that foreign imports were preventing youth academy players from graduating to
the senior team. Findings actually suggested national team performance can improve as a
result of foreign imports through feet-exchange or knowledge spillovers occurring in youth
academies and senior teams. Baur and Lehmann (2008) found importing players improved
national team performance using data from the nations competing at the 2006 World Cup.
This is partly due to clubs recruiting foreign players with greater experience than indigenous
players (Binder & Findlay 2012, Carmichael et al. 1999).
Xenophobia
If it is true that foreign migration has not harmed the national team then the popular media
association between foreign players and England’s decline could be due to xenophobia. An
important factor influencing fans views is the media whose discourses can naturalise,
construct and challenge attitudes (Boyle & Haynes 2000). Foreign managers are often
criticised for their selection of large numbers of foreign players revealing an underlying
negative attitude towards non-British players (Millward 2007). Skey (2014: 14) argues that
‘national differences are rarely forgotten.’ Foreign players are often marked out as an ‘other’
by labelling them by their nationality in the media whilst British players’ nationalities go
unmentioned (Crolley & Hand 2002).
An important determinant of fans’ attitudes to foreign players is success levels. This is seen
in more English people identifying themselves as English during times of English success
(Gibbons 2011). In terms of club football fans tend to accept non-British players during times
of success but when unsuccessful foreign players are often first to be blamed (Millward
2007). Xenophobia remains to an extent but is deemed unimportant in times of success
(Millward 2007). Rather than foreign footballers actually damaging indigenous development
xenophobia is a possible cause for attributing England’s decline to foreign migration.
EPL foreign footballer levels have formed considerable debate about the impacts of foreign
players on the English national team. The majority of scholars have found no evidence for the
association between England’s decline and foreign migration suggesting xenophobia as a
cause for the association. However, scholars have theorised the possibility that foreign
migration could become high enough to affect indigenous player-development and therefore
negatively impact on national performance. There is therefore need for investigation into
whether migration increases have become high enough to damage national success.

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4. Methodology
Quantitative data has been collected due to a limited number of empirical studies in this field.
This is important as without statistics for the changes occurring in the EPL qualitative data
has less meaning (Maguire 2004). Of the small number of quantitative studies the majority
(Baur & Lehmann 2008, Binder & Findlay 2012, Littlewood et al. 2011, Magee & Sugden
2002, Maguire & Pearton 2000b) focus on just a single season. Only Frick (2007), McGovern
(2002) and Millward (2013b) focus on multiple seasons, none of which investigate the
impacts of changing migration for the national team. To fill this gap this investigation aims to
study the changes over a number of seasons whilst adding more recent data.
FootballMigration Changes
The first aim was to investigate how the migration of foreign footballers into the EPL has
changed over time and why. Chapter 2 discussed a debate over whether EPL migration has
changed as a result of globalisation or transnationalisation. Based on this Objective A was to
discover the extent to which globalisation and transnationalisation of football have led to the
changes in migration. Objective B, also necessary to investigate the first aim, was to find how
the composition of EPL player nationalities has changed over time.
The nationalities of EPL footballers for each season between 1994/95 and 2013/14 were
found by collating data from Worldfootball.net. The reliability of Worldfootball.net was
confirmed by its data matching that on Footballsquads.co.uk and Football Manager games.
Worldfootball.net provides greater detail than Footballsquads.co.uk and covers a longer
period than Football Manager games and so was the most useful source of available
information. It lists the players in every EPL team, their nationality and the number of
matches they played. From this the investigation determined the number of players from each
nation for every season (see Appendix 1). In order that only players who had played a
significant number of matches were included in the results players that had played fewer than
ten matches were excluded. This figure was used as it is the number of games required to
play to be eligible for an EPL winners medal (Premier League N.D).
Through collating Wordfootball.net data it was possible to find the changing levels of English
and non-English players, the nations and regions players were from and to examine potential
transnational ties. The ELO rankings of nations within regions were also collected to examine
a potential link between the quality of players migrating from a region and the number of
EPL players from that region. Finding the changing English and regional player levels will
show how the composition of EPL player nationalities has changed over time (Objective B).
The number of nations players were from, investigating changes in transnational ties and
examining the quality of players within regions are useful in determining the extent to which
globalisation and transnationalisation of football have led to the changes in migration
(Objective A).

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Using Worldfootball.net had its limitations as it only provided the number of matches
footballers played since 1994/95. However, this was very close to the start of the EPL
(1992/93) which has been an era of acceleration in the effects of commodification and the
globalisation/transnationalisation of football seen in large rises in wages, transfer fees and TV
rights deals and footballers migrating from an increasing number of nations (as discussed in
chapter 2). In this period the composition of English football started to radically alter.
Investigating this time is therefore useful to investigate the effects of
globalisation/transnationalisation and the impacts of migration. Although Worldfootball.net
does not provide match data for the first two EPL seasons it does provide data for every
season since the introduction of free movement of EU players under the Bosman Ruling.
Worldfootball.net’s limitations are therefore not too great.
The methodology clearly collects extensive data for the first aim as it collects data on every
player to have played a significant number of matches over twenty seasons (7.701 players)
thus providing a considerable database (seen in Appendix 1). The best method to analyse
changing patterns is extensive quantitative research (Sayer 1992). The creation of primary
statistics using various parts of Worldfootball.net is therefore a rigorous, suitable and reliable
method.
ForeignMigrationand NationalPerformance
The second aim was to investigate how increased foreign migration affected the English
national football team’s performance. Chapter 3 identified the theoretical possibility that too
many foreign players in the EPL restricts playing opportunities for both senior and young
English players resulting in under-development of English players, negatively impacting on
the national team. Objective C was therefore to investigate the consequences of increased
foreign footballer migration for English senior and youth player playing opportunities. To
meet this objective data was collected on the changes in English senior and youth
appearances, and the changes in English national team rankings.
Chapter 3 discussed the potential for youth footballers’ playing development to be stunted as
a result of limited playing time. To investigate this Football Manager games were used to
create primary data through finding which players were in the under-18 and under-21 EPL
youth squads and then finding whether and how many matches they played for the senior
team of that youth squad within two seasons (see Appendix 2). For example, for the data of
youth players in the 2004/05 season Football Manager 2005 was used to list who was in each
youth squad then newer versions of Football Manager were used to search for those players
and find how many matches they played for their senior team over the 2004/05 and 2005/06
seasons. The average number of games played by EPL youth players from each season over a
two season period were then calculated to determine how English youth footballer playing
opportunities changed over time. Football Manager was also used to collect data on changing
youth player nationalities which had been identified as a further potential negative factor for
national performance in Chapter 3.

