2016- Nepal Sustainable Reconstruction

1
Taylor Harrington
Academic Director: Isabelle Onians
Senior Faculty Advisor: Hubert Decleer
Project Advisor: Prashnna Ghimire
Project Editor: Rick Ehlert
Rollins College
Environmental Studies
Asia, Kathmandu, Nepal
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
Nepal: Tibetan and Himalayan Peoples, SIT Study Abroad, Spring 2016
RECONSTRUCTING RESILIENCE
CHALLENGES AND POSSIBILITIES OF SUSTAINABLE RECONSTRUCTION IN RURAL NEPAL

2
Abstract
Just one year after the 7.8 magnitude earthquake and aftershocks, Nepal is about to begin
its transition from recovery to reconstruction. The disaster revealed many vulnerabilities in the
rural areas, not the least of which are poor construction techniques and the threat that disasters
pose to income and livelihood. Many rural people are subsistence farmers, and any loss of their
land is devastating to their income and ability to survive. In response to these circumstances,
there is a movement towards seismically safe housing that locals can rebuild themselves within
the parameters of government-distributed aid. These ideas are introducing the concept of
sustainable architecture to Nepal, an entirely separate and necessary achievement alltogether that
may benefit the country in its recovery and development.
This report attempts to spread awareness of the diversity and customs in rural Nepal that
reconstruction efforts must be aware of when intervening in its issues. It focuses on the higher
altitude rural areas, areas above 2500m elevation, which present the most challenging
circumstances for reconstruction. By studying the most extreme circumstances in need of the
most innovative solutions, I reveal considerations applicable to rural Nepal. I attempt to spread a
mindset of inquiry by questioning the existing reconstruction efforts occurring in Nepal, and
answer the question of how to “build back better” for the benefit of the inhabitants.
Sustainability is an important goal that must be attained in not just Nepal but all over the
world. I view the earthquake as an opportunity to redirect Nepal’s development, and I fully adopt
the perspective that disaster has the ability to be a blessing if handled correctly. Human history
shows that along with catastrophe comes realization, innovation, and invention, and in those
times, people change the course of history. These times inspires people to rethink and recreate
the way things are done. Recovery from the earthquake has the potential to transform not only
the way people rebuild, but how they view their own resilience and capacity.

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______________________________________________________________________________
Table Of Contents
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………4
Methodology……………………………………………………………………………………...5
1. Architecture and Sustainability
1.1 A Brief History…………………………………………………………………..……6
1.2 Nepal: Disaster and Sustainability……………………………………………..……...7
2. The Case of Rural Nepal and Recovery……………………………………………………...8
3. One Year Later: Transition to Reconstruction
3.1 Arguments for Architectural Change..……………………….……..………………..11
3.2 New Ideas for Sustainable Housing.............................................................................13
4. Importance of Architectural Preservation
4.1 Cultural Identity…….……………………………………………………………..…15
4.1.1 Traditional Aesthetic………………………….………………………..…..15
4.1.2 Case Studies: ‘Modern’ Building and Community Layout.……………….16
4.2 Vernacular Form and Function…..…………………..………………..…………......18
4.2.1 Climactic and Social Appropriateness…….……….……………………....19
4.2.2 Financial Feasibility………………………………………..………….…...20
5. Challenges and Possibilities of High Altitude Reconstruction……………..……………...21
6. Implementation of Reconstruction Efforts……………………………………….………...22
7. Conclusion: How Can We Build Back Best?.........................................................................24
Appendices
Appendix 1: Temporary Living Conditions...…………………….………………….…..27
Appendix 2: Local Reconstruction in Kerauja……………………………………...……28
Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………….29
Survey Participants......................................................................................................................31
Suggestions for Future Research………………………………………………………………32

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Acknowledgements
I express my extreme gratitude to all those who made this research paper not just possible but
full of possibilities. The moment I expressed interest in sustainable architecture, I was
overwhelmed with the support I received from people throughout the iNGO community. Disaster
recovery efforts seem to bring the biggest hearts and minds into the same thinking space, a place
that I am so proud to have been a part of for a short time. I express the biggest thanks to Kyle for
seeing potential in me and giving me clear motivation in my writing and in my future. I am
equally grateful to Prashnna for helping me every step of the way with organizing and
conducting my field research, and inspiring me to have purpose and passion in my career. This
paper owes a lot of its success to his unflinching devotion to the project. A big thank you to Rick
for consistently showing me support and sharing his wisdom. I am lucky to have found life-long
mentors that are willing to take so much time out of their extremely busy schedules to guide me
through this research with utmost attention and serious consideration. I cannot forget about
Kuldeep, a friend from the iNGO world that shared his precious time and interest with me. And
Suyog, my co-researcher and translator in both Sindhupalchowk and Gorkha, for being a good
friend and enduring 8 hour, sweaty bus rides and dangerous mountain roads with me in good
spirits. I would like to extend my gratitude to Allen and the rest of Conscious Impact for
welcoming me in as part of their family and feeding me the best food of my life. Lastly thank
you to Lana and Teresa for inspiring dinner conversations. This project has introduced me to
many dedicated humanitarians, and I cannot wait to someday follow in their footsteps.
Finally, to my parents, thank you for always supporting my interests no matter what. From
agreeing to switch the whole house to low-energy light bulbs in elementary school, to helping me
build a compost pile in our backyard in middle school, you have supported my future in
sustainable development from day one. Thank you to the SIT staff for being a safety net to all
the students on their ISPs and especially to Isabelle for making me question everything I hear,
say, do or write.

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Methodology
My research was conducted through two main channels: iNGO architects, engineers, employees,
and local residents of 3 of the most earthquake-affected areas. In order to gain the most
considerate and well-rounded understanding of the reconstruction process, I felt it was necessary
to get both the perspectives of iNGO professionals implementing reconstruction projects and the
villagers who the projects aimed to assist. I wanted to know what the villagers wanted, and the
ways in which organizations either achieve or redirect those desires. I planned to research in two
of the most affected districts, Sindhupalchowk and Gorkha, with specific focus on the villages in
the higher elevations.
I first had a series of conversations and meetings with iNGO professionals in Kathmandu to pick
their brains about their thoughts, plans and hopes for future reconstruction. With that knowledge
I traveled to Takure in the Sindhupalchowk district with Suyog, who is in the process of starting
his own non-profit initiative. We stayed with Conscious Impact, a group building a local school
using earth bricks, for two days to investigate their project. I did not interview locals from that
village due to lack of time and proper planning. Then I moved to Pulpingkot in the same district
with Prashnna, an engineer that works with the area frequently. I stayed there for 3 days and
conducted 9 out of 18 survey questionnaires. The survey included yes/no, multiple choice, and
open-ended questions. We often left out many open-ended questions because they were too
complicated for the villagers. I then spent six days walking up into Upper Kerauja in the Gorkha
district, where I lived for a total of 3 days and conducted the last 9 surveys. The survey was
intended to understand the villagers’ living conditions pre-earthquake versus their current
housing conditions, and their future hopes for reconstruction. Once I had understood the reality
of the situation, I returned to Kathmandu and re-interviewed the initial interviewees to clarify
what I had learned and in some ways challenge their perceptions.
Most of my advisors and interviewees were from one of three iNGOs in reconstruction I worked
with, potentially skewing my opinions. I have altered the names of some of the villagers to
assure confidentiality from large government organizations and recovery efforts.
This was my first introduction to the field of sustainable design and disaster recovery. I used this
independent study to get a better understanding of the complex profession of working in the
development sector, and gain experience in the field. In no way do I have a full comprehensive
understanding of architecture or engineering, and my understanding of Nepal’s cultural dynamic
cannot be so thorough only having lived there for three months. I do not speak Nepali and all
field interviews were translated orally on site, possibly altering information through
interpretation.

