Factors Affecting Student Performance in Public and Private Schools

1
Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapterpresents the brief review of the related literature tier
analyzing,anti-studying the issues related to the aims of the current
study. Many studies regarding the factors that affect the student
performance in publicand private schoolswere conducted in various
countries as well in Pakistan had been taken into account, Various
statistical techniques OLS, Oaxaca decompositionanalysis,I, PM, Logit
model, propensity score matching approachhave been used in assessing
the factors effectiveness to student achievementin publicand private
schools but the most commonly used techniquewas OLS. The theoretical
review relevant to student performance is given as under.
Boissiere, M et.al (1985) attempted to differentiate the influence of
cognitive skills, native capabilityand length of educationon earningsas a
means of judging the human capitaland screening. They also observe
that either the secondary leavers earn more or less, than the primary
school leavers. Micro data from Kenya and Tanzaniahave been collected
by a survey concentrating the information on length of schooling,
employment experience, history of family background,father and mother
educationand their achievement scores that dependsupon the raven's
and numeracy and literacy tests. Three econometric techniques stratified
regression; Probit analysisand specification analysishave been used for
three functions. Results found that the secondary leaver earns more than
the primary leaver because they have more skills and learningability
which enhances their productivityso they earn more. Results also

2
revealed that cognitive skillshas no direct effect on moderate education
rather it
directly affects the peoplehaving more educationand these results are
near to general opinionandare generalized to the developingcountries
also.
Kurdek and Sinclair(1988) evaluatedhow the sex, family compositionand
family environment were correlated to the academic attainmentsof the
middle class eight grade students and the school behaviorrelated to
absentees from the school. student sluggishness and detention.Pearson
correlation explored that the students with their biologicalparents
perform batter then the students in either mother or stepfather
supervision. Results of multipleregression testing explainedthat family'
setting, family constitutionvariables are significantlyrelated to
quantitativefunctioning.grades and absentees from the schools. it also
told that girls are less detention than boys. The combinedattention of
family composition. sex. and family settings explainsthe 17% variance in
school and academic achievement.The student in the stepfather and in
the mother custody communicationwith biologicalfather was not
related to educationalperformance.
Carnoy and Mcewan (1990's) attempted to show the relative efficiency
and cost effectiveness of public and private schools during the execution
of nationalvoucher system since 1980 in Chile. By using the three sources
SIMCE. JUNAEB and CASEN they collected the data on municipal.private
subsidized. private paid schools, peer group, student endowment, and
municipalcharacteristics. Results of regression estimates revealed the
differences between the achievementsof public,private paidand private
subsidized schools when socio economic variablescontrolled. At

3
providingthe Spanishand mathematics attainmentstudent it is proved
that private funded schools are less efficient than the community
schools and cost less on average student than municipalSchool it is due
to the relative and legal restraints on the management on community
schools.
Kingdom. G. (1996) analyzed the efficiency and qualityof education
between the three school type's management public private aided and
private non aidedschool from Lath-now, India. By stratified random
sampling 928 were selected from the class. Student achievement was
taken as a department variablewhich was measured by the raven's
numeracy, and literacy test score and a questionnaireheaving the
informationabout student's personal, parental,house hold and school
characteristics. Henry’s general to specific approachfor modal selection
and unordered multinomial logit model were used for statistical
findings19
. The result explainedthat wealth, lesser siblings, and private
unaidedschool and motivation have the significant impact on student
achievements. Separate regression was used for male and female and
showed that male output form then girls in math and English. School
choice based on cost effectiveness the results also told that government
and private aided were a like in cost competence but less then private
and unaidedschools.
Deaton and case (1999) observed that how the school’s inputs affect the
learning outcomes. To study the impact of school inputson their
educationalachievementsthey focused on the pupilteacher ratio, race,
age, gender, student attendance and the student test score and collected
the data from five sources and mainly used the data from South Africa
living standard survey with the help of world bank and the south African
center of labor and research department in the three sixty cluster. The

4
study revolted that regarding the difference in the provisionof
educationalresources by the ether group. The student teacher ratio has
the strong conservable effect on the learning achievement,school
environment and them.
revealed that regarding the differences in the provision of educational
resources by the ethnic group. The student teacher ratio hasthe strong
considerableeffect on the learning achievement, on school enrolment
and their scores that dependsupon their test.
Alderman, et al. (2001) captured the influence of school cost (fee) and
qualityon school choice of the low income units of Lahore whether they
send their children to publicschools, private schools or no schools.
Primary data have been collected through two surveys. The statistical
findingswere carried out by the weighted choice based sample, Logit
regression and using the elasticity's related to income, distance, fees and
facilities. The results showed that even the poorincome level groups
used to send their children's to private schools due to the good
achievement of private schools in language and mathematicsas compare
to the government schools and this possibilityincreases with the increase
in income level of the peoples. Furthermore lowering the private school
fee and distance also hasthe positive impact on the private schools
enrolment in the developingcountries.
Tasang (2002) addressed the problems in comparing the cost of public
and private schools at the primary and secondary level relative to the
valuedgoals of increased collective equity, expanded excess and the
improved efficiency in the developingcountries. Their discussion was
based on reviewing the conceptualand methodologicalissues in cost

5
analysis. The results found that many cost comparison studies are
problematic due to the lack of information and underestimationor
omission of educational cost of private schools and this problem may
lead to theSignificantunderestimationof cost and overestimationof the
efficiency of private school relative to the public school.
Andrabi et at. (2002) addresses the growth, equity, qualityand gender
based issues in private schooling in Pakistan as the private school have
been an emerging phenomenonfrom the last decade. Theirstudy
explored the evidences on school characteristic, annualschool fee, school
facilities, characteristics of head teacher student teacher ratio, teacher
education,teacher training, expenditure per student, distributionof co-
educationschool at the region level, by using populationsense and the
private educationcensus date from the federal bureau of statistic
Islamabad.The result of Median,logarithmic density function, Biuret
regression, correlation and semi-log regression indicatesthat the private
school have growth trends at primary level In the rural Pakistan still
leaving the rural urban gap. Regarding the school fee the result told that
the private schools are not just the urban elite trends rather they are
accommodating the rural as well as the low and middleincome peoples.
Large number of the primary school are coeducationalandhave the
positive effect of female teacher on the girl’s enrolment. They also
compared the school qualitybetween the publicand private schools
consisting on the Pakistan integrated house holdsurvey data 1998 and
found that the private school have more school facilities and educated
teacher but they lacks the trained and experienced teacher then the
publicschools. They also discovered the strong positive effoct of the
educationwomen of the growth of school enrolment and school
foundation.

6
Aslam, M. (2003) attempted to find which factor (school related, home
background, teacher’s pay and teacher factors and student absenteeism)
are more effective in determining the student achievementat the
secondary level in public and private schools in Pakistan. The data came
from the survey of the Punjab province (2002-
2003) by using the stratified random sampling 65 urban and rural both
types .of schools have been selected but there were the three
possibilitiesin the selection of schools. OLS techniquewas used to
investigate which factor, causes the more variationsin the student's
attainment.Moreover the Raven''s progressive matrices test and the test
of literacy and numeracy have also been used to assess the student's
ability.The results demonstrated that personal characteristics, home
background and schools related variables are significant determinant of
the student attainmentbut the teacher related factors appeared to be
weak indicatorsof the qualityof the teachers and the pupil absenteeism
have the negative impact on the student performance.
A large data set have been used by the Greene and Kang (2004) on the
state of New York schools district for the years (1989-90 through 1992-
93) to see the effects of private school competitionon the government
schools productivityand also examined whether the structural and non-
structural spending made by the public and private schoolsproduce the
output differentialsor not. For the output measurement they used
the science and math regent examinationin grade 9-12. The results are
represented by adoptingthe two stage least squares based on the
percentage of private school enrolment and focusing the percent of
students receiving the publicaid, percent of pupilcompetence in English,