16
The use of Football Manager had limitations as youth squad data could only be collected
from the 2004/05 season when the games started. Youth squad data was also only collected
up to 2011/12 as to find player appearances over two seasons Football Manager 2014 (the
most recent version at the time of data collection) had to be used. However, as no other
sources were available this was the best and only method to investigate the second aim and is
important data needed as an intermediary step to investigate the impacts of foreign migration
on the national team. It was necessary to collect primary data as there is no existing
quantitative data.
Football Manager Games provide a large and highly accurate database of players (BBC Sport
2014a) which can be seen in first Everton (Daily Record 2008, Mirror Football 2008) and
then all EPL teams (BBC Sport 2014a) using them to scout players. They are therefore a
useful and reliable source of information.
A further element necessary in investigating the second aim was to examine changes in
English national performance. This was seen in England’s world ranking changes in Figure 1
(chapter 1). Paul and Mitra’s (2008) study showed that higher ranked national teams have a
higher chance of success. World rankings are therefore a suitable method for analysing
national performance. ELO rankings have been used as they are considered to provide more
accurate rankings than official FIFA rankings and are believed to be the best available
measure of national performance (Binder & Findlay 2012).
The aims of this investigation were achieved through constructing primary quantitative data
through data collation from the secondary sources of Worldfootball.net, Football Manager
games and ELO ratings. All Figures (1-19) are therefore primary data original to this
investigation. In order to create primary data the data was collated from ELO Ratings for
Figures 1 and 16, Worldfootball.net for Figures 2-16, and from Football Manager games for
Figures 17-19. (For full methodology used in constructing each Figure see Appendix 3).

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5. MigrationChanges – Globalisationor Transnationalisation?
Through examining the changing EPL composition and the extent to which globalisation and
transnationalisation are responsible for the change this chapter investigates how the migration
of foreign footballers into the EPL has changed over time and why.
ForeignPlayer Increase
There have been foreign players in English football since the early twentieth century but even
in the 1960s their numbers were still very small, seen in Manchester City’s 1968 top flight
title victory with a first choice team of just Englishmen (Crolley & Hand 2002). It was not
until the mid-1990s that English football stopped being dominated by English players
(Dobson & Goddard 2011, Frick 2007).
The reducing level of English players in each season between 1994/95 and 2013/14 can be
seen in Figure 2. It shows a clear acceleration in the level of foreign migration with a 36
percentage point drop in English player levels in less than twenty years (67% English in
1994/95 and 31% in 2013/14).
In part the increase in migration is a result of the EPL’s commodification (Dobson &
Goddard 2011). Its economic power enables EPL clubs to pay high wages and transfer fees
allowing the purchase of foreign talent (Maguire & Bale 1994). This acts in combination with
globalisation to increase migration as globalisation results in the greater mobility of labour
(Castles 2000).
A second reason for the increased foreign migration is the Bosman Ruling. The steep drop in
English players from the 1995/96 season supports previous studies (e.g. Binder & Findlay
2012, Frick 2009) that it helped accelerate foreign player migration to the EPL as freedom of
movement and the removal of restrictions on EU player numbers came into force for that
season.

18
Figure 2. Percentage of English players that have played in at least 10 EPL matches in a
season.
2008/09 and 2011/12 peaks go against the clear downward trend. A possible explanation is
that the teams promoted to the EPL for the 2008/09 (Hull, Stoke, West Brom) and 2011/12
(Norwich, Swansea and QPR) seasons had much higher English player levels than the
relegated teams they replaced from 2007/08 (Birmingham, Derby and Reading) and 2010/11
(Birmingham, Blackpool and West Ham). A BBC study discovered that the level of English
players so far in the 2014/15 season is higher than the previous season but only as a result of
one promoted club’s (Burnley) very high level of English players (BBC Sport 2014c). My
investigation found that if the promoted teams were excluded from the seasons where there
were higher levels of English players and the relegated teams excluded from the season
before, the level of English players would still have risen. English player levels for the
remaining seventeen clubs increased from 33% in 2007/08 to 34% in 2008/09 and from 32%
in 2010/11 to 34% in 2011/12. For the remaining clubs the increase was smaller than the two
percentage point increase in 2008/09 and three percentage point increase in 2011/12 for all
twenty clubs. A high level of English players in the promoted clubs for each peak-season can
therefore partly explain the rise but not fully. Further investigation is therefore required.
However, despite the two peaks it is clear that English player levels have significantly
decreased and the composition of the EPL has therefore radically altered. This change makes
the popular connection between England’s declining performance and higher foreign player
numbers possible, further examined in chapter 6.
Changing EPL Composition
The changing nationalities of players by region can be seen in Figures 3-8. The nationalities
of footballers in the EPL have significantly altered with many fewer players from England
and more players from outside of Western Europe. EPL clubs are therefore having an
increasingly global outlook on player recruitment as the composition of the EPL has become
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
1997/98
1998/99
1999/00
2000/01
2001/02
2002/03
2003/04
2004/05
2005/06
2006/07
2007/08
2008/09
2009/10
2010/11
2011/12
2012/13
2013/14
Percentageofplayers
Season

19
more global. This supports Bi (2015), Boon (2000) and Milanovic (2005) who found a truly
global market for football players now existing due to globalisation.