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1. ARCHITECTURE AND SUSTAINABILITY
1.1 A Brief History
Architecture is a direct response to the immediate physical, cultural and social
environment of any given place. It hosts the human, the human condition and needs of our
habitation. It is not merely characterized by the end result; it is the process of construction, the
collaboration of ideas, the dynamic values that it was built upon. As a living and moving cultural
heritage, it is dependent on every piece of its timeline, starting from before its own existence.
Before the built environment, was the land that determined the materials to work with and
conditions to adapt to. The ecological system and human relationship to that system determined
the survival techniques that the shelter must accommodate.
As time passed, each advancement in the architectural style was a reflection of new social
or environmental needs. Each change in the social process of rebuilding is also telling, for a
building is a living result of the people who built it, the community or occupational motivation
behind its construction, and the building in respect to time allotted for its construction. This
direct response to the physical environment and conditions, although it is in many ways not "set
in stone"1
and is constantly transforming to accommodate changing needs, can be described as
'vernacular architecture' in its specific place of origin.
The development of civilization allowed for specialization and institutionalization, and
building practice benefitted through the collaboration and education of skilled architectural and
engineering thought. But as humanity continued to progress, and both physical and cultural
boundaries blurred through a process called globalization, rapid and haphazard introductions to
new technologies and materials caused developments in the perceptions and economy
surrounding architecture. Architecture became an industry in many places, with a widespread
promotion of impractically expensive imported materials requiring special labor, and in turn
requiring an unsustainable practice of costly demolition and repetition of the initial expenses.
These places exhibit a new need of the home being separate from the surrounding environment,
an escape from the outdoors2
.
In light of recent academic interest in the waning condition of the human environment
due to unsustainable practices as such, and the discovery of some of the negative effects of
globalization, there has been a shift in focus in both developing and developed countries to return
to architecture as a more direct response to the land. There is an academic movement to consider
historical vernacular architecture and community planning as a legitimate source of wisdom and
1
Tiwari, Sudarshan Raj. “Cultures in Development: Conservation of Vernacular Architecture” Dept. of Architecture
Institute of Engineering,Tribhuvan University. Heiwa Nakajima Foundation.
2
Burke, Kyle, People In Need Consultant. Interview by author. April 24, 2016.

7
knowledge, while applying the current critical thinking models and advanced scientific
knowledge to adapt them accordingly to modern living. The point of the movement is to rethink
our immediate environment as our means of sustenance in a modern and educated way, and to
achieve a built environment that is conscious of all physical, social and economic factors.
1.2 Nepal: Disaster and Sustainability
Within the 20th
century, there has been a shift in approach to earthquake recovery and
preparedness. Global thought has gone from a very technical perspective of disasters as merely
geological phenomena and solution, which invariably “denied the wider historical and social
dimensions of hazard”3
, to specifically looking at societal response and organization as a crucial
component in ‘disaster’4
. Accordingly, the devastation of the 2015 Gorkha earthquake evoked
many movements to not only restore the physical conditions of affected areas but to rebuild
through local knowledge and capacity. This idea has the potential to greatly aid Nepal’s
development in the rural areas. Nepal has been provided a unique opportunity to improve the
rural communities by actually promoting their existing self-sufficiency in a modern way.
The earthquake serves as an opportunity to completely rethink development5
, especially
in terms of architecture. The disaster became inspiration to re-invent low cost, resilient housing
throughout Nepal. “Because of harsh terrain, poor economic conditions and bad infrastructure,
there is no alternative to using local materials for construction”6
, argues ABARI, the Adobe and
Bamboo Research Initiative, a domestic program whose mission is to reinvent vernacular
architecture to be safe and inspiring. The earthquake highlighted the importance of study and
advancement of old architectural styles, and the collaboration between advanced engineering
skills and local knowledge. If the nature of rebuilding can achieve a transmission of advanced
and improved building knowledge in a way that favors the specific culture, geography, social
dynamic and capacity of the specific community, rural communities in Nepal have the potential
to emerge as a global example of resilience and sustainability.
3
Jigyasu, Rohit. “Reducing Disaster Vulnerability Through Local Knowledge And Capacity The Case of
Earthquake Prone Rural Communities in India and Nepal.” Norwegian University of Science and Technology. July
2002. Accessed April 2016
4
ibid
5
6
“Bamboo Engineered House” ABARI. 2015. Accessed April 2016. http://www.abari.org/bamboo-engineered-
house/