7
central city district school as dummy, structural and non-structural
expenditures per student, house hold income and clarified that the
private school competitionhave the positive strong impact on high
school’s productivity.But the private competitionhave small effect on
getting the regent diplomasthey also explainedthat the competition
from private schools might the non-structural spending with the
competitionwithin the government school couId increase the non-
structural expenditure.
Faiztnnisa and Ikram examined the determinate of development(2001-
02) by using the youth development index based on the four dimension
i.e employment to find the most important and most affecting factor of
person’s achievement and his life. Result shows that young person’s
score 4 more digit as compare the female belongingto the socio
economic status and this picture is worse if the female belong to the rural
of Pakistan.
Hashmi et.al (2009) atte1nptcd to find the factor affecting the female
attainmentin the rural Pakistan. Data were collected from the two
district of punjab through multi stage sampling and the 700 observation
were collected. The final completed educationlevel were taken as the
dependentvariable to measure the educational status while parental
education,percentage of educated mothers, distance to school, family
caste, were taken as the dependent variablesthe statistical analysiswere
conducted through the ordinalregression result suggested that higher
father educationallevel positivelyrelated to the female academic
outcomes similarly the income of the house holdwere also also positively
related while the educational attainment were negativelyrelated to the

8
student distance of school and low social economic status of females of
rural Pakistan.
The aim of the Ch, A. H. (2006) study was to explore the impact of the
guidance services on student habits, attitudes and academic
performance. for the research purpose the researcher organized the
guidance service program for the high secondary school students of
Lahore, Pakistan. T- Statistics were used to find the effects of the
provision of guidance service program on students' academic
achievement, attitudeand habitsin five subjects. The researcher found
that the provisionof guidanceto students have the strong positive
impact on their attitude, habitsand their academic performance.
Filmer et al. (2006) demonstrated that achievingthe Millennium
Development Goal as the completionof primary educationis not
sufficient for the generation of twenty first century. Millenniumlearning
goal is more important to check the learningoutcomes. They also
explainedthat the youth lack the minimum competence level
even the countries have met the MDG's. For the comparison of
knowledge profile assessment between seven developingand relatively
four developed countries. They used the data from Program for the
Internationalstudent Assessment (PISA) 2003 and the house hold survey
based on grad levels. PISA is used for the assessment on science, math
and reading. After reviewing the internationalexamination,Cohort based
estimates told that all the developedand developingcountries show the
better performance on reading than math performance. Mexico has
achieved MDG but lacks the 50 % proficiency in math and 91% don't
assemble the globalstandard. 78% Brazilianlacks the abilityin math and

9
96% don't meet the universal standard of adequacy. Policy makers
recommended that Millenniumlearninggoal is a better approach to
measure the real development in educationthan Millennium
developmentgoals.
Das et al. (2006) examined the learning levels(not the average learning
but the particularknowledge that the students obtainedin school) also
found the association among the student’s attribute and student
learning. Primary data collected from the publicand private schools
based on the achievement scores that was represented by the English,
Math and Urdu test scores at the third grade level of indiaand Pakistan.
Variance decompositionposition analysishas been used at district and
city level. The results of bivariatecomparison for higher income countries
explored that greater learning were associated with parent's education
and householdwealth. Educationalstructure and learninggaps were a
like in Pakistan and in India. As compare to the curriculum standard the
absolute learning was low and there exists the larger differences with in
the schools of same country.
Saeed, M. (2007) compared the Pakistan and UK system of educationand
their comparison based on six features: structure of education,training
and educationauthority, curriculum planning,assessment and
estimation, administrationandmanagement, training and educationof
teachers between the four province of Pakistan and four countries of UK:
Scotland, EnglandWales and North Ireland The results exposed that
regarding all these dimensionstheir exists large similarities and
differences between Pakistan and UK. But all these differences and
similarities are more important for the UK inter countries judgment.
Teacher training and inspectionin Wales and Englandis more structured

10
than Scotland and Ireland. Both UK and Pakistan are a like in the
organizationof assessment test at different educationlevel. The
assessment test system in Punjab is more structured then other three
provinces of Pakistan. Teacher training and educationsystem is more
organized in U.K but Pakistan is lacking it both in civic and private sectors.
Low achievement in English and mathematicsis a common aspect in UK
and the Pakistan. Nishimuraand Yamano (2008) tried to find the
determinantsof the school choice and transferring of students between
publicand private schools under the free primary educationpolicy in
Kenya 2004. Panel data collectedby the two sources (school census and
householddata) based upon the informationabout the student
characteristic's, parents characteristics, householdcharacteristics and
Kenya certificate of primary educationscore have been used as a proxy of
the qualityof education.MultinomialLogit model estimates told that due
to the free primary educationpolicy in the public schools has increased
the private school enrolment from
4.8 percent to 12.2 percent with the wealthier parents and the students
from the wealthy families has the greater possibilityof transferring from
publicto private school.
The purpose of conductingthe Coulson(2009) study was to draw the
conclusionabout the comparison of the educational outcomesbetween
the publicsector, private sector and free market monopoly state schools
by reviewing the 150 related studies all over the world. Covering the
eight educationaloutcomes the vote count approachexplored that
across the countries and outcomes instruments the private educational
results outperform than the public provisionof educationaccording to
the vast majority of the econometric investigationsand this superiority

11
level turned greatest when the free market (private schools) are
compared with the least reasonable
government schools.
Dahar et.al (2009) explored the impact of student teacher ratio, class size
and per student expenditure on student academic achievementof
student at secondary stage in
Pakistan. Step wise regression analysisrevealed that there is much
variationand misallocationof student teacher ratio, per student
expenditure and class size that causes wastage of resources and lowers
the student academic achievementscore.
In a journalof sociology. Bangladesh Raychaudhriet al. (2010) studied
the
relationshipbetween the students' performance (based on final result)
and the seven socio-economic factors: student attendance, family
income, father's cducation, mother's education,student to teacher ratio,
gender, school distance and the existence
of expert teachers. The essential informationwas composed by the
survey of government, government assistance schoolsand the students'
householdsusing the random sampling at the elementary level in the
schools of Agartala Municipalcouncil,Linearregression estimates told
that all the factors are positivelyrelated to the student performance
except the gender of the student to students' achievement.

12
Evan et al. (2010) first time introducedthe average treatment effect on
the treated productionfunction and supposing the mean efficiency as a
strong indicatorto find the average influenceof attendingthe private
voucher school and three stage propensity score matching approachfor
the ten regions of Spanishstudents who have participatedin PISA 2006.
The productive vectors (student achievement and distance from
technologicalborders) based on the inputs(parents educationaland
occupational level,city and immigrant condition,school type,
socioeconomic backgrounds, qualityof scholar resources, girls
proportion, repentance of course, class room size, school size, gender
and region). The results revealed that the etTect of all the inputswas
higher on reading result and the socioeconomic background, girls
proportion and peer group have the positive impact on student
performance in spite of the student who repeats their academic year. In
addition,neither the scholar resources nor the school and girls fraction
show the impact on students grade. The results also showed that the
students from Austria publicschools performed better than the private-
voucher school.
Farooq et al. (201 1) conducted their study to examine the factors
affecting the academic achievement of students at secondary level in the
city of Lahore, Pakistan. Data related to parents education,occupation,
rural/urban belongingnessand student grades were collected through
the questionnaireand the academic performance of student were
measured by their 9th class final results. ANOVA and T-Statistics have
been used to assess the extent of influence of different factors on
student performance. Results revealed that parent's educationand socio
economic status have a significant ilnpacton the overall student
achievement as well as in the subjects of Math and English. The high