20
Figure 3. Map showing nationalities of footballers in the EPL by region for the 1994/95 season.

21
Figure 4. Map showing nationalities of footballers in the EPL by regions for the 1998/99 season.

22

23

24

25
Region/Season 1994/95 1998/99 2003/04 2008/09 2013/14
England 267 177 145 137 122
Western
Europe
101 148 159 135 177
Eastern
Europe
8 9 16 23 24
Africa 8 10 24 47 34
North America 11 12 19 19 9
South America 1 8 15 26 24
Asia 1 2 3 3 4
Australasia 2 7 7 9 2
Figure 8. Table showing the number of footballers in the EPL from each region in
selected seasons.
The drop in English player levels between 1994/95 and 1998/99 is largely due to a rise in
Western European players. Several scholars (e.g. Cornelissen & Solberg 2007, Poli 2010)
have identified a transnational tie between the EPL and Western Europe explaining the
significant increase in the number of players from that region. It is also likely to be a result of
the Bosman Ruling allowing free movement of EU players from the 1995/96 season, as
Crolley and Hand (2002) and Frick (2009) assert.
A further drop in English players can be seen in 2003/04. The most significant changes
between the 1998/99 and 2003/04 seasons were increased player levels from Eastern Europe
and Africa. Again, the increase in Eastern European players is a result of the Bosman Ruling
(Crolley & Hand 2002, Frick 2009). The increase in African migration is explored later.
2008/09 saw a further drop in English players whilst Western Europe also saw a significant
decrease. The reason for Western European player numbers falling requires further
investigation. Increased migration from South America agrees with Millward’s (2013b)
findings raising doubt on Giulianotti and Robertson’s (2009) assertion that players are still
largely recruited from culturally similar nations. This suggests a change from player
recruitment based on transnational ties to a more global recruitment.
2013/14 again saw a fall in English player levels with Western European levels higher than
English player levels for the first time. This demonstrates how the EPL composition has
significantly altered over time, although a closer connection to Western Europe remains.
The Roles ofGlobalisationand Transnationalisation
The much higher levels of players from Western Europe and Africa has led some to believe
(e.g. McGovern 2002) that rather than being a truly global system transnational links
determine player migration, stimulating the globalisation/transnationalisation debate

26
discussed in chapter 2. One aspect examined in order to investigate this is the number of
nations EPL players are from.
Figure 9. Number of nations non-English players were from for the 1994/95, 2003/04
and 2013/14 seasons.
The number of nations non-English players were from has greatly increased from 28 in
1994/95, to 55 in 2003/04 and 61 in 2013/14. This demonstrates the English transfer system
is based on more than a small number of transnational links as players are employed from a
large and increasing number of nations. A more global EPL recruitment strategy than the
transnational school asserts exists, strongly suggesting transnationalisation is not the cause of
increased foreign migration. This supports many scholars who believe there has instead been
a globalisation of football (e.g. Bi 2015, Cornelissen & Solberg 2007, Guilianotti &
Robertson 2004, Maguire & Bale 1994, Poli 2010).
McGovern’s (2002) study found that the vast majority of foreign imports came from only a
few regions with about half of the non-British or Irish players coming from just seven
countries. In 2013/14 the situation was found to be very different as it took nearly double the
number of countries (13). Since McGovern argued in 2002 that transnationalisation rather
than globalisation was responsible for the migratory patterns of football players, there has
been player recruitment from an increasing number and more global range of nations (see
Figures 3-9) with an increasingly large number of nations being responsible for 50% of
overseas players suggesting the lesser importance of transnational links today. This supports
Littlewood et al.’s (2011) more recent findings that clubs have global recruitment strategies
from an increasingly varied range of countries. McGovern’s (2002) assertion that the football
market for English clubs would never be truly global is no longer true. Football has become a
truly global and more globalised sport than any other (Milanovic 2005). Global recruitment
has a greater importance in determining the EPL’s recent composition than the time of
McGovern’s study.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1994/95 2003/04 2013/14
NumberofnationsForeignPlayersin
EPLareFrom
Season

27
Uneven RegionalRecruitment
Despite the increasing number of player nationalities in the EPL there are regions and nations
with greater EPL contribution than others (see Figures 3-8). Two such identified regions,
based on transnational links, are Africa and Scandinavian nations in Northern Europe (Darby
2007, Littlewood et al. 2011, Maguire & Pearton 2000b). A change in African EPL migration
can be seen in Figures 10-11.
Figure 10. Level of players from African and all other nations in 1994/95.
Figure 11. Level of players from African and all other nations in 2013/14.
African players accounted for 2% of all players in 1994/95 and 9% in 2013/14. Figure 8 also
shows Africa to be the region with the highest number of players in the EPL other than
Ghana
Nigeria
South Africa
Zimbabwe
Other
Algeria
Benin
Cameroon
Congo DR
Egypt
Ivory Coast
Kenya
Mali
Morocco
Nigeria
Senegal
South Africa
Togo
Other

28
England and Western Europe. The significant increase in and high levels of African players
in the EPL from an increasing number of nations strongly suggests Africa has a transnational
link with England. One explanation for this is Britain’s colonial history in Africa (Poli 2010).
This is the case in France where the majority of African players came from former colonies
(Darby 2007). However, of the 2013/14 African players involved in the EPL only Egypt,
Nigeria and South Africa were British colonies, whilst Cameroon and Kenya had some
degree of British influence, leaving eight African countries with no colonial ties to Britain.
This supports Darby’s (2007) findings that many African players play in leagues with no
colonial links. Historical links therefore cannot explain all African migration to the EPL.
A better explanation for the increase is wider politico-economic factors. As discussed in
chapter 2 the commodification of the EPL has allowed higher player wages. An increasingly
large wage gap between African and European football has attracted African footballers to
Europe (Darby 2007). Hierarchical systems are necessary in the migration of sports labour as
the most talented athletes are attracted to sites with the greatest ability to pay for their talent
(Cornelissen & Solberg 2007). A second reason is African national teams’ success increasing
knowledge of African footballers to European clubs leading to increased demand for African
players (Darby et al. 2007). Another factor is European clubs creating youth academies in
Africa in order to attract and develop the best young African talent to their club (Darby et al.
2007). High African player migration to the EPL is therefore far more complex than links
with previous colonies.
Changes in a second identified link with Scandinavian countries (e.g. Dobson & Goddard
2011, Maguire & Pearton 2000a, Maguire & Pearton 2000b, Poli 2010) can be seen in
Figures 12-13.
Figure 12. Level of players from Scandinavian and all other nations in 1994/95.
Norway
Denmark
Finland
Sweden
Others