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2. THE CASE OF RURAL NEPAL AND EARTHQUAKE RECOVERY
Two of the most earthquake-affected districts were Gorkha and Sindhupalchowk. The
Gorkha district contains roughly 70 villages, each village containing up to 13 different
ethnicities/castes7
(2011). The villages are spread apart from each other, hidden among hills and
valleys with diverse soil compositions and resources. Sindhupalchowk likewise contains about
80 villages with 8 predominant ethnic/caste groups in total, yet any given village can contain up
to 19 ethnicities8
(2011). More than 90% of the homes in Sindhupalchowk and 70-80% of homes
in Gorkha were destroyed9
in the 2015 earthquakes.
Due to the geographical dispersion of rural villages, their respective cultures have
developed independently from one another in many ways. For this reason, disasters can impact
each group differently, and the recovery process will again proceed non-uniformly in rural
Nepal. Each village’s unique composition gives its own set of issues and strengths. In the
village district of Pulpingkot in Sindhupalchowk, most residents are struggling with labor
shortage, and uneven distribution of temporary housing materials. There is a low drive to rebuild
without government aid. In Upper Kerauja in Gorkha, some locals have begun rebuilding on
their own and seem to have initiative in their own recovery. Both village districts are suffering
from food shortage for different reasons, and are largely still living in temporary shelters due to
the absence of aid.
Pulpingkot is roughly 1000 meters lower in altitude than Kerauja and accessible by road.
Considering the well-known resilience of Nepal’s mountain communities, and easy access to
civilization via public transit, one may wonder why villagers are not rebuilding on their own.
Clearly the most prevalent excuse is the delay in government compensation for destroyed or
damaged homes. When asked to consider building a permanent home, the overwhelming
majority said there was either no money or they were waiting for government money. The
government has promised a handout of 25000 Nepali Rupees (NPR) to families who wish to
repair their existing home, and “those who wish to rebuild their houses on their own will get a
relief assistance of NPR 200,000, plus a concessional loan [of]…NPR 300,000 outside the valley
at just two per cent interest rate under "Earthquake Victim Special Loan" scheme10
. Half of
7
“National Population and Housing Census 2011: Gorkha.” Central Bureau of Statistics, Government of Nepal. Vol.
6. March, 2014. Accessed April, 2016. http://cbs.gov.np/image/data/Population/VDC-
Municipality%20in%20detail/36%20Gorkha_VDCLevelReport.pdf
8
“National Population and Housing Census 2011: Sindhupalchowk.” Central Bureau of Statistics, Government of
Nepal. Vol. 6. March, 2014. Accessed April, 2016.http://cbs.gov.np/image/data/Population/VDC-
Municipality%20in%20detail/23%20Sindhupalchowk_VDCLevelReport.pdf
9
"Earthquake Relief and Recovery." Phase Nepal. N.p., 2016. Web.
10
Government of Nepal. “Post-Earthquake Relief, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Measures
undertaken by the Government of Nepal.” Relief Web, June 1, 2015. Accessed April 2016.

9
participants surveyed are depending on this money to rebuild. Buddi Maya Tamang’s small scrap
CGI and stone slate shelter consisting of a stove and one bed, is currently hosting 2 mothers, a
father and 3 sons. She has already built the first floor of her new home but cannot rebuild
without further compensation, showing hope for the governments pending NPR 200,000. In the
small, spread out village of Ward- 7, Pulpingkot, the main money in rebuilding is needed for
labor. With such a small population, everyone must work in the fields. “Most people are
subsistence farmers...working 10 to 12 hours a day not even really surviving...There's not time
and capital to build nice buildings”11
.
Upper Kerauja in the Gorkha District at an elevation of approximately 2200 meters, has
remained largely isolated from society. The villagers seemed to have preserved a sense of
togetherness throughout the rebuilding process and exercise a more independent approach. “The
sentiment I get from talking to people is- if the government money comes, great. But we're not
counting on it”, explains
Kyle from working with
Kerauja. After one year, they
are just showing signs of
rebuilding, whereas many
other villages in the region
have not begun that process.
Walking through the center
of Upper Kerauja one can
see houses in various stages.
Some villagers stacking
stone walls, others with completed stone houses with mud interior walls - moving on to construct
wood beds.
Dhawa Gurung stands proudly in his new home, a one-story house with 3 partitioned
rooms and an attic for storing grain and food (see Fig. 1). When asked, he does not mention any
cost for the materials or labor, but replies that he spent a lot of money feeding the friends that
helped him build. The floor and walls were coated with mud over a stacked stone exterior. “My
friend told me that if I put mud it would be stronger,”12
says Dhawa Gurung, showing some of
Keruaja’s self-hypothesized attempts at architectural improvement. He describes that knowledge
Fig.1 Dhawa and his son in their home. There are three rooms: a kitchen, a kid’s room and a large living
room. They use stone roofing instead of CGI over the kitchen so it won’t overheat, a common practice in
the village. Him and his son are now making beds.
11
12
Gurung, Dhawa, resident of Upper Kerauja. Interview by author, translated by Suyog Raj Chalise. April 17, 2016.
Fig. 1

10
of housing construction has been passed down for generations; it is just natural for him to know
how to build.
Regardless of community efforts most people are still living in temporary housing.
Temporary housing materials were introduced into the communities by the Government less than
a month after the disaster13
. Having no historical experience with these materials, temporary
shelters of mainly CGI and recycled stone slate and wood were quickly and haphazardly nailed
together to meet basic functional needs.
“Temporary shelters are basically a waste of money in that they don’t contribute to long-term
housing solutions,” explains Rick, a structural engineer involved with disaster response and
recovery. They are one of the ‘universal’ solutions’14
employed in disasters, completely lacking
in cultural consideration15
. They are not meant to be an adequate means of recovery; they put
villagers in worse conditions functionally and environmentally, and introduce them to materials
they are not familiar with.
The need for permanent solutions comes not necessarily from the fact that the current
shelters are temporary and poorly constructed, but because of the harsh climate of the
mountainous regions. "In the higher elevations right now, I think there's at least three to four
hundred thousand people in the t-shelters. It's not like Kathmandu at fourteen hundred meters
elevation. Many villages are at two to three thousand meters elevation and, it's cold. We got to
13
Survey data from Gorkha and Sindhupalchowk locals. Collected by Author
14
15
ibid
Fig. 2 A Chart revealing some of the issues with disaster recovery intervention. Temporary shelters may be
necessary, but should strictly be temporary. Due to governmental delay and difficulties in communication
with remote areas, many villages have been living in temporary housing for over a year.

11
get these people into a real building”16
, expresses Kyle, a rebuilding consultant at a small iNGO
helping to oversee reconstruction in Upper Kerauja. Eighty-two percent of participants from
across four different affected communities are not able to stay warm in their home. Three people
in Kerauja revealed it was not only cold but also extremely windy in the home as well. These
statistics include three villagers who consider their government-classified “temporary” small
wood and CGI structures17
as their permanent residence, accepting the harsh conditions. The
problem of water getting in during rains has been reported18
, although many communities have
found innovative ways to re-channel water around their home after the first rainy season post-
earthquake19
.
3. ONE YEAR LATER: TRANSITION TO RECONSTRUCTION
3.1 Arguments for Architectural Change
There is a long history of implementing seismic techniques in Nepal, but in the rural
high-altitude areas architecture has failed to advance in hundreds of years. “In general in Nepal,
the lower you are, there's been more influence from higher tech civilization.”20
Valley
civilization, such as the Newaris, have that specialization, they developed architecture, temple
construction, etc. When every single person in the village is farming for means of sustenance,
housing isn’t the focus. They are preoccupied with meeting their daily needs. The logic of
architectural tradition in these areas for generations has been simply efficient use of unwanted
material. Villagers would remove stones from the ground for farming, and to get rid of them they
would use them to build21
. Wooden floors would remain unconnected to the walls, and stone
slate roofs created a deadly situation in the last earthquake. The house would naturally vibrate
apart22
, lacking the proper connections. There was no time to worry about improving the seismic
function of homes in busy village life, and the consequences for this were great. It had actually
already been predicted by the Earthquake Risk Reduction and Recover Preparedness Programme
for Nepal in 2009 that stone and mud houses would be especially vulnerable to collapse due to
the fact that there are normally no interlocking or proper connection between the walls at the
16
ibid
17
Permanent Residency in this case means when asked, the homeowners considered their current house as
permanent. For example they were old in age, or not confident that government money would come. In technical
terms, the government only considers a house permanent if it includes stone masonry or truss system.
18
Leila, Guide from Himalayan Treks. Interview by author, translated by Suyog Raj Chalise. April 14, 2016.
19
Ehlert, Rick A., South Asia Disaster Recovery Manager. Interview by author. April 22, 2016
20
21
ibid
22
ibid