13
socio economic status affects more the student achievement than the
low status. It is also found that parent's educationis more effective in
determining the student achievement as compare to the parent's
occupationand girls outperform than the boys at each level.
Saeed and Perveen (201 1) have cheeked the compatibilityof the goals
and results with the methodologiesadopted in the earlier researches
(1990-2010) on the evaluationof the student performance at primary
level in Pakistan. Review of literature covered aroundthe 40 different
research articles. manuals,abstract and bookletsrelated to the
assessment of the student performance ss.re accumulatedfor the
reading intentions. From these studies 19 studied 2 qualitativeandt?
quantitativestudies were preferred for the Meta analysis. nice research
was could. xted in three stages. After reviewing the literature, it was
found that the stress of au the studies was to improve the qualityof
educationat primary level in Pakistan. Includingthe factors affecting the
student performance was parental education,their guidance and
occupation,self-study. social status, transport facility, home and book
reading all have the negative and positive correlation with the
achievement of the students. Metaanalysisexplored that the math,
science and English performance was related to
9, school administration.Results also told that the weak performance
was subjected to the resource and environmentalsituationof schools
and in most of the researches it was found that the primary education
was not fully completed this showed the poor performance of the policy
implementationandplan in Pakistan.
Dahar, et al. (201 1) conducted their study to find out the impact of five

14
indicatorsof teacher qualityi.e. academic and professional qualification,
in-service refresher courses/ trainings, teacher experience and teacher
salary. Populationof the study comprised all secondary and higher
secondary schools, secondary teachers and secondary students in Punjab
were sampled by random sampling. Stepwise Regression analysiswith
linearfunction was used. The study found that these five indicatorsof
teacher qualityare not effective but instead the prior achievement is the
most effective. The study concludedthat it is the attitude of teachers
towards teaching and the extent of the use of their skills, expertise and
abilitiesin teaching that is important.
Javed et al. (2012) evaluatedthe achievementdifferences between the
publicand private schools by using the recent data from the Annual
Status of EducationReport 2010 to 201 J all over the Pakistan at primary,
middle and secondary level. Three techniques OLS, Oaxaca
decompositionand fixed effect have been used in three steps. Results
explores that the impact of private schools is significant at every level
whereas the gender discriminationwas existing at householdand village
level. Furthermore Oaxaca decompositionshown that only five percent of
the achievement gaps can be certified to the endowment differences
among these two groups.
study of Amjad and Mecleod (2012) sheds the light on the outcome
differentialsof public, private and public-privatepartnership schools on
the basis of their English, Urdu and math test scores and checked
whether the fee differentialsare related to academic achievementsor
not, and provides the evidences on the quality of private schools
education.Concentrating the explorationquestion they collected the
informationon the student related, school related and house hold

15
related inputs".
Based upon the survey data of schools and Pakistan AnnualStatus of
EducationReport (2012) adoptingthe two approaches: partialsof graphs
and table of raw data and the logistic regression results showed that
there are the large differences in the test scores between the private,
publicand public-privatepartnershipschools and private schoolsdo
better than the government and public-privatepartnershipschool is in
English and least in Urdu performance and all the school, householdand
student related variables significantlyaffects the student performance.
And the public-privatepartnershipschools perform close to the private
schools but do well than the government. Low fee private school
students outperform than the government furthermore the high fee
charging private student do better than the low fee private student due
to the effective contributionof the factors related to the student's
performance.
Inputs student related (age, gender) Shoal rounds. related bluktwdst
tlype. distributive and house twidof fee levels and the
Olasunkanmiand Mabel,(2012) concludedthat there is a significant
difference in the availabilityof infrastructural facilities and no significant
difference between the academic performances of senior and junior
publicand private schools in Lagos country for 2006 to 2010. They
undertook the managerialand executive input output examinationof
juniorand senior private and government schools. As a tool of collecting
the data they used the two types of questionnaire. By adopting the
stratified sampling techniquestudent school performance consisting on
private public secondary school results have been taken as output

16
variableand student, teacher, curriculum and the provisionof
infrastructural facilities (Electricity and water supply, availability of
classrooms, healthservices and the entertaining facilities) were taken up
as input variables. The empiricalestimation of accessibilityof
infrastructure facilities were based on ANOVA test and the student
attainmentbased on t-statistics and the study concludedthat the
differentialsin the inputsbetween private and government secondary
schools lead to the moral and school outcome differentials.
Tariq et al. (2012) compared the public and private school head teacher's
vision for school improvement. Descriptive study based on the
questionnairewas given to the head teachers of two public and private
primary schools from the same localityof Jamshed town, Karachi. The
questionnairewas about the visualizationof the teachers about the
school development and expansion. The validityof questionnairewas
checked through the literature review. The results found that the private
headswere more visionary, more motivated, more sharing to their
teachers and students and more supportive to theirstudents as compare
to the government heads teachers. But the head teachers of both schools
did not involvetheir pupilsin school affairs.
Cunningham,et al. (2012) tried to find the connectionbetween the
variables:children's achievementin arithmetic, writing, reading, age-
appropriategrade in schools with governmental investment in four
dimensions:school infrastructure, school grants, teachers and incentive
to children to be enrolling in school and also found that which dimension
was more effective in student performance. Primary data was collected
by the two sources: Indianhuman developmentand District information
survey on educationfor 2004/05 years. To see the overall effect of each

17
investment the principlecomponent analysiswere also used. For the
multivariatemodels the statistical estimation were done through the
ordered logistic regression and for the normalizationof the variables the
OLS were used too. The results discovered that government investment
have the positive impact and showed the 6% variationsin the students'
achievement. Incentive to school going children showed the strong
associationwith the grade progression and test attainment.Higher level
of government investment associated with higher student's achievement.
The objective of the Khan, Z. (2012) was to assess the factors that affect
the student performance in Malakand,Pakistan. He used primary data
that was collected through random sampling. Results of multiple
regressions revealed that audio-visualaids, family size and examination
system are positively related to the academic performance of students.
Khan and Ahmed, (2012) examined the correlation between student
academic achievement and parentalsocio-economic status for the boys
of Government High Schools, District Dir, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
Ile used random sampling(p31) from 16 public schools. Results of
descriptive statistics revealed that parentssocioeconomic status
(education,divorce, income, parent involvement)have significant effect
upon student academic achievementand concludedthat better the
socioeconomic status of parentsbetter will be the academic performance
of their boys.
Clarbourand Soomro, (2012) found the negative relationshipbetween
aggression and academic achievementof 8th class student while they
have found the positive relationshipbetween self-esteem and student
academic achievement in Hydarabad,Pakistan. By using the Emotional

18
BehaviorsScale for Pakistani Adolescents(EBSPA; Soomro, 2010), and
rendered measures of their social anxiety, malevolent aggression, and
social self-esteem scores.
Akhtar, Z. (2012) tried to predict which socio-economic status (SES)
factors effects Pakistani students' achievement.The indicatorsof SES
were taken from the nationaldocumentsof Pakistan. Random sampling
was used from the four Districts: Attock, Chakwal,Rawalpindiand
Islamabad.Linear regression showed mother's education,income,
refrigerator, and source used to travel to school has positive effect on
achievement. Number of siblingsand transport facility (car/van) has
negative effect on achievement.
Suleman, et.al (2012) has also explored the positive relationshipbetween
socioeconomic status (parental income, education and occupation)and
student academic achievementof secondary school students of Karak
District, PakhtunKhaw, Pakistan. Dibabastudied the affecting factors of
government school and universities of Hawse state. Primary data were
collected from the socials and naturalsciences students 920 (p32) samples
were selected from the a multivariateanalysisand the OLS techniques
have becn by using the m«ivatton. gender. time management. anxiety as
an explanatory•ariablc and •ho•aedthe Aigmficant affect towards the
student attainmentuhilc thc•c satiahlcsshowed different behav iot At
the elcmcntao. high and at uni•ctsity lc»el The st&Äfy showed that the
motivgtpon, Time managcmcnt. self-corvcpt •cre related •ith the studcnt
performance at tush and as as at university kitl.
Ls-tcvan.F- invcsligatcdthat the funding of publicschools cau•cd by the
BrazilianI-UNDEF reform 1998 improves the qualityof publicschools as a