29
Figure 13. Level of players from Scandinavian and all other nations in 2013/14.
Previous research found the reason for this transnational network was Scandinavian players’
ability to adapt to English football (Dobson & Goddard 2011). As the level of Scandinavian
players has only fallen slightly (4.0% in 1994/95 to 3.3% in 2013/14) this is still likely a
factor in a remaining tie between the region and the EPL, but this tie is becoming less
significant. If transnationalisation was the cause of the vastly increased foreign migration to
the EPL then the number of players from regions with transnational ties would be expected to
increase. The fall in number of players from Scandinavia, suggesting the lessening
importance of transnational ties, further supports that EPL clubs have shifted to global player
recruitment facilitating the more global player migration.
A third identified link is with Scotland, Ireland, Northern Ireland and Wales (e.g. Maguire &
Pearton 2000a).
Figure 14. Level of players from British, Irish and other nations in 1994/95.
Norway
Denmark
Finland
Sweden
Others
England
Scotland
Wales
Northern Ireland
Ireland
Other

30
Figure 15. Level of players from British, Irish and other nations in 2013/14.
Figures 14-15 clearly show the large increase in the ‘other’ non-British and Irish players as
the level of English players fell. Irish, Northern Irish, Scottish and Welsh player levels
combined also fell (18% of all EPL players in 1994/95 to 15% in 2013/14). Despite this these
nations are still clearly a significant contributor to the composition of the EPL and therefore
remain transnational ties. The importance of geographic proximity, as identified by Poli
(2010), is a clear cause of the remaining higher number of players from this region.
The decline in their number in the period of investigation again demonstrates that the fall in
English players has not led to increased migration from nations with transnational ties. This is
significantly different to McGovern’s (2002) findings that 87% of non-English players were
Scottish, Northern Irish and Irish. They now account for just 16%. He also stated that over
half of the players at most English clubs were English but the level of English players in the
EPL is now less than a third. McGovern’s (2002) evidence used to conclude that
transnational links are responsible for EPL transfer strategies are no longer true. The clear
decline in the significance of transnational ties reveals a change to more global EPL
recruitment strategy.
There has been increased migration from regions not identified as being part of a
transnational network with the EPL, such as North America, Asia and Australasia. The reason
for this might not be due to clubs preferring to pursue known links, as discussed by Poli
(2010), but be due to a lower number of players with enough talent to play for EPL teams in
those regions. It is logical that nations with higher rankings have more talented or a greater
number of talented players. In order to investigate this the number of nations in the top-40
ELO rankings by region were found.
England
Scotland
Wales
Northern Ireland
Ireland
Other

31
Figure 16. The number of nations by region in the top-40 ELO world ranked teams on
December 25th 2014.
The lowest number of players by region in 2013/14 were from North America, Asia and
Australasia, all of which had fewer than ten players in the EPL. These regions also have the
lowest number of nations in the top-40 ELO rankings. There were a higher number of North
American players in the EPL than Asian and Australasian players and more North American
nations in the top-40. There were also more Asian players in the EPL than those from
Australasia and again more nations in the top-40. These suggest a correlation between the
success of national teams and the number of players in the EPL from the identified regions.
An examination of which nations the players from these regions were in found further
evidence for a connection between high ranked national teams and recruitment of players
from that nation. The North American teams in the top-40 are Costa Rica, Mexico and the
USA with players from each of these nations in the EPL during 2013/14. The only team for
Asia in the top-40 is Japan and a player from Japan played in the EPL during 2013/14. These
findings are evidence for a connection between a low number of successful nations in these
regions and a low number of players in the EPL from those regions.
The quality of national teams in the region helps to explain the much higher numbers of
players from Western Europe than from any other region (seen in Figure 8). Western Europe
has more teams in the top-40 and -20 ranked nations than any other region with seven nations
in the top-20 and thirteen nations in the top-40 (excluding England). South America has the
second highest number with six in the top-20 and nine in the top-40. Eastern Europe is third
with three in the top-20 and nine in the top-40. The quality of national teams can therefore go
a considerable way to explaining why more players migrate from some regions rather than
others. This adds to the evidence that clubs have a global outlook as the reason for lower
player recruitment from some regions is not due to transnational recruitment but a lower
number of highly-talented players in those regions. Global recruitment strategies are also
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
NumberofNationsinTop40ELOWorld
Ranking
Region

32
supported by players being recruited from every region. The quality of players in a region is
therefore an important determining factor in migration to the EPL.
A second reason for a higher proportion of foreign players being from Western Europe
involves the Bosman Ruling. The Bosman Ruling only allows free movement of EU players
whilst non-EU players have to meet certain requirements in order to be granted a visa to
move to the UK (Maguire & Pearton 2000a). It is therefore easier for English clubs to employ
players from EU countries than from other regions further explaining the lower migration
levels from non-EU regions.
The quality of players determining migration levels does not explain the high level of African
players in the EPL as there were only four nations in the top-40. This is likely to be due to the
political-economic factors discussed above.
GlobalisationCausing EPL MigrationChanges
The findings based on figures 3-16 show that transnational links are less important than
previous studies suggested. It has been found that there have been an increasing number of
foreign players from an increasing number of countries with more players from outside
Western Europe showing the increasingly global recruitment strategies of EPL clubs. Despite
the increase in the number of foreign players the transnational links with other British, Irish
and Scandinavian nations actually saw slight reductions in their player levels and have
therefore become less important. Transnationalisation cannot be the cause of the increased
foreign migration as if it were identified ties would have experienced increased migration.
McGovern’s (2002) use of these identified networks to justify the EPL experiencing
transnationalisation can no longer be the case. The more global outlook of EPL clubs (seen in
Figure 3-8) in combination with the reduced importance of transnational links strongly
suggests a globalisation rather than transnationalisation of the EPL, supported by the same
conclusions of Bi (2015), Guilianotti And Robertson (2004), Milanovic (2005) and Poli
(2010).
The globalisation of the EPL has led to the seen (Figures 2-16) changes in migration in
combination with the EPL’s commodification. The globalisation of football has led to a large
proportion of EPL clubs becoming foreign owned and managed (Madichie 2009) whilst the
commodification of football has seen increasing financial rewards allowing the purchase of
high-quality foreign players (Giulianotti & Robertson 2009). The exposure to foreign tactics
through participation in European football and from foreign managers has resulted in fewer
differences between nations (Giulianotti & Robertson 2004). As discussed in chapter 2 some
links to the EPL were based on players being able to adapt to the culture of English football
but globalisation and commodification reducing the differences between national football
cultures has made this less important. Globalisation and commodification have therefore
increased the likelihood of clubs signing players from a greater number and more global
range of nations resulting in the found changes in migration.