12
corners23
. In recognition of this lack in historical knowledge, many people are actually waiting
for intellectual intervention before they rebuild. Four villagers interviewed are waiting for
government-approved models or new techniques so that they can rebuild their houses safer next
time. Much paranoia has manifested in the communities about the old building techniques24
, and
especially the heavy stones used for both walls and roofing. There are too many stories like Lang
Maya Tamang, a mother of age 37 whose small son almost got crushed by the heavy stones when
the house collapsed25
. Now her child is often sick from constant fear of another quake.
Whether villagers are rebuilding their homes or not, they are either living in vulnerable t-
shelters or rebuilding based on their own mere hypothesis of more seismic techniques. The
houses that are being rebuilt using many of the old techniques are at risk, or unnecessary money
is being spent to improve temporary shelters while not improving the harsh conditions. This
often results from homeowners being unable to receive the proper education in appropriate
housing using what they have.
Conscious intervention from specialized professionals is necessary in the rebuilding
process, but must be done with critical consideration of each village’s geographical, cultural,
ethnic, and social composition. Villagers need to regain their faith in local materials with
calculated designs that diminish their desires for expensive alternatives. Nepal has endured the
stage of immediate relief, and now must start making the transition from the recovery stage to
the reconstruction phase. With $4.4 billion (USD) pledged in aid from Nepal’s donors and
development partners26
to reconstruct Nepal, international organization and domestic programs
are equipped to help build back better. With the right human resources and motivation, the
earthquake could be an opportunity to turn tragedy into resilience.
23
Earthquake Risk Reduction and Recovery Preparedness Programme for Nepal. “Earthquake Vulnerability Profile
and Preparedness Plan: Biratnagar Sub-‐Metropolitan City” Genesis, July 2009.
http://errrp.org.np/document/study_report/Biratnagar%20Vulnerability%20Profile.pdf
24
25
Tamang, Lang Maya, resident of Pulpingkot. Interview by author, translated by Prashnna Ghimire. April 10, 2016.
26
“ Nepal’s Friends Commit $4.4 billion for Post-quake Reconstruction” New Businesss Age. July 2015.
http://www.newbusinessage.com/MagazineArticles/view/1241

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3.2 New Ideas for Sustainable Housing
There are many efforts in sustainable architecture being implemented in rural Nepal that aim to
use local materials in a cost efficient manor.
People in Need (PIN), an iNGO working in community development, is utilizing is a
technology called gabion bands. Gabion Bands is another name for galvanized welded wire
mesh, installed around a single course of stone at designated points in the vertical height of the
wall. “It is based on research on the history and effectiveness of the use of timber lacing in
bearing-wall masonry construction in Kashmir and other parts of the world,”27
and has proven
effective in numerous earthquakes throughout history. “The concept of using wire instead of
timber is the result of unique circumstances in post-earthquake Nepal that have demanded
alternatives to timber…[which] – is in short supply, expensive, and often not available in long
lengths.” The main advantage of this technique in areas not accessible by road is that it does not
require heavy lifting or intensive training, and is relatively simple and fast. In Nepal it is in fact
accessible, for it is often used in roads. The amount of stone and timber salvaged from the ruins
of collapsed homes is usually enough to build a new one, therefore only requiring the cost of the
wire and CGI if one does not have enough.
There are many other seismic and sustainable techniques that are being introduced in
Nepal after the earthquake, but most of them are only suitable to lower elevations. Many are low
cost and utilize local labor and education, such as ABARI’s open-source designs. In the search
for affordable housing, ABARI has developed bamboo and earth-based designs for housing and
public structures28
. They aim to modify vernacular techniques to be safer and more sustainable.
At its maximum size in the commercial market, “bamboo is lighter in density then steel, but it
can be as strong as mild steel in terms of strength,”29
making it a smart alternative to imported
materials. On the historical side of the argument, “Bamboo mixed with wood and other
materials like adobe, stone has been use in constructing many houses in Nepal to build houses as
high as four stories”30
.
There are many other efforts in earth building, such as earth bricks and earth bags. An
example of this is Conscious Impact, a group that is implementing the use of earth brick
27
Langenbach,Randolph.“’GABION BANDS’: A Proposed Technology for Reconstructing Rural Rubble Stone
Houses after the 2015 Nepal Earthquakes.” Conservation is Modern and Tradition is Modern, September 10, 2015.
http://www.traditional-is-modern.net/NEPAL/REPORTonGABION-BANDS(Langenbach)v2.pdf
28
“Open Source – Permanent School Design.” ABARI. 2015. Accessed April 2016.
http://www.abari.org/permanent-school/2015/9/17/permanent-school-design
29
“Bamboo Engineered House” ABARI. 2015. Accessed April 2016. http://www.abari.org/bamboo-engineered-
house/
30
ibid

14
construction in the small village of Takure, Sindhupalchowk. They have purchased a $5000
brick press machine, completely manpowered, with a considerably long lifespan of 10-20 years.
Due to the government’s strict provision that NGO’s are not allowed to build individual homes,
they are constructing a community school with help from the locals, teaching them how to use
the machine so that they can become familiar with the production and later construct their own
homes. Earth bricks, or rammed earth construction, “is essentially manmade sedimentary
rock,”31
and in many cases is as strong as concrete. They use a mixture of sand, silt and clay
combined with a small amount of cement; in this case about 7% of the brick material is cement.
The bricks are insulated and function in diverse climates. Conscious Impact intends to build
earthbrick walls within an existing steel frame built by a Japanese donor organization several
decades ago that withstood the earthquake32
.
Earth bags are a similar concept to promote local reconstruction that requires low skill set
and monetary input. Inspiration Green explain the process of earth bag construction:
“Long sandbags are filled on-site and arranged in layers or as compressed coils.
Stabilizers such as cement, lime, or sodium carbonate may be added to an ideal mix of
70% sand, 30% clay. Straw may also be added. The earth bags are then plastered over
with adobe.”33
They are also completely seismic. Unlike earth bricks, which is meant to stay still during an
earthquake, earth bag houses “flex and distort”34
in the event of an earthquake rather than
collapse, and wire and plaster hold the bags together.
31
“Rammed Earth Contruction.” Made How, How Products Are Made. Vol. 3. 2016. Accessed April 2016.
http://www.madehow.com/Volume-3/Rammed-Earth-Construction.html
32
33
“Earthbag Construction.” Inspiration Green, n.d. Accessed April 2016.
http://www.inspirationgreen.com/earthbag-construction.html
34
ibid