19
measure of school infrastructure and teachers abilityMichele to decrease
in the private school enrolment. To investigate this relationship,the
Nationalandstate treasury, populationcensus and Brazilianschool
census data have been used from 1997-98 the simple hypotheticalmodel
has been designed that produces the two predictions. The part of the
prnate school enrolment in every municipalityhasbeen taken as a
dependent
variable.Tao stage regression analyses suggested that funding reform
and imprcn ement in the publicschool inputsreduces the private school
enrolment at grade cneel not for the laterprimary school grades due to
the switching cost.
Amjed, R. (2013) concludedby using the data from ASER (2013) Pakistan.
that impressing student teacher ratio improves the student achievement
when regressed Lith age, parent teachen meeting and teacher's quality
also found that I unit increase in pupilteacher ragion reduces the student
achievement in Urdu/ Pashto/
Sindhilanguage by Khan, el.al (2013) investigated the factors of high
achiever student at elementary level the saraiki area. Tehsil Khair Pur
Tame Wali District Bahawalpur,Pakistan. The results of descriptive
analysisshowed that self-study, self-respect, parents profession, payers.
decision making have greater impact on good achievement but usage of
computer. books and library, religiouspractices and family structure were
not the good indicatorsof high achievement of elementary schools.
The purpose of Naz, et.al (2013) study was to investigate the effect of
school physical facilities on behavioraldevelopment,student academic

20
achievement, student teacher relationshipin Malakand Division,Khyber
Pakhtunkhaw,Pakistan. Data were obtainedfrom secondary resources
(books, journals, magazines, reports and internet sources). By purposive
sampling data on behaviourtest, teacher student relationshiphasbeen
collected from boys of government high school. Results of cross
tabulationandcorrelation explored that there was a positive relationship
between physicalinfrastructural facilities and student's academic
performance and personality development.
Jamil, et.al (2013) examined the effect of teacher characteristics (training,
attitude and opinion)on academic achievementof primary student of
Punjab, Pakistan. With the help of World Bank data were collected from
three districts Mianwali,FaisalabadandRahim Yar Khan in 2011. The
result of regression and school fixed effect analysisexplored that private
school outperform that government schools. Student aspiration,
language if same in school and home were positively related to
achievement level while male teachers showed worse student outcomes
than the female teacher in math. Teacher training and the gender play
significant role if student were taught by the (p34) same gender. They
concludedthat observable teacher characteristics are not what make
teachers differentiallyeffective but that their abilityto teach, subject
matter knowledge and attitudes to teaching matter more.
The purpose of conductingthe study of Qadirand Chouhan(2013) was to
investigate the major reasons of academic failure at primary level in
urban public schoolsin Pakistan. The data were collected from the Key
informants of the study that were 12 experienced school teachers of
publicschools of Rawalpindi,Pakistan. Semi structured, open-ended
interviews were conductedwith participantteachers during school hours.

21
The theoreticalanalysisrevealed three main factors that came out as a
result of analysiswere family, school and student. The participant
teachers were of the view that these factors have not contributedto the
academic failure namely, but they all markedly influencedthis
phenomenonat different stages.
The study Ali, N. (2013) aimed to seek the causes that affecting the
academic performance of Public Primary Schools in District Mardan,
Pakistan. 20 Public Primary Schoolswere selected by random sampling
technique. Descriptive statistics (percentages and frequencies) were used
for the data analysis. It was concludedthat poorperformance was due to
the lake of facilities and politicalinterference in the Public Primary
Schools. Also the study showed that there was no availabilityof teachers
for each class. Poor and old system of assessment, no reward or
punishment for the teacher's academic achievementstherefore
Educational policieshave failed to bring an identifiedpositive change in
academic achievementsand students' performance.
Ayug & Odera, et.al (2013) have found that there is no significant
relationshipbetween teacher qualificationandchild achievement level by
using educationproductionfunction and used the chi-square analysisfor
Kenya.
Ghazi, et.al (2013) investigate the relationshipbetween parents' socio-
economic status (total family income, expenditure on education,father
job grade, house area) and their children academic performance of
student from 1st year in Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa,Pakistan. Pearson Correlationrevealed that family income
and father job grades are positivelyrelated to student academic

22
performance the study concludedthat socio-economic status of family
playssignificant role in academic performance.
Rafiq, et.al (2013) investigatedthe effect of parent's involvement
(monitoring child attendance,arranging tuition,asking about home work,
and contact with teachers and inquiringteaching method) on academic
achievement of 9th class students, AllamaIqbal, Town, Pakistan. Chi-
square results revealed that parent involvementhas the positive impact
on child academic achievement.
Akello, A. (2015) attempted to establish the contributionsof teacher
characteristics (age, experience, qualification,salary) to academic
achievement of the public secondary school of Kenya. The study has used
the educationproductionfunction and a multiple regression techniqueto
find the relationshipbetween teacher characteristics and student
achievement. Results says that teacher qualification andteacher
experience have no significant relationshipwhile age and salary showed
significant effects on child achievement level.
Abcre and M. Mausa, (2015) explainedwhich teacher characteristic
influence the student achievement score in math, science and technology
in Kenya. Random sampling was used to select eight secondary schoolsin
Kitui County. It includedeight head teachers. 40 teachers of SMT subjects
and 600 candidateswho sat for the Kenya Certificate of Secondary
Education(KCSE). Data were collected using questionnaireand document
analysis. It was analyzedusing descriptive and inferentialstatistical tools.
study found that there was no significant difference in means between
teacher qualificationand student’s' performance in SMT subjects at. The
findingsof the study further revealed that majority of the teachers of
SMT subjects were trained graduates, most ofthcm had attended in-
service or refresher courses which resulted in slight improvement in the

23
students' performance in SMT subjects.
Conclusion
All above studies showed that there are multiple factors that affect the
student
F performance in such as family income, education, occupation,student
gender, student s; absentees, family environment, school locality,school
type, facilities in schools, number of teachers, their qualification,
experience, school administration,their absentees, salary and etc but
ignored the parent involvementin school. Out of them some were
related to primary level, elementary level and a small number of studies
related to secondary level. These previous studies were conducted
among the different regions of the world as well as in Pakistan. But in
Pakistan mostly studies of student academic achievement are related to
the province Pakhtunkhaw and a little literature is availableto the
province Punjab, Sindh and Balochista.However it is the second biggest
province of Pakistan. All these previousstudies measured the educational
achievement by conductingand regulating speciallydesigned test on
math, reading and writing skills some have used Ravens test. All the
previousstudies laid stress on the importance of school facilities and
parental income (as it is the one indicatorof socio-economic status) as
the strong predictor of student achievementbut all these studies used
parental total income and different school facilities individually,to
estimate the relationshipwith student achievement. It is concludedthat
good academic achievementis not just a result of teacher, school, family
or child characteristics alone rather it is a multidimensional phenomenon
of teacher, school, family and child characteristics. The study will explore