33
The Unevenness of Globalisation
Globalisation is an inherently uneven process (Dicken 1998). The results of this investigation
demonstrate this by revealing higher migration from some regions than others. In part this is
due to the remaining existence, if of lessening significance, of transnational ties, such as
those with Scandinavia, Africa and other British and Irish nations which contribute a higher
level of players to the EPL. A second factor is the quality of players within the regions.
Results showing a lower number of successful national teams outside Europe explain lower
recruitment levels from those regions as there are fewer talented players available to employ.
A third reason for uneven migration is seen in Africa. Massey’s (1994) new international
division of labour is useful to explaining this; the EPL’s higher position in the football
hierarchy, partly due to its vast commodification, enables the recruitment of African
footballers through the higher wages and transfer fees EPL clubs can offer (Cornelissen &
Solberg 2007, Poli 2010). The uneven migration to the EPL reflects the process Dicken
(2011) describes where some places become more connected than others.

34
6. ForeignPlayers and NationalPerformance
The EPL’s globalisation and commodification altering migration has resulted in much lower
English player levels. This chapter investigates the extent to which national performance has
been affected by this.
ReducedPlaying Opportunities
The first way in which English national performance might be affected is senior player
development being stunted due to increased foreign migration, as discussed in chapter 3. If a
foreign footballer is selected to play then this results in an English player not playing. It is
clear to see from Figure 2 that English playing opportunities have been reduced as only 31%
of players to play at least ten matches were English in 2013/14, 145 players fewer than
1994/95 (267 English players in 1994/95 and 122 in 2013/14). This is a significant change
from Giulianotti and Robertson (2004) finding that most players were still English. Maguire
and Pearton (2000b) show increased foreign player imports damages indigenous player
development. Therefore, reduced playing opportunities for English players could well be
detrimental to the English national team.
A second factor is clubs not playing youth players in favour of signing foreign players, thus
damaging youth player development as discussed in chapter 3. If young English players
cannot reach their full potential then English national performance will suffer (Baur &
Lehmann 2008). However, the majority of previous studies, though theorising its possibility,
have found no evidence for foreign player levels being high enough to restrict youth playing
opportunities (e.g. Baur & Lehmann 2008, Walters & Rossi 2009). Using average
appearances made by players from EPL youth academies over two seasons Figure 17
investigates this.
Figure 17. Average appearances made by players in EPL youth academies within 2
seasons.
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
AverageAppearances
Season

35
Although there has not been a constant decline in youth player appearances (further
investigation is required to explain this), there has been a fall in appearances. The average
appearances from 2011/12 youth academy players is less than half that of those in the
2004/05 academies, a highly significant change. This is very different to Baur and Lehmann
(2008) and Walters and Rossi’s (2009) findings that increased competition from foreign
players had not reached a level that prevented youth players from playing. Figure 17’s results
are therefore highly important as they suggest that the level of foreign players has now
become so high that youth opportunities to graduate to the senior team are being restricted.
This is supported by the findings from Figure 2 showing this period (2004/05-2012/13) to be
the time of the highest level of foreign players in EPL history, higher than that in the time of
previous studies that found no effects (e.g. Baur & Lehmann 2008, Walters & Rossi 2009),
and by Littewood et al.’s (2011) more recent study also finding reduced youth playing
opportunities. Reduced opportunities are due to EPL club’s preference for signing ‘finished’
foreign talent (Littlewood et al. 2011). This results in the under-development of English
players negatively impacting on national team performance in the long run (Baur & Lehmann
2008).
EPL clubs’ preference for signing finished players over developing young talent largely
hinges on the commodification of the EPL. The financial rewards for clubs available as a
result of EPL commodification mean that the consequences of failure are more financially
significant (Kennedy & Kennedy 2012). This creates high pressure for instant success, seen
in the short manager tenures in the EPL, resulting in managers perusing the short-term
solution of finished players rather than focusing on developing young talent (Maguire &
Pearton 2000b). This explains the decline seen in Figure 17.
A further issue surrounding youth academies is the increasing level of foreign players in the
academies, seen in Figures 18-19. (The increase in foreign players in youth academies as well
as senior teams further supports the EPL experiencing globalisation as there is fuller
integration between countries that Dicken (1998) states distinguishes globalisation from
transnationalisation).

36
Figure 18. Levels of English and non-English players in 2004/05 EPL youth academies.
Figure 19. Levels of English and non-English players in 2011/12 EPL youth academies.
Between 2004/05 and 2011/12 the number of players in EPL youth academies increased by
247 and so the number of English players in EPL academies had actually risen. However,
during this period the number of foreign players increased to a much greater extent, nearly
doubling from 148 to 290. This is a highly significant increase not found in previous
research. Only slight increases were found by Elliott and Weedon’s (2011) and Littlewood et
al.’s (2011) qualitative studies. This is important as the negative impacts on English youth
player development are larger due to a further restriction of playing opportunities as a result
of increased competition with foreign youth players (Giulianotti & Robertson 2009). As
foreign players have been included in the Figure 17’s data the fall in English player
progression to senior teams is likely to be higher than Figure 17 suggests.
English Players
Non-English Players
English Players
Non-English Players