15
4. IMPORTANCE OF ARCHITECTURAL PRESERVATION
4.1 Cultural Identity
4.1.1 Traditional Aesthetic
Even though many efforts in these new building methods may promote local materials
and encourage community labor, they may still not be entirely considerate of how they are used.
Where some of these techniques actually fall short is not necessarily on the technical or logistical
side, but in the more subtle cultural and humanitarian side. They may be too radical for typically
conservative rural societies if the building itself is not built according to long-standing traditions
and culture. Rural communities won’t accept just anything. Nepal communities have a strong
footing in cultural heritage, and in
what looks and feels like a home. “In
the rebuilding world in Nepal, people
propose all sorts of designs and
solutions that they themselves would
never accept [with the mentality that
generally impoverished rural Nepalis
will accept it], which they probably
won’t” 35
. School and public space
construction is generally not offensive
and communally enjoyed no matter
what they are built with, but individual
permanent housing may be subjected
to much harsher criteria. The quality of housing in both Kerauja and Pulpingkot was at a
relatively high standard before the destruction. Two story buildings that kept villagers warm and
generally clean. Some homes even included porches, used for various purposes such as storing
firewood, drying laundry, staging outdoor tasks, and controlling sunlight and rain penetration
depending on the weather conditions of the area36
. Four out of nine villagers surveyed in
Pulpingkot preferred their future permanent house to remain stone and mud. They described the
Fig. 3 Buddi Maya’s old home in Pulpingkot remains standing but is too unsafe to live. It is now used for
food storage and animals. This gives a sense of the beautiful homes that once scattered the village.
35
36
Burke, Kyle.“Six Aspects of a Good Reconstruction Project.” A Medium Corporation, March 30, 2016. Accessed
April 2016. https://medium.com/@kyleburke/rebuilding-nepal-part-ii-six-aspects-of-a-good-reconstruction-project-
677b09e67acf#.gveok7vyt
Fig.3

16
beauty of their old home and their wishes to return to it37
. Cultural pride and preservation can
also be exhibited in Upper Kerauja’s rebuilding efforts. The least damaged house in the village
included seismic techniques that are nowhere to be found in any other of the new homes being
built. The villagers could easily look to it for improved, more seismic-resistant techniques. But
as one of the villagers explained, the family that built it had just moved from Mustang, and the
architectural style had been imported from there. According to Kyle, this is the perfect example
of the subtle cultural issues with rebuilding. He explains: “The cultural differences between [the
Mustangi] people [and people of Kerauja] are like the differences between an American person
and a French person. Nepal is a culturally diverse, and people tend to maintain their languages
and maintain their clothing even if they're all mixed up with each other. They bring their own
culture wherever they go”. As a mainly Gurung, Gale and Lama community, villagers likely
would not consider the house part of their culture and would fail to examine it. Certain cultures
show in the layout of housing as well. The size of the porch often depends on the elevation of the
village38
, and many villages include a small room specifically for girls during their menstrual
cycle. They are seen as ‘unclean’ and spend the better part of a week in this room39
. Structural-
cultural links like this aren’t always considered in the reconstruction world. In rural Nepal, there
are many barriers that prevent the effectiveness of large, uniform efforts in reconstruction that
must be factored in, and innovative approaches must be applied that ensure the communities
desire and motivation to replicate it.
4.1.2 Case Studies: ‘Modern’ Building and Community Layout
On the academic side of the argument, case studies show there can be unintended
implications in ‘development’ projects building houses that move away from traditional style and
technique. A case study by Robert Geipel in 1991 on the long-term consequences of
reconstruction after the earthquake in Friuli, Italy produced unexpected results. He points out
that the new ‘modern’ layout and architecture suited its inhabitants on a functional level just fine.
“However, he further states that highest agreement in his case areas was with statements like
‘less communication’, ‘more anonymity’, and ‘worse neighborhood relationships’”40
(96). He
37
Survey Data Chart from Gorkha and Sindhupalchowk Locals. Collected by Author. April 2016
38
Burke, Kyle.“Six Aspects of a Good Reconstruction Project.” A Medium Corporation, March 30, 2016. Accessed
April 2016. https://medium.com/@kyleburke/rebuilding-nepal-part-ii-six-aspects-of-a-good-reconstruction-project-
677b09e67acf#.gveok7vyt
39
Ehlert, Rick A., South Asia Disaster Recovery Manager. Interview by author. April 22, 2016.
40

17
concludes that “the old social texture [had] broken apart” (96)41
. This is a perfect example of
how the minor subtleties in rebuilding accumulate overtime to have a major affect on
communities. Another case study was done on reconstruction in Turkey where entire villages
were relocated. The “findings show that after they were relocated, villagers still place high
cultural and functional value on their old village sites”42
(96). This is represented in the sites in
Sindhupalchowk and Gorkha in the way they speak about their old homes. In addition, all
participants who had been displaced from their villages by a landslide or other circumstances had
full intention of returning and were very quick to correct me if they felt associated with their
current village of residency. It just goes to show how important cultural identity is, especially in
rural Nepal, and inconsideration of that could be detrimental in the long term.
In the case of Nepal, less modern influence is largely associated with greater social unity
in small villages, which positively correlates with better disaster preparedness. Many scholars
have noted a trend in the degeneration of local knowledge and community oriented village
planning since at least a decade before the earthquake due to prevalent and haphazard influences
from external sources4344
. In Rohit Jigyasu’s thesis, “Reducing Disaster Vulnerability Through
Local Knowledge And Capacity: The Case of Earthquake Prone Rural Communities in India and
Nepal,” he quotes Deborah Lupton’s (1999) writing in Giddens (1990) view of risk, reflexivity
and the conditions of modernity:
“The progressive separation of space, place and time and the increasing role played by
disembedding mechanisms all depend upon trust, vested not in individuals but in ‘abstract
capacities’. People now cannot simply rely on local knowledges, tradition, religious precepts,
habit or observation of others practices to conduct their everyday lives, as they did in pre-modern
and early modern times. Rather they must look principally to experts they do not personally
know and are unlikely ever to meet to supply them with guidelines.”45
(61)
He notes the growing lack of trust in rural communities own capacity, due to a rising perception
in the superiority of central society. Jisyasu agrees “that the impact of the ‘modernization
processes’ on ‘community’ and subsequently on disaster management has been profound” (61),
seen in their diminishing “capacities to mitigate, prepare and respond to disasters.” The findings
41
42
ibid
43
Tiwari, Sudarshan Raj. “Cultures in Development: Conservation of Vernacular Architecture” Dept. of
Architecture Institute of Engineering,Tribhuvan University. Heiwa Nakajima Foundation.
44
Dixit, Amod Mani.“Indigenous Skills and Practices of Earthquake Resistant Construction in Nepal” 13th
World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, August 1-6, 2004. Accessed April 2016.
45