24
the most important predictorof good academic achievementof
government and private secondary education
(secondary educationis a gate way for the future developmentof a child)
in
city. The present study will also explore the new integrationof the
variables additionallywill explore the effect of school facilitiesand
parental income and parental involvementon academic achievementand
it will be measured by the indexes of school physicalfacilities and an
index of parentalwealth that will be the good representative of
determinantsof student academic achievement.
Chapter No 3
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This chapter provides the theoretical background of the study, A theoretical framework is collection of
interrelated concepts, like a theory but not necessarily so well worked out. A theoretical frame work
guides our research, determining what things you will measure, and what statistical relationships we
will look for. Ilcre the useful theories related to the education and its outcomes are discussed below:
3.1 The Basic Theory of Iluman Capital innate or acquired abilities those increase the human
productivity known as human capital. This definition not only gives the idea of schooling but also the
quality of schooling training and bchaviour which brings clear difference in carnings. Bcckcr views the
human capital as unidirectional as it increases the productivity but in Grander views human capital is
multidimensional. In schultz views it provides the way to worker to adjust according to the
environment and thc school plays their role
in this regard (Bowles)
All these suggest that organizer pay better wages to educated workers. Iluman capital theories
consider the human beings as a way to improve the production, income and wealth. Economists
suggested that one can make the investment decision in human capital through:
i) "Ihc partial cquilibrium schooling decision by using the separation theorcm: which rcfcrs the parents
decisions about schooling of the child for this they used the credit constraint which makes to think
whether or not the educational attainmcnt diffcr,21 The model of returns to education and schooling
rtvsented Mincer
(1974). He compared the opportunity cost of one year of more and income forgone and found the proportional

25
relati€V1shtp schooling, experience and saage.
The Ban-porath model emphasis that the is only a u ay of investment in human capital but the scxieties mth
more may have the higher level of on-the job investment •hich increases the earnings.
By the Richer and Roys the single-index model may also use to the difference in earnings of labour with
different skills human capital theory suggests that the large economie output is the result of investment in
human capital. In past economic prosperity devx•ndcnt on physical assets but modern economists consider the
health and education as a mean of greater output Becker(1993).
Schultz and Becker etherised the human capital in 1960's and Schultz first time identified the relationship of
education and productivity.
Becker ((1975) e.xtended the theory of human capital by exploring the framework of age eamings profile,
returns on education and on job training.:: of Becker and Bowels focuses on the inefficiencies of the
educational *stem. Foe the motivation of child to attend school government must pay
3.2 Modern Theory of Iluman Capital
COnsidering the education as an economic device the human capital theory has re-Structured. It has been the
most influenced economic theory sinec the POIicies Of 1960's about the vsestern education S)stent, Human
carnal,
äNobel 23 prize.Org 2007
Becker ( 1993) "human capital" p. 128.
change, innovation. education and ity and research have been as a determinant of economic J&tformancc.
Adam smith (1776) formulatcd its in tbe •carth of And the two concepts ing about it l ) acquired kno•ledge and
ski" the caNtal 2) human them.eive' the capital. But thc ncw theory of human capital on the that tbc human
tx•haviour dcrrnds umn Rtf-interest. The argument or the of human capital theory can justified on the basis of
the sign' ficam•e
ofeducation and training. The economic rerformance of the OE CD countries depends u;vn the Jcaming ability
and thc stock of knou kdgc.:•
This theory is the extension of the Adam smith idea of wage differential that kd the economists argue that the
income of the individuals differ due u) the education. training. talent and stock necessary for grouth..
Human capital can bc considered as a "ay to attain the balanced growth*' Inve«tmcrtt human capital has
relatively greater importance in the latxyur surplus countrtes.!6 increase in human capital increases the human
developmcnt as the umtcd nation argued that human capital formation can measured by the 111)1 baxd on
three ciemcnts.• life exFctancy index, education index and irxome index Larger the
Of i Indicates higher insestment in human capital furttxr the per
income. rule of human capual thc Management of human capital is the combination of three capacities27
which collectively increases the compctiveness (Todd, Crook, Combs, Ketchen, wochr
(201 1) suggested that it will benefits an organiz4)tion (crocket et.al 20J J). With the development of human
capital, future generation can be trncfited by the current generation who made better research and
advancement in the education and health so the new generation become superior to the current generation
what we can call it as

26
the circulative growth of human capital.
3.3 Endogenous Growth Theory
Economists of the 1980's were dissatisfied of considering the exogenous factor as the elements of long run
growth. They are of the view that growth is not due the exogenous factors but it is due to the endogenous
factors such as investment in human capital. They introduce the production function with constant return to
scale that is Y=AK and explored that technology displays a positive long run growth. Investment in technology
brings further advancement in skills through learning by doing (Roomer, 1986; Lucas, 1988; Rcardo, 1991).
This importance of education being a part of human development and hence the economic growth provide the
basis for the government to reformulate and subsidize the education system of the country.
3.4 Expanded Human Capital Theory
Social returns of education are competitive and large that can be predicted by the coefficient of earning in the
production function that captures the effect of inquired human capital at school.
Expanded human capital theory explain the larger effect of education on earnings through the channel of year
of education (contribution of secondary education),
271) capacity to develop talent, ii)capacity to organize talent. iii) capacity to fetch LaicnC Mahroum (2007)
cognitive skills (brings changing in achievement score) and natural ability. Jhis theory states that secondary
education in-crowds the cognitive skills (numeracy and literacy) and natural ability (by the proper attcndoncc in
schools, the rcrorc acquired human capital). The increased skills and ability improves the achievement score. 1
ligher achievement level makes the secondary Icavcrs to corn more than the primary leavers based on the
differences in productivity of cognitive skills through numeracy and literacy. Boissire, ct.al, (1985) compared
the effects of conventional human capital function (ability and cognitive skills) and expanded human capital
function (year of education, ability and cognitive skills) on earnings, Jock concluded that conventional human
capital accounted only 1/5th variations in earning whether 33% variation in earning were explained by the
expanded human capital. I le also explained that a person with higher test score earns 50 % more in Kenya
and 35 % in Tanzania controlling for the experience and ability. Ile further argued that for the success in labor
market lesson learning at school is more important than the regular stance.
3.5 System Theory
System theory tells about the transformation of inputs into output that comes from the environment and after
the transformation discharge the output back to the environment. This theory tells the functioning of the
interrelated parts to achieve the common goal (Draft, 2008) if we relate it to the secondary level than the
students if secondary level comes from the society and then discharged back to the society in the form of the
output. The theory based upon the five elements.
i. Inputs: infrastructural facilities which help the student in learning process and the human inputs are the
combination of teaching and non-teaching staff.
ii. process of transformation: includes the production technology but at the secondary level it includes
the method of teaching, teaching qualities, School management iii. Output: usually goods and
services but at secondary level it includes the academic achievement.
Feedback: comments affects the selection of inputs for the next cycle of production process
Environment: political, social and economic surroundings that will engage the output of secondary
schools.

27
Application of this theory into the educational scenario, will assist and help administrator to find the
issuing factor of student output, will help the secondary school to achieve their mission of study,
improves future selection of inputs and will provide the relevant framework for the academic
performance. Olasunki (2012) also used this theory to find the impact of school inputs (infrastructure,
resources) on the student performance with respect to find the differences in achievement between
the Lagos and Nigeria.
The educational production function approach views learning outcomes as a function of the child's
complete educational environment. This holistic look at the child's learning includes both school and
household information. Thus, teacher qualifications and effort, school infrastructure, facilities and
curriculum, household expenditures and time spent by parents on children, all need to be examined
together to understand the variation in learning () that exists among children that will help to correct
the gaps of learning system (Leaps Report,2008).
3.6 Theory to Improve the Quality of School (Factors Associated
with Achievement)
Researchers have focused on cognitive achievement, on the rationale that whatever else schools are
intended to do; a basic function is to induce students to learn the content of the curriculum. Thus, a
substantial body of research in high and lowincome countries has examined factors associated with
student's cognitive achievement. A model to improve the school quality (attainment) were given for
the developing countries by Ward Heneveld, Helen Craig, and associates at The World

