Everyman's Journey: A Guide to the Medieval Sourcebook

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CreditsMedieval Sourcebook:
Everyman, 15th Century
Everyman is late-15th-century English morality play. Called by
Death,
Everyman can persuade none of his friends - Beauty,
Kindred, Worldly Goods - to go with
him, except Good Deeds.
Characters
Everyman-------------------------Strength
God: Adonai----------------------Discretion

Death-----------------------------Five-Wits
Messenger------------------------Beauty
Fellowship------------------------Knowledge
Cousin----------------------------Confession
Kindred---------------------------Angel
Goods-----------------------------Doctor
Good-Deeds
HERE BEGINETH A TREATISE HOW THE HIGH FATHER
OH HEAVEN SENDETH DEATH TO SUMMON EVERY
CREATURE TO COME AND GIVE ACCOUNT OF
THEIR LIVES IN THIS WORLD AND IS IN MANNER OF A
MORAL
PLAY.
Messenger: I pray you all give your audience,
And here this matter with reverence,
By figure a moral play-
The Summoning of Everyman called it is,
That of our lives and ending shows
How transitory we be all day.
This matter is wonderous precious,
But the intent of it is more gracious,
And sweet to bear away.
The story saith,-Man, in the beginning,
Look well, and take good heed to the ending,
Be you never so gay!
Ye think sin in the beginning full sweet,
Which in the end causeth thy soul to weep,
When the body lieth in clay.

Here shall you see how Fellowship and Jollity,
Both Strength, Pleasure, and Beauty,
Will fade from thee as flower in May.
For ye shall here, how our heavenly king
Calleth Everyman to a general reckoning:
Give audience, and here what he doth say.
God: I perceive
here in my majesty,
How that all the creatures be to me unkind,
Living without dread in worldly prosperity:
Of ghostly sight the people be so blind,
Drowned in sin, they know me not for their God;
In worldly riches is all their mind,
They fear not my rightwiseness, the sharp rod;
My law that I shewed, when I for them died,
They forget clean, and shedding of my blood red;
I hanged between two, it cannot be denied;
To get them life I suffered to be dead;
I healed their feet; with thorns hurt was my head:
I could do no more than I did truly,
And now I see the people do clean forsake me.
They use the seven deadly sins damnable;
As pride, covetise, wrath, and lechery,
Now in the world be made commendable;
And thus they leave of angels the heavenly company;
Everyman liveth so after his own pleasure,
And yet of their life they be nothing sure:
I see the more that I them forbear
The worse they be from year to year;
All that liveth appaireth* fast, *is impaired
Therefore I will in all the haste
Have a reckoning of Everyman’s person
For and I leave the people thus alone
In their life and wicked tempests,
Verily they will become much worse than beasts;
For now one would by envy another up eat;

Charity they all do clean forget.
I hope well that Everyman
In my glory should make his mansion,
And thereto I had them all elect;
But now I see, like traitors deject,
They thank me not for the pleasure that I to them meant,
Nor yet for their being that I them have lent;
I proffered the people great multitude of mercy,
And few there be that asketh it heartily;
They be so cumbered with worldly riches,
That needs on them I must do justice,
On Everyman living without fear.
Where art thou, Death, thou mighty messenger?
Death: Almighty God, I am here at
your will,
Your commandment to fulfil.
God: Go thou
to Everyman,
And show him in my name
A pilgrimage he must on him take,
Which he in no wise may escape;
And that he bring with him a sure reckoning
Without delay or any tarrying.
Death: Lord, I will in the world go
run over all,
And cruelly outsearch both great and small;
Every man will I beset that liveth beastly
Out of God’s laws, and dreadeth not folly;
He that loveth riches I will strike with my dart,
His sight to blind, and from heaven to depart,
Except that alms be his good friend,
In hell for to dwell, world without end.
Lo, yonder I see Everyman walking;
Full little he thinketh on my coming;
His mind is on fleshly lust and his treasure,
And great pain it shall cause him to endure

Before the Lord Heaven King.
Everyman, stand still; whither art thou going
Thus gaily? Hast thou thy Maker forget?
Everyman: Why askst thou?
Wouldest thou wete*? *know
Death: Yea, sir, I will show you;
In great haste I am sent to thee
From God out of his great majesty.
Everyman: What, sent to me?
Death: Yea, certainly.
Though thou have forget him here,
He thinketh on thee in the heavenly sphere,
As, or we depart, thou shalt know.
Everyman: What desireth God of me?
Death: That shall I show thee;
A reckoning he will needs have
Without any longer respite.
Everyman: To give a reckoning longer leisure I crave;
This blind matter troubleth my wit.
Death: On thee thou must take a
long journey:
Therefore thy book of count with thee thou bring;
For turn again thou can not by no way,
And look thou be sure of thy reckoning:
For before God thou shalt answer, and show
Thy many bad deeds and good but few;
How thou hast spent thy life, and in what wise,
Before the chief lord of paradise.
Have ado that we were in that way,
For, wete thou well, thou shalt make none attournay*. *mediator
Everyman: Full unready I am such reckoning to give
I know thee not: what messenger art thou?
Death: I am Death, that
no man dreadeth.
For every man I rest and no man spareth;
For it is God’s commandment

