1. The document discusses constraints on word productivity in languages. It provides examples of morphological processes like affixation and compounding.
2. Productivity can be constrained by blocking, where a new word is avoided due to an existing synonym. Other constraints include phonological and morphological properties of word bases that prevent certain affixes from being attached.
3. Semantic factors also constrain productivity. For example, negative prefixes like "un-" are generally attached to positive adjectives in a pair rather than the negative member.
2. The open-endedness of lexicon
Morphological theorizing & the formation of
words (established words +freshly coined
words)
Lexicon vs. syntax
Word formation rules are passive: to analyze
existing words rather that to create new ones
3. The open-endedness of lexicon
In principle, no word is infinite in length, but
there is no upper limit to the formation of
bases (e.g. uncomplicatedness).
Borrowing & the lexicon of a language
Morphology is productive
4. What is productivity?
Productivity & generality: the more general a
word-formation process is, the more
productive it will be assumed to be.
1. Productivity is a matter of degree
2. Productivity is subject to the dimension of
time
Productivity and the inherent ambiguity
5. Productivity, Time dimension &
Fashion
Singular
I take
Thou takest
He, she taketh
Plural
We take
Ou take
They take
6. Exercise
-id -ist -er
morbid anarchist worker
tepid communist painter
timid pianist swimmer
splendid violinist dancer
horrid racist jogger
Buddhist vs.
*Muhammedist
Latin suffix
*unproductive/
frozen
Mid-way suffix
*Unexplainable
gaps
Germanic
productive
7. The suffix -itis
The suffix (–itis) is (Greek origin) is suffixed to
form the feminine of adjectives
It is used in modern medical English to form words
referring to inflammatory diseases, e.g. arthritis
the words suffixed with (-itis) are fewer than those
suffixed with (–er), however the former suffix (-itis)
attaches with an extremely high degree of
regularity to most suitable bases.
9. The suffix -ant
The suffix (–ant) (Latin origin) is suffixed to
turns a verbal base into an agentive nominal.
There is some restriction (historical) to the
bases to which the suffix –ant is attached.
10. The suffix -ant
The base is originally Latin, so it attaches to Latin
bases only. Germanic bases are not allowed.
dependent
participant
assistant
servant
consultant
*wri(e)tant
*buildant
*shoutant
11. The suffix -ant
Semantically, the –ant has unpredictable
effects, and the meaning of words created by
suffixing –ant is inconsistent
defendant vs. accountant
12. Productivity & Creativity
Productivity = creativity
The capacity of all human languages to use
finite means to produce an infinite number of
words & utterances
In the scope of morphology, creativity can
be seen in 2 ways:
1. Rule-governed creativity
2. Rule-bending creativity
13. Productivity & Creativity
1. Words are formed following general rules and
principles internalized by speakers in the
process of language acquisition (quick
quickly) or (post postwar)
2. however, speaker have the ability to extend the
stock of words idiomatically, producing words
without following the standard rules of word-
formation.
Stool pigeon / security reasons/ collateral
damage/ anti-terror law / deadline
14. Constrains on Productivity
Blocking (i)
Blocking may be due to the prior existence of
another word with the same meaning that the
new word would have , i.e. Perfect synonyms
are avoided.
Thief *stealer
15. Constrains on Productivity
Blocking (ii)
If there are two semantically similar
morphemes, one of which is more productive
than the other, the more productive morpheme
is less likely to blocking than its less productive
counterpart.
-ness & -ity
16. Examples
-ness & -ity
X + (-ous)
adjective
Pre-existing
Noun
Noun
(-ness)
More productive
Noun
(-ity)
Less productive
Glorious glory Gloriousness *Gloriosity
Furious Fury Furiousness *Furiosity
Couragous Courage Courageousness *Couragity
Spacious space spaciousness *spaciosity
17. blocking
The concept of blocking is due to a number of
factors; these factors may be (i) phonological,
(ii) morphological, (iii) semantic, or (iv)
aesthetic.
18. 1. Phonological factors
Verbs with the meaning ‘to begin x’ can be
usually formed from adjectives by suffixing
(-en) to an adjectival base provided which
meets the following phonetic conditions:
The base must be monosyllabic
The base must end in (stop/ fricative)
which may be optionally preceded by a
(nasal consonant/ or approximate)
20. Blocking -ly
Adverbs, in general, are can be usually formed
from adjectives by suffixing (-ly) to an adjectival
base:
The (-ly) suffix tends to be avoided where an
adjective ends in
(-ly)
22. 2. morphological factors
The morphological properties of a base may
prevent the application of morphological rules.
Often native morphemes behave differently from
foreign morphemes. Some affixes may only be
added either to native bases or bases of foreign
origin.
23. Velar softening
According to the rule of velar softening, the
/k/, is usually spelled as the letter (c) when
attached to words of Latin & French origin.
/k/ /s/
cynic cynicism
critic criticism
fanatic fanaticism
sceptic scepticism
25. Note
The distinction between native & borrowed
morphemes is very important. However, we
should be careful not to press this too far.
There are roots borrowed from French, yet they
can take the suffix –hood.
With the passage of time, foreign morphemes can
be fully assimilated and nativised so that they
behave in the same way as indigenous
morphemes.
E.g. parenthood – statehood - nationhood
26. 3. Semantic factors
Semantic considerations may be involved in
the application of word-formation processes.
For example, forming compounds from
adjectives plus past participle is not always
allowed.
28. 3. Semantic factors
If there are 2 adjectives with opposite
meanings, one of which has a more positive
meaning than the other, normally the negative
prefix (–un) attaches to the positive adjective
If (–un) is attached to the negative member of
the pair, the resulting word is usually ill-
formed.
30. 4. Aesthetic factors & the
adoption of words
Word-formation sometimes is inhibited by
vague aesthetic factors. In principle, there
are many words well-formed words whose
adoption has nevertheless been resisted.
e.g. stagflation (stagnation + inflation)