28
Bank, a representation of which is shoal in
Individual (child): Characteristics are what individual students bring with them to school. Though not under the
school's control, they affect the child's work at school. School factors may interact with individual
characteristics in a positive way to compensate for deficiencies the student brings to school or to enhance the
child's capacities, or more negatively to further disadvantage the disadvantaged.
Supporting inputs: Are those community or system-level factors determined outside the school yet which affect
the work of the school. They include community support, policies, and material inputs.
Enabling conditions: Are characteristics of the school that facilitate effective teaching and learning. Enabling
conditions include effective management and organization, including leadership, the teaching force,
organization of instruction, curriculum, and time spent in school; as well as the climate of the school, the extent
to which the school has created an atmosphere that fosters and values academic achievement.
Teaching and learning processes: include classroom level factors that directly affect student learning,
including learning time, teaching strategies, and student assessment suggested a collaborative,
inquiry-guided approach to the improvement of school quality and attainment.
fie following steps provide a rough overview of this possible approach: staple. Understand first what's
going on educationally in a particular settlement; assess what is wanted by the various stakeholders,
especially the parents, children.
community members, and teachers as well as NGO and UN advisors perceptions of educational
needs and values.
Stcp2. Develop a collaborative process for assessing the current and desired states of quality, and for
designing plans to achieve the desired state. Structured ways to collect, analyses and share
information about the current status of educational efforts in the community, and the status of school
quality and attainment. The approach should seek to include discussion of the relevance to the
setting of findings and ideas from external research on school quality; Facilitated process for
developing a school quality improvement plan, for understanding tradeoffs, developing buy-in, making
commitments and decisions and developing plans to monitor implementation and make necessary

29
mid-course corrections.
Step3. Come to agreement about the goals of the system and objectives of the "Reform," the
meanings of quality and attainment to be utilized, and a rich description of the current system and the
characteristics of a higher-quality system. Step4. Develop qualitative and/or quantitative measures of
educational quality,
Steps. Working the implementers, school staff, managers, and parent’s/community members, create
a meaningful. i.e. achievable. list of minimum quality standards for the school, along with
responsibilities and timetables for achieving those standards, and indicators of successful
implementation. Such a list would likely include standards covering teachers, place. textbooks,
teacher’s guide, blackboards, paper and writing implements.
stcp6. Develop longer-range strategies for acquiring other necessary inputs, improving school
governance, increasing external instructional support, developing school leadership, and promoting
the on-going professional development of teachers.
theories will work as the torch for the present study which is taken to focus the learning factors and
will suggest improving the quality of learning and schooling through the effective channeling of those
factors.
3.7 Ephesian (1995) Framework of Parental Involvement
Joyce Epstein (1995) developed a framework of explaining six different types of parent involvement.
This framework will help the educators to develop community, family and school partnership program
so that youngsters succeed in school and in later life. Now a day's school demands more parent’s
involvement and this theory helps to understand how students learn and grow through the influence
of three factors: family, school and community. These three factors form a partnership to meet the
needs of child. Epstein six types involvement based on the school, family and community factors and
help to define the link between parental involvements to certain outcome and also helps the
educators to develop the comprehensive family, school partnership.

30
3.7.1 Epstein's construction of Six Types of Involvement
Each type of involvement encompasses a variety of practices to be undertaken by teachers, parents, and
students and is theoretically linked with a variety of distinct outcomes for students, teachers, and parents as
well. Educators, along with parents, are encouraged to select those practices likely to produce the types of
outcomes that coincide most closely with their needs, goals, and capacities. She further notes that while
certain practices are likely to influence students' test scores, others are designed to produce outcomes related
to attitude and behaviors. Epstein notes that many of the possible secondary or indirect effects of a particular
parental evolvement practice are not yet understood. For example, parental involvement in three
(Volunteering) or type five (Decision-making) activities may result first in parents cocking more connected with
their children's schools, which may, in turn, lead to other types of Inx emend that '*ill eventually produce
outcomes related to student achievement. rsrein's work on school-family-community partnerships, Epstein
outline schools'
respect to each of the six types of involvement established in her Type one: Parenting must he%' lam Ibes
create hotne erAGronmcnts that
must to understand and inc .xafe ayrcts of thcer students- family life taught an thc Outcornes asvxtatcd •i'.h
type onc
tnciude ements in students' behai icy. attendarce. time management skü?s. and a" areness cf the importance
of school, Parent outcomes encompass improved confidence in and understanding of, parenting practices.
awareness of the in parenting. and a of supByrt from and others. Teacherrelated outcomes include foremost a
of, and respect for. their students' families (Epstein, 1995, p. 712).
Type Two: Communicating some schools have taken special steps to ensure that parents are brought to the
schools early in the academic year, before students develop problems, so that their first communication %ith
them may be positive in nature. School must employ a variety of techniques for communicating 'vsith parents;
include parent-teacher conferences, phone contact, report cards. Outcomes associated with Opc two activities
include students' improved av,areness of their own academic progress, more informed decisions about
courses, and an understanding of school related to their conduct. Parents are likely to grow in their
understanding of school programs and policies. They '*ill develop familiarity in interacting V' ith tcæbers and a
greater capacity for monitoring their children's progress and resvx»nding io their problems. Teachers are
expected to develop diserse mechanisms
so for communicating with parents and an ability to tap the parent network to elicit family views on children's
progress (Epstein, 1995, p.71 7).
Type Three: Volunteering Schools enhance their connection to families by encouraging them to volunteer in
school activities and attend school events. Families who volunteer grow more familiar and comfortable with
their children’s schools and teachers. use of a volunteer coordinator is advised espeially at secondary school
levels, SOIere coordination of volunteer talents and time with teacher and student needs becomes increasingly
complex. Type three activities are designed to enhance students' skills in communicating with adults; provide
them with exposure to a wide of adult skills, occupations, etc. and help them develop their own skills with the
support of volunteer tutors and mentors. Finally, teachers will bc able to pay more attention to individual
students as a result of volunteer help. They are also likely to become more open to involving parents in varied
ways and develop an appreciation for the parental talent base (Epstein, 1995, p.726).
Type Four: Learning at Home most parental participation in children's education occurs in home. Schools must
capitalize upon what parents are already doing by helping them to assist and interact with their children at

31
home learning activities that reinforce what is being taught in school. Schools should aim to increase parents'
understanding of the curriculum and
skills their children need to develop at each stage in their schooling, Schools must with parents to ensure that
students set acuiemic goals, prepare for c•ueer transitions, nuke appropriate course selections. Outcomes
associated with type four imwoved student test scores and other skills linked to Students likely to view
themselves and to lhcir patents en develop confidence in their oøn abilities '0 type Practices can help teachers
Among other things teachers are expected to develop greater satisfaction with family involvement as they
witness the support all types of families are able to provide students (Epstein, 1995, p.733)
Five: Decision-making Involving parents in governance, decision-making, and Type advocacy roles is yet
another strategy for fortifying links between schools and parents. As parental participation in decision-making,
when it is comprehensive program involving parents in learning support activities as well, is associated with
improved student outcomes. parent and community involvement in decision-making may also help make
schools more accountable to the community. Parental participation in school decision-making may be
strengthened by including parents in school site councils, parent-teacher associations, and other committees.
Outcomes from type five activities include the benefits of policies that are enacted on behalf of students.
Students are also likely to become aware of family representation in school decisions. Parents are expected to
develop opportunities for input, feelings of ownership, an understanding of policies, and a sense of connection
with other families. Teachers will likely become increasingly aware of the role of parents' perspectives in policy
development (Epstein, 1995, p.736).
Type Six: Collaborating with the Community Schools and families must draw regularly upon community
resources to support their efforts to educate children. Student outcomes are greatest when families, schools,
and community organizations and leaders work together. Children are provided with more opportunities for
learning and for linking school knowledge with real world opportunities. Outcomes associated with type six
activities include increased skills and talents for those students participating in productive extra-curricular
programs. Students may also develop a better understanding of the real world and career options.
Parentrelated outcomes include an awareness of local resources they can tap to support their children and
families. Teachers are expected to develop an understanding of resources available to enrich the curriculum.
They should also develop a capacity for working with and tapping a variety of community partners (Epstein,
1995, p.739).
Wealth Approach
wealth is not important when we talk about the common ledge but it is important when we talk about school.
Because kids from wealthier families do better than the kids from the poor families due to the stress and lack of
access to basic needs. It have been seen that wealth is associated to IQ, achievement, possibility of attending
the college, enrich math and reading skills, improve basic recognition. All is directly or indirectly associated to
wealth (it is the enabler of books, tuition, summer camps etc) but the effect of wealth occur over time. In
addition to the financial capital, two other types can afford opportunities for children: Human capital (education
knowledge), Social capital (benefic social networks) the parents of wealthier students can impart the
knowledge through human capital and social networks. That's why rather than measuring the family income
researcher prefers composite measure called SOci0-Economic Status (parental income, education and
occupation). lhe effects of
SES on education can be categories as the: a. Family Investment Model b. Stress Model.