18
foreshadow consequence if reconstruction efforts transfer imported community structures or
buildings with different social priority than the former. It also warns about bringing techniques
and structures from ‘outside’ that cannot be replicated, creating dependency and lack of
confidence in one’s own culture. Even areas like Pulpingkot, post earthquake paranoia and
outmigration for income after the earthquake show early signs of reliance. By providing
alternative ways to use the same traditional building materials and processes, local knowledge
can be preserved in some way. Whereas Pulpingkot experienced noticeable labor shortage and
reliance on government funding, just by walking around Upper Kerauja, local teamwork, social
obligation and collectivism were witnessed in the village. This clearly has aided in the recovery
process, meaning the existing social strength and absence of urban influence has made Upper
Kerauja more resilient and in Jigyasu’s words, less “vulnerable” to disaster.
The case is made for preserving vernacular architectural preservation in that it utilizes
local materials in an efficient manor for maximum social and functional benefit. It returns a
sense of cultural pride and normalcy to communities which will benefit them in the future.
4.2 Vernacular Form and Function
Just as modernization affects community efforts in subtle ways, trending faith in the ‘modern’
world and loss in confidence also applies to local materials. Many scholars also note a general
trend in rural Nepal leaning towards the promotion of foreign materials and building techniques
as more “scientific” and holding higher status,4647
and also a solution to waning natural
resources. New technologies are introduced to locals, and without proper knowledge of their
correct installation or function— result in discordant changes in [architectural] form and attitude.
These observations do not necessarily apply to the areas observed, but in other parts of rural
Nepal it is very apparent. It is important that in these remote villages that had not yet noticeably
adopted this trend pre-earthquake, the use of abundant vernacular materials is supported before
dependence on imported materials causes unprogressive developments in architecture and
economy.
46
47
Dixit, Amod Mani.“Indigenous Skills and Practices of Earthquake Resistant Construction in Nepal” 13th
World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, August 1-6, 2004. Accessed April 2016.

19
The paranoia after the earthquake seems to facilitate a perception that these imported or
scarce materials will perform better, and in some, create the unrealistic desire for costly materials
such as entire walls made of concrete, CGI, or wood. When asked to express their desires
regardless of feasibility or cost, two villagers said they would rebuild their next house with
concrete, and six preferred solely wood and CGI48
. Even though they would prefer the aesthetics
of their former house, their perceptions and fear create conflict with that desire. Reconstruction
efforts must work with communities to get over the fear of vernacular materials and redirect any
longing for imported and expensive alternatives, for there are far more functional and financial
benefits associated with the use of traditional materials.
4.2.1 Climactic and Social Appropriateness
There are functional reasons to keep vernacular architecture as well. Vernacular materials
and techniques are often well-suited to the particular weather and land conditions. This is why
specific study and consideration of each village’s history in rebuilding is crucial to
reconstruction efforts. As mentioned earlier, without stone building construction, the stones
taken from the ground would have to be “dumped” elsewhere.49
So stone construction is an
efficient use of an abundant and otherwise useless resource. Stone also does not rot or weaken.
48
49
Fig. 4 Rita Tamang
from Pulpingkot
wishes to rebuild her
next house with
concrete to be safer in
the case of another
earthquake. Like all
mothers, the women of
the village put their
children's safety above
all else. Many small
children are inside
during the day, causing
traumatic near death
experiences in the last
earthquake

20
Vernacular materials also regulate temperature within the home. In Pulpingkot and Takure,
almost every house was stone and mud masonry. The stone keeps the house cool in the summer,
and the thermal mass retains heat in the winter50
. Also the majority of villages surveyed owned
two-story houses before the earthquake. Two-story construction is traditional in these areas, and
for practical reasons. The ground floor is used to store animals, the first floor is where the people
live, and a small attic is reserved for storing grain and food. In the winter months, body heat is
produced by the animals, and since heat rises it keeps the first floor warm. Food is logically
stored farthest away from vermin.51
Changing these materials or techniques that have functioned
well for decades may be less suited to the environmental conditions and fail to provide
comfortable living space.
4.2.2 Financial Feasibility
Local materials can be functional and comforting to locals, but most importantly they are
economically available. In the high elevation, the price of any non-locally available material is
spiked by the intense manual labor required to transport them. Upper Kerauja’s means of outside
connection is a small trail constructed in part by PIN per request of the villagers, made from
stone slabs wedged into the earth to create a vertical staircase up the mountain. 52
Transportation
of materials consists of either
donkeys, or village women and
men with fabric straps, namlos,
pressing against their heads,
absorbing the weight of baskets
or other single, large items
such as CGI sheets as they
walk up the steep mountain
path. With this in mind, even if
materials are brought in must
be able to be carried in on foot.
PIN’s new design is specially designed for these conditions. “The [main] thing that drives cost of
building in Nepal, are concrete or cement, brick and rebar…our design using rock, wire, CGI,
and wood. It's cheaper to bring wire in than rebar. You can rarely bring rebar in because it comes
Fig. 5 A woman carries some items up from the village down below. It is common for women to go up
and down the mountain 2-3 times a day.
50
Aryal, Kuldeep, Social Coordinator at Build Change. Interview by author. April 13, 2016.
51
Fig.5