37
Elliott and Weedon (2011) believe that foreign players in youth academies benefit indigenous
players through knowledge spillovers. If this was the case then indigenous academy players
would be better-developed and should therefore be playing more rather than the reduction
seen. The increase in foreign youth academy players is likely to further reduce English player
match experience and therefore development and, as Baur and Lehmann (2008) propose,
negatively impact on national team performance.
IncreasedForeignMigrationand NationalPerformance
Whilst restricted player opportunities for senior and youth players are likely to negatively
impact on English national performance, the association of foreign players to the decline in
national performance since England’s World Cup win in 1966 is problematic. As can be seen
in Figure 1 (chapter 1) England’s decline has not been constant and has experienced
improvements in ELO world rankings, as well as falls. It is possible to divide these
fluctuations into three general stages: first an initial decline between 1966 and 1994, second,
improved performance between 1994 and 2006, and third, a second decline since 2006. A
large decline can be seen between 1966 with England falling from the top-ranked team to a
low of eleventh in 1994. Following this England’s ranking rapidly improved before declining
once more after 2006. England’s performance in the first two stages raises serious doubts
over the credibility of increasing foreign players in English football being responsible for
England’s decline. Figure 2 shows the 1994/95 season to have the lowest level of foreign
players in this study. The level of foreign players then rapidly increased but it can be seen
from Figure 1 that English national performance also increased at this time. An increase in
foreign players has therefore clearly not negatively impacted on national performance at this
time. The decline in national performance between 1966 and 1994 cannot be due to a higher
number of foreign players. The xenophobia discussed in chapter 3 may consequently be
behind the association of foreign players with national decline. This would be an interesting
area for future research.
Although the first stage cannot be explained by foreign migration to the EPL, increased
foreign migration could explain England’s improved performance between 1994 and 2006.
Elliott and Weedon (2011) and Carmichael et al. (1999) believe that the national team could
benefit from knowledge spillovers from foreign players. More experienced foreign players
pass on their knowledge aiding the development of indigenous players (Carmichael et al.
1999). Figure 2 demonstrates a massive increase in foreign players during this period. As
shown previously the globalisation of the EPL exposed English players to an increasing
number of foreign players from an increasingly wide range of nations. England’s
performance improving due to knowledge spillovers is supported by Baur & Lehmann’s
(2008) investigation into all nations at the 2006 World Cup, a year during England’s
improved performance. It found nations benefited from importing foreign players. English
players were therefore able to develop new skills accounting for improved national
performance in the second stage.

38
Chapter 3 identified that it was theoretically possible for the level of foreign players to
become so high that it would affect indigenous player development. In the EPL the level of
foreign players may have reached a tipping point where the level of foreign migration has
become so high that there has been a shift in foreign players benefiting national performance
through knowledge spillovers to negatively impacting on national performance through
stunted player development, thus explaining England’s second decline since 2006. The fall in
English players graduating from youth academies seen in Figure 17 supports this. As a result
of commodification there has been increased preference for recruiting foreign finished
players, restricting youth player progression opportunities and therefore reducing English
player development, negatively impacting on the national team (Baur & Lehmann 2008,
Littlewood et al. 2011). Although the number of youth players graduating to the senior team
was falling before England’s second decline this is explained by Baur and Lehmann’s (2008)
belief that its impact is not instantly felt. For youth player under-development to be
responsible for England’s second decline youth player opportunities must not have been
declining significantly before the period shown in Figure 17 (before this period no data was
available). Both Baur and Lehmann (2008) and Walters and Rossi (2009) found no evidence
of opportunities for youth players being significantly restricted and so opportunities for
English youth academy players were not declining before the period in Figure 17. Figure 2
suggests that the reason for a decline is due to much higher foreign player levels than at the
periods Baur and Lehmann (2008) and Walters and Rossi (2009) were investigating.
England’s second decline can therefore be attributed, at least to some extent, to the level of
foreign players becoming so high that it has tipped the balance to foreign players negatively
impacting on national performance.
Despite this investigation providing evidence for varying impacts of foreign players on
national performance it is highly unlikely that other factors have not played a role in the
changing national success. Magee and Sugden (2002) believe the technical ability of
England’s players is behind the decline whilst Binder and Findlay (2012) believe it is due to
English players being unable to cope with the pressure of international tournaments. The
success of football teams also depends on their coaching staff as well as the ability of their
players (McGovern 2002).
Immigration Impacts
Globalisation has led to increased foreign migration resulting in various impacts for the
English national team. This can be connected to the wider issue of effects of immigration for
the home country. Changes in England’s national football performance are similar to
indicators of changes in economic performance whilst the English footballers can represent
the native population. Some studies on the effects of immigration have found it to be
beneficial to natives and the economy (e.g. Gold 2009, West 2011). This reflects the second
stage where England’s national team became more successful as a result of knowledge
spillovers. The majority of wider studies on the impacts of immigration have found little or
no negative effects of immigration for the native population (Dustmann et al. 2005,
Dustmann et al. 2008, Robinson 2014). Further findings by Borjas and Tienda (1987) found

39
that despite a large increase in immigration there were only small impacts on native
employment. This supports the findings of this investigation into the first two stages of
England’s national team performance where there was no evidence of immigration harming
national performance. This reveals that the discourses (discussed in chapter 1) that
immigration harms the English national team and that immigration damages English
economic performance are highly exaggerated, suggesting the emergence of an underlying
xenophobia in times of poor performance, as discussed in chapter 3. However, the third stage
of England’s new decline suggests that if immigration becomes too high it can have a
negative effect. In English football the level high enough to have a negative impact was the
native population only accounting for around a third of the total population. Therefore there
has to be very high immigration to have a significant negative impact.
It is important to note when comparing English football and the effects of immigration on a
wider scale that the EPL is very different to a country. A firm or EPL club will only employ
the number of workers it needs but the number of firms in a country changes, unlike the
number of EPL teams. However, this investigation does clearly show the impacts of
immigration at the scale of the EPL.