32
3,8.1 Family InvestmentModel
High socio economic status parents have more capital therefore can invest more in the child development.
High socio economic status can buy the sources of intellectual simulation (books, tutor, environment, support)
that is associated to child achievement that a poor family cannot afford. The effects of low SES are more subtle
even before the child born: mother from low SES, have less access to health care, their babies are at greater
risk for low birth underweight, a greater risk for cognitive impairment. Once child born in low SES have overall
poorer health effecting the educational outcomes (disease, missing school and peers hence negative school
outcomes) missing school is more destructive for low SES child because they learn more from school and their
wealthier counterparts. Moreover poor child from low SES have risk of physical environment: i) substandard
and crowded house ii) poor daycare center and school, low SES teachers that emphasize on basic
computation rather than advanced one. These all were the effects of low financial capital. Additionally parents
from low SES have low human capital, weak vocabulary, speak less to child, spend
less time and have no access to toys colors and counting rather the parents who have better knowledge about
the development of child have better human capital and all. These all were the sources of cognitive simulation
that the poor child miss and have negative impact on math and reading at school. Finally the parents from low
SES have low social capital, have less beneficial social network, remains disconnected from school this less
involvement bring negative effect on child schooling. Hence families with more financial, human and social
capital invest more in child and child benefit from these.
3.S.2 Stress Model
Low SES is related to chronic stress and if not safeguard by supportive relationship have long lasting negative
effects on brain development and hence in cognitive
Steps behind this theory are: i) Stress and SES are inversely related, families from low SES lives in stress
(have worries and insecurities about food, finance and job) as compare to the high SES families. Secondly,
stress affects parenting: harsh and inconsistent behavior in stress with child that regulates emotional and
behavioral problem in child. Thirdly, stress directly affects a child brain during mother's pregnancy. The longer
the children live under stressful conditions (noise, crowd, substandard and violence) more will be the stress
that affects the part of brains:
working memory, long term memory, and spatial processing and pattern recognition. This type of stress gives

33
the idea the challenges student face. Fourthly, stress affects the cognitive abilities, when it interferes with
formation of new memory especially when stress is related to the event to be remembered and occurs at a
different time. Stress exacts a cost to memory formed hours earlier it lowers the score on reading and
Vocabulary. Fifthly, children loving and caring behavior can reduce the consequences of stress.
Teacher can help the student what is missing at home through education and skills.
research also high lights the importance of calm atmosphere in the class room and in school. A chaotic class
room increases the stress level of a child. A broad array of social services targeting family life, home and
school environment is necessary to help the low SES child to fulfill their educational needs.
Conclusion
The purpose of discussing a number of theories is that, it helps to formulate the model study. After discussing
the ories it is concluded that quality of education can be measured by its outcome i.e. achievement score and it
is affected by large number of inputs. Application of the system theory helps the author to construct model. As
system theory presents a production function based on input and output analysis. similarly, 1 have constructed
the model i.e education production function. To find the most important inputs that affects the outcome of
education system: achievement score. Human capital theory has explained the importance of education with
respect to secondary schooling. output of schooling can be affected by many factors i.e. family factors, school
factors, child and teacher related factors. The model of this study based on these four dimensions.
The variables of the present study have been taken from above mentioned theories are given below:
Absentees taken from expanded human capital function (less absentees more achievement score), Epestein's
six type involvement linked with a variety of distinct Outcomes for students, teachers, and parents as well. It is
the parent involvement that affects the student outcome so the idea of parent teacher meeting, school inputs
comes from this theory. It is the parental wealth that tells the income of parents, father education and
motivation affects the academic achievement score these variables are taken from the investment and stress
theories. It is the stress theory that tells that human capital of a teacher works like bread and butter for the
students what they have miss at home and in society giving the idea of teacher characteristics. Therefore, the
most important variables related to student Outcomes have discussed in theories as well as in literature are
selected for the present study include: Child characteristics (gender, mode of access to school, tuition time,
absentees, aspiration, birth order) Family characteristic (number of parent teacher meeting, father education,
household size, family wealth, Teacher characteristics (qualification, age) School characteristics (student
teacher ratio, school physical facilities). Focusing on learning as a key outcome of the educational system also
allows us to think about inputs into the educational system in a systematic manner. A brieftheoretical
relationship between academic achievement and input variables are also given below:
3.9 School Facilities and Academic Achievement
It is easy for a teacher to teach, evaluate and feedback if students are lesser in number in a classroom. For
pupils it is difficult to follow the course and teachers can dedicate less time to the needs of each individual
student if class room is crowded that lowers the learning (Alderman, Orazem & Paterno, 2001). The
student/teacher ratio has implications not only for the cost of education, but also for the quality. It is considered
that lower student teacher ratio (STR) gives better results than those of higher STR. STR has been considered
as the main element of internal efficiency means efficiency in the educational system (Abdessalem, 2009). The
higher STR causes a heavy burden on teachers in the public schools and affects the quality of
education (Ravish, 2011) and has a negative effect on student achievement in Urdu/Sindhi/Pashto in Pakistan

34
and this effect is found to be statistical significant. This means that with a unit increase in class size, the
student achievement in Urdu/Sindhi/Pashto language decreases by 0.1 percent. If STR is more than 25, it
Probably affects negatively the quality of education. However, in many countries, range Of the optimal level of
STR is 30:1 to 40:1. STR (45:1) is much higher in Pakistan as compared to African, North and South American
and the majority of
Asian countries (Khan, 2003).
physical infrastructure facilities are the compulsory components of any educational institution and
are directly/ positively associated with better performance of students
2013) not only in academics but also in co-curricular activities. Physical (Naz, facilities and new
facilitated buildings provide greater opportunity to students in their academic progress, grade up-
gradation and other personality traits, embellish
students' behavioral development. Studies show that in many parts of the world, schools have grown
larger and well-facilitated with modern teaching equipment’s
(including labs, libraries, class rooms, proper lighting and thermal comfort, air quality along-with
advanced laboratories and libraries playgrounds, washrooms and flourished furniture) which results in
better academic performance (McGuffey's, 1982, Earthman and lemasters, 1998) however, there are
schools where thousands of students are accommodated which leads to mismanagement
(Henderson and Raywid 1994). The statistical interpretation demonstrates that availability of physical
facilities decreases apprehension, anxiety and increase students' confidence to a greater level that
improves students' output to the instructional environment. Further, the empirical data reflects that
physical facilities bring improvement in students' behavioral elegance and tends to abdicate the
rigidity and frustration through creation of flexibility for absorption; love and affection to a high
possible extent. It is very important that these facilities should be properly and efficiently used in the
school environment to produce better academic achievement further it is the better quality not the
quantity of these facilities matters. But if these inputs are misallocated, inefficiently and deficiently
used. These are the main causes of the negative, Insignificant and minor impact of some school
resource inputs on academic achievement (Dahar, 2011).
3.10 Child Characteristics and Academic Achievement
School Type
Research has shown the importance of the type of school a child attends in influencing educational outcomes.
students from independent Private schools are also likely to achieve higher end of school scores (Buckingham,
2000a). As private schools are more likely to have a greater number of students from high SES families, select
students with stronger academic abilities and have greater financial resources.
The school effect is also likely to operate through variation in the quality and attitudes ofteachers (Sparkes,
1999)
Child Gender
The relationship between gender and the academic achievement of students has been discussed for decades