21
in long pieces… you can't haul long stuff on a donkey”. CGI is also relatively easy to carry by
manpower, and rock and wood require little to no travel or expenditure for it has been salvaged
in destroyed homes all over the village.
5. CHALLENGES AND POSSIBILITIES OF HIGH ALTITUDE RECONSTRUCTION
There are many reasons why reconstruction efforts
continue to lack effectiveness in the higher altitudes of rural
Nepal. Many wide scale efforts fail to consider their unique
circumstances because they are a minority of the affected
population, but tailoring reconstruction to the most difficult
and remote circumstances might actually benefit the entire
process in unexpected ways.
The main issue is that the landscape in the higher
altitude lacks in a variety of resources. As one travels farther
away from sea level, the lack of oxygen causes trees and
bamboo to grow smaller and smaller. The soil becomes
dryer and weaker, lacking the clay or mud suitable for
building. This makes certain resources almost impossible to
use for building construction, eliminating the innovative
designs using bamboo from universities like ABARI as a
possibility. In the higher altitudes, the short bamboo strands
when used in vertical walls seems to lack shape and stability crucial for the high winds and
extreme cold during the winter (see Fig.6)
Even where bamboo does grow, it may actually be more sustainable in the future to leave
it out of the equation. A study of rural vernacular architecture conducted in the 7 year period
between 1996 and 2003 revealed that “loss of forest cover and marginal agricultural land suited
for bamboo and reeds are behind loss of both of the indigenous roofing materials [of stone and
thatch]”53
, giving way to the corrugated iron sheets (CGI) as the main roofing material.
Assuming this trend will only increase in severity, housing that conserves forest resources is
most likely guaranteed to remain economical for a long time.
Fig. 6 Damai Gurung weaves a bamboo basket in front of his ‘permanent’ home. He has compensated for
a lack of CGI with weaved patches of basketwork
53
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

22
The earth brick and earth bag techniques mentioned earlier are practical alternatives to
concrete or rebar heavy designs, but a design that still uses concrete inputs may not be entirely
considerate of future environmental concerns. Sand mining for concrete production is a rising
concern in Nepal due to larger scale construction of urban housing. This process deepens the
riverbed considerably, increasing water pollution and other environmental issues54
that will
inevitably impact the rural communities the most. It is also rising in price. Data made available
in 2008 by the Construction Materials Entrepreneurs Association (CMEA) “confirms that the
price of Nepali cements also has gone up to NRs. 600 per bag (50 kg) from NRs. 550 only in one
month. The price of Indian cement has also increased to NRs. 575, narrowing the price
difference between the domestic and imported varieties.” Conscious Impact considered taking it
out of the brick mixture, but it seemed to be inseparable from the process to achieve seismic
strength. "Many people volunteering here are opposed to the use of cement, but there was
physical difference in structural performance when cement is added"55
, Conscious Impact leader
explains, seeming to have explained this to many critics before. The earth bricks that contained
cement held up significantly better in the stress test, the process they use to test the brick's
strength. Another foreseeable issue with these two techniques is the sheer variety of materials
and precise measurements that must be separately sourced and calculated requires a lot of
organization and may be pushed aside in the business of everyday life. The two techniques are
undeniably a step in the right direction, and are providing solutions to many communities across
the country. They are effective and applicable to areas with access to clay and silt, mainly in the
lower hill and valley regions. Although like many ideas, in the upper elevation, they wouldn’t
work. Kerauja men busy with constructing a new, stacked stone house take a moment to explain
why they don’t use any earth in housing. “Cement is expensive and the mud around here is not
sticky, it would wash away in the rain. Good mud is also expensive because you can only get it
from behind one of the two mountains surrounding Kerauja”56
Gabion Bands is one of the techniques that works for the high altitude areas. It
uses mostly recycled materials from the rubble of the previous home, and every thing else is easy
to carry in on foot and is relatively inexpensive. By designing housing for areas with little
availability in materials such as wood and bamboo, and completely leaving out methods that dig
up earth or use expensive cement, engineering efforts in sustainable housing may withstand
future scarcity in Nepal, in places where stone designs are aesthetically and culturally accepted.
54
Bishnu, K.C.“River Pollution in the Kathmandu Valley: Urban mismanagement robs locals of a valuable natural
resource.”Oh My News, September 9, 2006. Accessed April 2016.
http://english.ohmynews.com/articleview/article_view.asp?no=316259&rel_no=1
55
Gula, Allen, Director of Concious Impact. Interview by author. April 12, 2016.
56
Gurung, Mohan Lal, resident of Upper Kerauja. Interview by author, translated by Suyog Raj Chalise. April 16,
2016.

23
6. IMPLEMENTATION OF RECONSTRUCTION EFFORTS
Even if new rebuilding models are able to be applied to an area’s cultural, social, and
geographic subtleties, an additional round of questions arises when it comes to implementation.
Projects must be considerate of the fact that many of these villages are illiterate and disconnected
from greater civilization, unable to fully collaborate with some of the more mainstreamed
rebuilding and awareness efforts. “It’s not like people in Kerauja are going on the Internet and
browsing model houses.”57
The villagers are literally waiting for intellectual intervention,
meaning a physical presence that can share knowledge in a way that they understand. It’s not as
simple as distributing a piece of paper. Even with pictures, the people in rural villages are “not
use to looking at stuff on paper or a two dimensional screen”58
and then applying it to real life.
To address this many iNGO’s are building model houses so that villagers can see the house being
made. That seems to be effective yet if a model house is not in their village or close, they won’t
see it. One way of addressing this is masonry training programs which have proved effective. It’s
not always necessary to go into the village, peoples can be sent to Kathmandu for masonry
trainings. USAID has thrived in this technique:
Nearly 300 masons [were] trained on building earthquake-resistant shelters in four districts
to help people get back into their homes and reduce the risk of similar damage in future
disasters. Over the next five years, new and expanded USAID programs will train an
estimated 13,500 local masons, hundreds of carpenters and engineers, and orient over
285,000 affected homeowners on building earthquake-resistant homes.59
This technique also helps solve the problem of physical remoteness and distance from
civilization deterring organizations. "I visited upper Kerauja to look for some places to work
with, and I made a note to myself: don't work in Kerauja, it's too far," says Allen. The
remoteness of places like Upper Kerauja seems to be too intimidating for many organizations. "I
knew the circumstances were such that [many organizations and engineers] simply could not
handle", Kyle says when speaking about why he chose that area.
Lastly, iNGO’s are foreign organizations, and stepping into another culture must be a
mutual and collaborative experience where both parties are willing to learn from each other. To
Kyle and Allen, it is all about respect to the community. “If the community doesn’t want us here,
we’ll leave;”60
Conscious Impact’s concentration seems to be on offering a passive hand to the
community, and living on their own as a example of self- sufficiency. They have their own
57
58
ibid
59
“Nepal Earthquake Recovery Factsheet.” USAID. October 29, 2015. Accessed April 2016.
https://www.usaid.gov/nepal/fact-sheets/nepal-earthquake-recovery-fact-sheet
60