40
7. Conclusion
The popular association between increased foreign migration and England’s declining
performance stimulated this investigation into how and why the composition of the EPL has
changed and the impacts of this for the national team. Through this it was possible to gain an
understanding into the process of globalisation and the impacts of migration. It was necessary
to collect empirical data as there were very few existing quantitative studies.
The first aim was to investigate how the migration of foreign footballers into the EPL has
changed over time and why. Chapter 2 revealed little doubt that commodification was a
partial cause of increased foreign migration to the EPL but scholars have debated the extent
to which globalisation and transnationalisation have also been responsible. Investigation into
Objective B found the composition of the EPL to have become increasingly global as players
migrated from an increasing number and more global range of nations. However, there were
still regions with much higher migration levels than others reflecting the inherent unevenness
of the globalisation process. The reasons for the unevenness were found to be: the remaining
existence of transnational links with high recruitment levels (Scandinavia, Scotland, Wales,
Northern Ireland, Ireland and Africa); a lower number of talented players in some regions
reducing the ability of EPL clubs to sign high-quality players from them (Asia, Australasia
and North America); the economic disparities between football leagues seen in a new
international division of labour attracting players to the EPL (e.g. Africa); and the Bosman
Ruling enabling the easier migration of European players to the EPL than from other regions
(a reason for the highest migration from Europe). Although globalisation has caused the
changed and increased migration, recruitment patterns are not even due to these other factors.
Results collected regarding Objective A found that globalisation rather than
transnationalisation (in combination with commodification) was responsible for increased
foreign migration due to the increasingly global recruitment strategies of EPL clubs and the
declining significance of previously identified transnational links. If transnationalisation was
the cause of the increased migration then there would have been an increase from the
identified transnational links rather than the declines found. The fuller integration between
countries in globalisation, as opposed to transnationalisation, can also be seen in the
increased number of foreign players in youth squads and previous studies revealing the
introduction of EPL academies abroad.
The second aim was to investigate how increased foreign migration affected English national
team performance. The English national team has been through three stages since winning the
World Cup in 1966: an initial decline, an improvement in performance, and a second decline.
The reason for England’s inability to be as successful as their 1966 success cannot be wholly
due to increases in foreign players as English national performance actually improved
following an acceleration in foreign migration to the EPL. Other factors must have been
behind the initial decline. This agrees with the majority of wider studies that there are no or
only small negative impacts of immigration. The findings relating to the second stage, where

41
England’s performance improved, indicate increases in foreign players actually benefited
English player development due to knowledge spillovers. However, in regards to Objective C
it was found that the playing opportunities for both English senior and youth players have
significantly fallen as a result of the large increase in foreign players, exacerbated by more
competition from foreign players in youth squads. Lower playing opportunities result in
English players not developing to their full potential and therefore reducing the quality of
players the English national team is able to select. Strong evidence was found for increased
foreign migration limiting English playing opportunities. Foreign player levels have therefore
become so high that, according to scholarly theory, have tipped the balance to foreign players
stunting English player development resulting in a new decline in English national
performance since 2006. This differs from the findings of the impacts of immigration in the
majority of wider studies, likely due to a much higher level of immigration.
Increased foreign migration is clearly not the reason for England’s declining performance in
the first stage but the findings for the second and third stages cannot be as certain due to
numerous other factors influencing national performance. Changes in foreign migration
cannot be considered the sole determinant of English national performance. Due to a limited
number of previous studies much further research is therefore still required.
This investigation has found an increasingly global, if geographically uneven, migration of
foreign footballers to the EPL, largely the result of globalisation and commodification. This
process has had both negative and positive impacts for the English national team at different
times. However, there is no evidence for the popular association between these changes in
migration and England’s declining performance before 2006 since when there has been a
significantly high level of foreign players. Overall it has been found that globalisation has led
to increased foreign migration but there is no evidence of negative impacts of migration until
they reach a very high level, at least in the case of English football. This investigation has
therefore added to the limited previous research but there is still an obvious need for future
investigation.

42
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49
Appendices
Nation/Se
ason
94/
95
95/
96
96/
97
97/
98
98/
99
99/
00
00/
01
01/
02
02/
03
03/
04
04/
05
05/
06
06/
07
07/
08
08/
09
09/
10
10/
11
11/
12
12/
13
13/
14
ENGLAND 267 215 211 192 177 175 172 159 144 145 142 148 151 130 137 126 140 147 138 122
Albania 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Algeria 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 4 1 1 0 1
Angola 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Antigua &
Barbuda
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Argentina 0 0 0 0 3 2 6 6 4 2 2 4 3 5 7 6 6 10 8 7
Australia 2 3 3 4 7 4 6 4 9 7 8 9 9 8 8 6 4 3 3 1
Austria 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2
Barbados 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
Belarus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
Belgium 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 3 4 4 6 10 13
Benin 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Bermuda 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Bolivia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Bosnia &
Herzegovi
na
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2
Brazil 0 2 2 0 1 4 2 2 3 6 3 3 5 13 13 12 12 7 11 11
Bulgaria 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 2
Cameroon 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 5 5 5 2 5 3 4 5 5 3 3 2
Canada 2 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 0
Cape
Verde
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

50
CAR 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Chile 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 2 1 1 1
China 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Colombia 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
Congo 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
Congo DR 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 0 1 1 2 1 1 2
Costa Rica 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1
Croatia 0 1 4 2 2 3 5 2 2 2 1 0 1 3 3 6 5 4 2 2
Curacao 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cyprus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Czech
Republic
2 2 4 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 5 4 4 6 2 3 4 2 2 5
Denmark 7 3 7 6 5 4 4 10 9 6 10 8 6 3 5 5 6 3 2 2
Ecuador 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
Egypt 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 4 0 1 1 0 2
Estonia 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Faroe
Islands
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Finland 0 1 0 0 1 2 3 5 5 6 6 5 4 5 3 1 1 1 1 1
France 1 2 6 13 17 16 16 30 32 37 29 27 22 22 27 23 21 20 27 26
Gabon 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Georgia 0 1 0 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Germany 3 3 0 2 4 4 5 5 4 8 5 4 5 3 3 2 3 2 6 9
Ghana 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 4 3 5 5 1 0 0
Gibraltar 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
Greece 0 0 1 2 3 3 0 1 1 2 3 2 2 1 0 2 1 1 1 1
Grenada 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
Guadelou
pe
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0