35
(Eitle, 2005). A gap between the achievement of boys and girls has been found, with girls showing better
performance than boys in certain instances (Chambers & Schreiber, 2004). Moreover it has also found that
Girls usually show more efforts leading towards better grades at school (Ceballo, McLoyd & Toyokawa, 2004).
Therefore girls performing better in the subjects of Mathematics, and English as well as cumulatively. But it
have also argued that parents are more concerned about the education of their sons due to the investment
motive .they enrolled their sons in the reputed private schools with better facilities in this way boy cal also
perform better. Tuition
A child has private home tuition seems to have positive relation with achievement score, but is a significant
determinant only in government schools. A possible exPlanation of this could be that poor performance in
school induces the parents to
Complement child schooling with home-tuition (Aslam, 2003).
Truancy (Absenteeism) student attendance play important role in the academic achievement. Brauer states
that student truancy creates, dead, tiresome, distasteful classroom environment that makes the professor
uncomfortable and irritated. Poor attendance not only hinders academic achievement but also promotes a
poorly educated society and thus leads to many negative social issues. Theoretically if student often remains
absent from school it negatively affects the student achievement level. A high attendance student is more
serious in studies than the low attendance student (Raychaudhuri, 2010)
Child's Mode of Going to School students' academic performance and the distance of school from students'
house are positively related. If the school is near to the resident of the student, or the student goes to school by
any transport he/she can promptly arrive at school and easily attend the school regularly. The study shows that
this relation is positive.
Aspiration (Children Wish of Study)
Children enters in the school from the different backgrounds but everyone wants to stand first in the class. But
these opportunities find a particular student who is harder, intelligent and devoted to education than others
(Hambleton et al., 2005). Child individual motivation, wish of study (include an orientation toward problem-
solving and moderate challenges). That's why child place a high emphasis on accomplishment and success.
Usually, these individuals gravitate toward challenging but achievable goals where their abilities and efforts can
affect the outcome. (Pierangelo & Giuliani, 200) The student that realizes the educational responsibility, do
hard work, pays more attention and gets good results (I-linshaw, 1992; Khan, 2013) oppositely student anxiety
lowers the student academic achievement.
Family Characteristics and Academic Achievement socio Economic Status (Parental wealth & Father
Education)
The socio-economic condition of a family is an important factor which affects the Learning achievements.
According to Bon (1981) Socio-economic status can be measured in a number of different ways. Most
commonly it is measured by parents' education, occupation and income and the responsible factor is father,
but sometimes mother's education or occupation, family income resources or household possession are used,
especially in combination. Whatever the measurement is the socio-economic status is positively correlated with
both educational attainment and achievement. It can be hypothetically stated that the higher a student's
parental socio-economic status, the greater his or her academic performance in secondary education is likely
to be. Low SES level strongly affects the achievement of students, dragging them down to a lower level

36
(Sander, 2001). Income is a commonly used measure of Socio-economic status because it is relatively easy to
figure for most individuals. (Kraus, 2008).
Parents' income level is another factor that affects the academic achievements and Performance of their
children. In the words of Crosnoe, et al (2004) if the parents' income level is good and satisfactory than there
would be fewer worries for the parents to provide learning resources and material to their children. In contrast,
Parents with low income often cannot provide easily their children such learning resources and materials which
becomes hurdle in the development and academic Performance of their children. Raychaudhuri and Ghazi:
2010, 2013 found that total family income was positively associated with the performance of their children. It
has also found that family's financial status as peroxide by wealth index, to be a significant determinant of
achievement of 8th graders (Kingdom, 1996).
Parent’s education plays a vital role in academic performance of the student. specially the education of father
plays a vital role in this regard because in Pakistani culture, normally father only strive for money therefore,
father is major supporter of his family all the decisions about the home as well as about the schooling,
profession and even for higher studies of his children are made by the father. An educated father can do better
for his family; can help his child in their studies. More educated father more will be the student achievement
Mothers education is also a significant determinant but in Pakistani culture mothers are usually house wives
therefore show less involvement (monitoring, visit to school, helping in study ) to child education.
House hold Size (HH size)
Family size is another factor that negatively affects the children's academic achievements. Children with less
family size are likely to receive more parental attention, care and plays well in their academic careers (Khan
and Ahmed, 2012).
Parental Involvement (No. Parent TeacherMeetings)
Over 30 years of research shows that one of the most effective ways to increase student achievement is for
parents to be actively involved in the education of their children (Naz and Nasreen, 2013). When parents are
involved students tend to achieve more, regardless of socio-economic status, ethnic/racial background or
parent’s educational level those students generally have high grades and test scores, better attendance, and
more consistently complete homework, have higher education rates and greater enrollment rates in
postsecondary education (Martinez. 2004). Parents can involve themselves by attending the meeting at school.
In this way they can directly interact to the teachers, head teachers and can monitor the performance of their
child in return school can help families with their parenting skills by providing information on children's
developmental stages and offering advice on learning friendly home environments (Epestein, 1995).
Child Birth Order
Wikipedia defined Birth Order as a person's rank by age among his or her siblings. Birth order means the
position of any child among his/her brothers/sisters. Order is the position of any child for example first born
child has an order l; the second child has an order 2 and so on. The parents take care of their children's mostly
according to birth order. The first child born in any home is appreciated most, the second up to some extent
less and so on. This parent's care remains different for different children's in schooling also which shows
dramatic results in the future. Booth and Kee (2006) confirmed that children from larger families have lower
levels of education (joseph, 2009) It is also commonly known that as the child lower down the birth order, his
achievement score decreases because parent’s attention, resources, monitoring, care and help diverge to al

37
siblings. Moreover studies also showed that first born baby is high achievers, because the first baby
responsible, high achievers and perfectionists behave traditionally, additionally he has innate abilities that have
inherited from mother (good health, good care) during the pregnancy of first child.
3. 12 Teacher Qualification, Age and Academic Performance
Teacher Qualification
term "teacher characteristics" can be referred to as qualities that can be measured with tests or derived from
their academic or professional record. Teachers are the crucial factors of child learning it have been argued
that better child learning based on the good quality of teachers. Teacher qualification, experience, teaching
methods and teacher age are the factors that affect the quality of teaching hence student outcomes.
Akinsolu (2010) asserts that availability of qualified teachers determined the performence of students in
school’s it usually has been assumed that the academic
qualifications and professional training of teachers have a direct and positive bearing on the quality of teaching
performance. Effective teaching is determined by both subject-matter knowledge and pedagogical skills
(Husen, 1978; Avalos & Haddad 1981). The good Performance attributed to excellent instructions given by
qualified teachers in addition to other inputs.
Teacher Age
Teacher age is negatively related to child academic achievement score. Akello, 2015 said that as teacher age
increases it has negative effect on child achievement score due to rigidity in behavior, old teaching methods,
reluctant to use new technology, authoritative leadership, lack of interests. Positive relation could be as a
teacher gets older he becomes mature, trained, experienced, have mastered the content and acquired
classroom management skills to deal with different types of classroom problems.

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