24
agricultural land that they invite villagers to inquire about, and many of them build their own
household appliances such as stoves. In terms of architectural preservation, PIN and Conscious
Impact seem to have different perspectives. Allen witnessed in the village he works with that
they are willing to try new techniques, and that safety is of utmost importance. Kyle believes
strongly that the villagers at least deserve housing comparable to what they had before, and that
there is no reason to compromise on traditional aesthetic or safety. In terms of individual housing
it is yet to be determined if either technique will be replicated. In a wider perspective, much of
their success lies just in their focused efforts on one specific village and their specific needs for
reconstruction. Communities seem to respond best to small iNGOs living in or exclusively
related to that specific village that are flexible in their projects.
CONCLUSION: HOW CAN WE BUILD BACK BEST?
There are many people working together to answer the question: How can we build back best?
Nepal is a developing country experiencing many rapid changes, struggling to achieve
uniform and informed development with such a diversity of cultural, linguistic and living styles
and conditions, development of which fits into the progress of modern countries while preserving
the indigenous wisdom and sustainability of its people. In Nepal's case, many of the assets that
characterize the country as underdeveloped are the same assets that have the potential to make it
one of the most progressive countries in the world, in line with the emerging philosophies in
development if executed right. There are still entire communities and cultures that still function
in direct response to the land, and maintain building traditions and values specific to their
heritage passed down thousands of years. This knowledge often can provide advanced and
experienced insight into maximizing the relationship of the community to the land, and limited
dependence on outside intervention and material input to only what is absolutely necessary.

25
Urbanization of Nepal in some places has begun creating a destructive perception of
architectural industry that is percolating into surrounding communities. This was intensified after
the traditional stone structures failed to perform in the earthquakes and the newer imported
structures did not. In the case of the steel frame built by a Japanese donor organization
mentioned earlier, the frame stayed intact as all four stone and mud walls crumbled within it.
This is logically going to create desires for materials such as steel and concrete. This is a one-
time opportunity to restore faith in their traditional cultural practices such as building knowledge
utilized for generations, and simply advance what they already know using existing materials,
existing community teamwork, and existing ability to adapt. In this way we can help to avoid
disintegration of community and cultures. It provides an opportunity on an even larger scale to
introduce concepts of sustainable living in Nepal, an important goal in modern development. If
left unaddressed, and villages rebuild using the same techniques, not only will it put them in a
hopeless economic situation, their confidence in their self-capability may be further hurt in the
case of another earthquake. Organizations must achieve a balance between old and new
materials and techniques that are considerate of past, present and future environmental
conditions.
In order to optimize a reconstruction effort, these three things: past, present, and future,
must be carefully and rigorously studied to ensure a concept’s acceptance in a community. One
must learn about construction history in the community pre-earthquake, and attempt to replicate
its essential functions and general aesthetic qualities. The present condition and perceptions in
the community will reveal the community dynamic and fears surrounding architecture that one
must either accommodate or address when rebuilding for the best results. Lastly, in order to
leave a lasting impact the possible consequences of each new material and technique must be
considered in order to ensure it’s replication for many years to come. Furthermore, every new
technique must be achievable with unskilled labor and understandable by an illiterate audience.
If these communities can advance on their own by learning new skills that maintain their cultural
essence and relative isolation, they may rise as an example for not only Nepal but the
international community as well.
High elevations are unique circumstances that require a lot of creativity. Designing
completely seismic housing that must mainly stick to old materials (stone), and materials that are
cheap and not too labor intensive to carry. Creating aesthetically conformative two-story housing
that will be replicated in the communities efficiently as to fit around their busy and hectic
lifestyle. This requires time and effort that many organization may not be willing to produce, yet
putting in that time be worth it in the end. "The only place our design will not work is places
with no stone, unless there is rubble from the old destroyed house, that could also be used." PIN
speaks of their gabion band design. The places that typically have stone housing will benefit the

26
most from this design, and in any other cultural respect it can be molded to the indigenous terms
of functionality and form. It's one big empty room, and can be built as either a one or two-story
structure. The end goal is a typical house in rural Nepal, where the technology comes in is in its
new seismic strength and security61
. After that goal is set, then there's the "process of dealing
with all the different levels of cultural appropriateness, the technical aspects, logistics, getting
over people's fear of stone construction,"62
the financial and legal aspects, and so on. Those
aspects are all further exacerbated by the nature of isolated mountain life. This is a place where
building materials can be scarce and expensive. People have cultural standards. Building
something that is not only cheap and functional in extreme weather conditions, but that they can
be proud of once more is certainly achievable with the right motivation. A physical appearance
of recovery and cultural continuation will instill a mindset in the village of resilience.
It's a unique opportunity. We should not let this earthquake be a case for rural inadequacy, but a
chance to bring out the potential of Nepal to come back even stronger.
61
62
ibid

27
APPENDIX 1: TEMPORARY LIVING CONDITIONS
Most people in Pulpinkot hang their corn
on the ceiling to compensate for not
having an attic
Many of the temporary shelter are
dark, cluttered and don’t have room
to stand. Many people sleep on mats
on the floor
Kam Raji’s
Wife invited
us over twice
for lunch and
popcorn. Her
family is
displaced and
fears one day
the owners of
the land will
kick them out

28
APPENDIX 2: LOCAL RECONSTRUCTION IN KERAUJA
Overlooking the CGI roofing that dominates
Kerauja. CGI is much safer than traditional
roofing.
Kerauja residents rebuild a house of stacked stone
masonry. One of the men rebuilding will be the
new owner of the house

29
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31
Survey Participants:
Ward- 7, Pupingkot, Sindhupalchowk:
Bhim Lal Tamang, 66
Bhim Tamang, 72
Rita Tamang, 28
Lang Maya Tamang, 37
Buddi Maya Tamang, 47
Som Maya Tamang, 31
Tari Maya Tamang, 74
Srijana Tamang, 22
Mekh Lal Tamang, 35
Khurla, Gorkha:
Kancha Bega, 65
Upper Kerauja, Gorkha:
Dhawa Gurung, 60
Nirmal Gurung, 23
Kaji Ram Gurung, 31
Mohan Gurung, 16
Kanchi Gurung, 42
Dhamai Gurung, 70
Bhimai Gurung, 45
Kirby Maya Gurung, 70

32
Suggestions For Future Research
Continuing Post-Earthquake Development Study
- As the earthquake recovery continues, it is important to keep following the progress. I
would suggest in this field the short and long-term effects of the housing that does get
built in the future.
- One thing I became interested in but did not elaborate on in this paper was displaced
peoples. The displaced people had the most devastating stories out of everyone, so it
would be interesting to study the dynamics of displacement in rural Nepal and what that
means to people.

2016- Nepal Sustainable Reconstruction

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