51
Guinea 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
Guinea-
Bissau
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Guyana 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
Honduras 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 3 3 2 2 2
Hungary 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 1 0 3 2 1 2 1 1
Iceland 0 1 0 3 0 2 4 3 4 3 2 3 4 4 2 4 2 3 1 2
Iran 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
Ireland 21 19 21 20 21 22 24 19 24 27 21 22 19 23 19 24 21 27 20 23
Israel 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 1 3 0 1 1 0
Italy 0 1 6 11 10 8 7 10 6 5 1 1 3 2 2 3 1 2 3 6
Ivory
Coast
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 3 4 6 6 6 5 8 7 6 6
Jamaica 4 3 5 6 6 8 6 8 6 4 6 4 5 6 5 5 1 1 1 0
Japan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1
Kenya 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Latvia 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Liberia 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Macedoni
a
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Mali 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 2 2 3 1 2 1 0 1 3 2
Malta 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Martiniqu
e
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
Mexico 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 2 3 1 1 1
Monteneg
ro
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
Morocco 0 0 0 0 1 4 4 3 2 0 3 1 1 0 1 1 2 2 2 4
Netherlan 7 7 11 10 11 11 13 10 8 9 15 15 13 10 12 10 9 10 12 14

52
ds
New
Zealand
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 2 1
Nigeria 2 2 1 1 3 2 4 4 6 5 5 6 9 9 11 9 8 8 5 7
Northern
Ireland
13 11 9 8 8 9 7 5 8 4 8 6 5 8 6 6 4 5 7 6
Norway 6 6 14 17 17 17 11 9 11 7 3 5 4 4 4 5 4 3 3 5
Oman 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
Pakistan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Paraguay 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 2 1 1 0
Peru 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
Poland 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 2 1 2 2
Portugal 0 0 2 4 2 3 1 4 2 4 6 7 11 7 7 5 5 3 4 2
Romania 3 1 2 2 1 1 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 2
Russia 2 2 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 2 4 4 3 1 0
Scotland 17 25 19 18 22 20 21 17 13 19 17 14 14 14 5 17 17 15 16 16
Senegal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 5 6 7 7 7 10 5 6 5 6 3
Serbia 0 3 3 3 2 0 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 6 4 4 5
Sierra
Leone
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Slovakia 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 2 1 0 0 1 1 2 2 1 1 1
Slovenia 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
South
Africa
3 1 1 3 1 1 3 3 3 4 3 2 2 3 3 3 1 2 1 2
South
Korea
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 4 2 2 2 2 2 2
Spain 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 1 2 3 11 12 6 10 13 9 12 13 21 27
St. Kitts &
Nevis
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

53
Sweden 3 2 0 6 8 5 5 9 9 7 9 3 4 4 2 4 4 4 4 5
Switzerlan
d
1 0 0 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 2 1 2
Tajikistan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Togo 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
Trinidad &
Tobago
2 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 3 4 3 4 1 4 4 3 1 1 1 1
Tunisia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
Turkey 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 2 2 3 3 3 2 1 1 2 1 0
Ukraine 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
Uruguay 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 2
USA 3 3 2 3 3 2 1 3 4 7 5 5 11 11 3 7 8 6 6 4
Venezuela 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Wales 21 16 17 19 14 13 13 14 13 10 11 13 12 10 11 13 11 15 12 15
Zambia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Zimbabwe 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 0
Appendix 1. Table showing number of players by nation who have played at least 10 matches (11 matches in 1994/95) for each season of
the investigation.

54
Season 2004/0
5-
2005/0
6
2005/0
6-
2006/0
7
2006/0
7-
2007/0
8
2007/0
8-
2008/0
9
2008/0
9-
2009/1
0
2009/1
0-
2010/1
1
2010/1
1-
2011/1
2
2011/1
2-
2012/1
3
Number of
Players
that
Played for
Their
Senior
Team
Within 2
Years
63 46 52 61 84 73 79 56
Number of
Players
that Left
Their
Senior
Team
Within 2
Years
49 55 62 71 89 119 120 166
Total
Appearanc
es Made
by Youth
Players
that
Played for
Their
Senior
Team
478 359 351 515 506 452 588 421
Appendix 2. Table Showing Total Number of Appearances Made by Youth Players and
the Number of Players that Played for Their Senior Team, and the Number Of Players
That Left Their Senior Team Within the 2 Year Periods Between 2004/05 and 2012/13.

55
Figure
Number(s)
Source(s) Used in the
Construction of Each Figure
Method Used to Construct Each Figure
Appendix 1 Worlfootball.net (2014) The data seen in Appendix 1 was gathered
by visiting the relevant page for every EPL
team for each season in the investigation,
selecting the appearances tab to determine
who had played at least 10 matches as
players who played fewer matches were
excluded (11 matches were used for the
1994/95 season, when there were an
addition 2 EPL teams, as 11 was the closest
number for the same proportion of
matches), and then changing the tab to see
the nationality of each player. The number
of players by their nation to have played at
least 10 EPL matches in a season could then
be noted. By adding all team’s statistics
together for each season the table seen was
created.
Appendix 2 Football Manager (2004,
2005. 2006. 2007, 2008,
2009, 2010, 2011, 2012,
2013)
For each season between 2004/05 and
2011/12 Football Manager games were used
to write down which players were in each
EPL team’s U18 and U21 squads by visiting
the relevant pages. The relevant Football
Manager game two years ahead of that used
to collect this data was used to search for
each U18 and U21 player (using a search
feature similar to internet search engines).
When the player was found using their
appearance history tab it was noted down if
they had played for their senior EPL team
within the two year period being
investigated, how many appearances they
made in that period, and also the number of
players to have left their EPL team in the
period. From this the table in Appendix 2
was constructed.
1 ELO Ratings (2014b) ELO rankings were noted from the ELO
Ratings website for England’s last game at
each World Cup between 1966 and 2014
apart from when they failed to qualify for
the tournament where the ranking used was
their last match before the World Cup
started. Using these rankings the line graph
seen could be constructed.
2 Worldfootball.net (2014) The data already collected in Appendix 1
was used to construct Figure 2 by calculating

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