That all to me should be obedient.
Everyman: O Death, thou comest when I had thee least in mind;
In thy power it lieth me to save,
Yet of my good will I give thee, if ye will be kind,
Yea, a thousand pound shalt thou have,
And defer this matter till another day.
Death: Everyman, it may not be
by no way;
I set not by gold, silver nor, riches,
Ne by pope, emperor, king, duke, ne princes.
For and I would receive gifts great,
All the world I might get;
But my custom is clean contrary.
I give thee no respite: come hence, and not tarry.
Everyman: Alas, shall I have no longer respite?
I may say Death giveth no warning:
To think on thee, it maketh my heart sick,
For all unready is my book of reckoning.
But twelve year and I might have abiding,
My counting book I would make so clear,
That my reckoning I should not need to fear.
Wherefore, Death, I pray thee, for God’s mercy,
Spare me till I provided of remedy.
Death: Thee availeth not to cry,
weep, and pray:
But haste thee lightly that you were gone the journey,
And prove thy friends if thou can.
For, wete thou well, the tide abideth no man,
And in the world each living creature
For Adam’s sin must die of nature.
Everyman: Death, if I should this pilgrimage take,
And my reckoning surely make,
Show me, for saint charity,
Should I not come again shortly?
Death: No, Everyman; and thou
be once there,

Thou mayst never more come here,
Trust me verily.
Everyman: O gracious God, in the high seat celestial,
Have mercy on me in this most need;
Shall I have no company from this vale terrestrial
Of mine acquaintance that way to me lead?
Death: Yea, if any be so hardy
That would go with thee and bear thee company.
Hie thee that you were gone to God’s magnificence,
Thy reckoning to give before his presence.
What, weenest thou thy life is given thee,
And thy worldly goods also?
Everyman: I had went so verily.
Death: Nay, nay; it was but lent
thee;
For as soon as thou art go,
Another awhile shall have it, and then go therefor
Even as thou hast done.
Everyman, thou art mad; thou hast thou wits five,
And here on earth will not amend thy life,
For suddenly I do come.
Everyman: O wretched caitiff, whither shall I flee,
That I might scape this endless sorrow!
Now, gentle Death, spare me till to-morrow,
That I may amend me
With good advisement.
Death: Nay, thereto I will not
consent,
Nor no man will I respite,
But to the heart suddenly I shall smite
Without any advisement.
And now out of thy sight I will me hie;
See thou make thee ready shortly,
For thou mayst say this is the day
That no man living may escape away.
Everyman; Alas, I may well weep with sighs deep;

Now have I no manner of company
To help me in my journey, and me to keep;
And also my writing is full unready.
How shall I do now for to excuse me?
I would to God I had never be gete*! *been born
To my soul a great profit it had be;
For now I fear pains huge and great.
The time passeth; Lord, help that all wrought;
For though I mourn it availeth nought.
The day passeth, and is almost a-go;
I wot not well what for to do.
To whom were I best my complaint do make?
What, and I to Fellowship thereof spake,
And show him of this sudden chance?
For in him is all my affiance;
We have in the world so many a day
Be on good friends in sport and play.
I see him yonder, certainly;
I trust that he will bear me company;
Therefore to him will I speak to ease my sorrow.
Well met, good Fellowship, and good morrow!
Fellowship: Everyman, good morrow by this day.
Sir, why lookest thou so piteously?
If anything be amiss, I pray thee, me say,
That I may help to remedy.
Everyman: Yea, good Fellowship, yea,
I am in great jeopardy.
Fellowship: My true friend, show me your mind;
I will not forsake thee, unto my life’s end,
In the way of good company.
Everyman: That was well spoken, and lovingly.
Fellowship: Sir, I must needs know your heaviness;
I have pity to see you in any distress;
If any have you wronged ye shall revenged be,
Though I on the ground be slain for thee,-
Though that I know before that I should die.

Everyman: Verily, Fellowship, gramercy.
Fellowship: Tush! by thy thanks I set not a straw.
Show me your grief, and say no more.
Everyman: If I my heart should to you break,
And then you to turn your mind from me,
And would not me comfort, when you here me speak,
Then should I ten times sorrier be.
Fellowship: Sir, I say as I will do in deed.
Everyman: Then be you a good friend at need;
I have found you true here before.
Fellowship: And so ye shall evermore;
For, in faith, and thou go to Hell
I will not forsake thee by the way!
Everyman: Ye speak like a good friend; I believe you well;
I shall deserve it, and I may.
Fellowship: I speak of no deserving, by this day.
For he that will say and nothing do
Is not worthy with good company to go;
Therefore show me the grief of your mind,
As to your friend most loving and kind.
Everyman: I shall show you how it is;
Commanded I am to go on a journey,
A long way, hard and dangerous,
And give a strait count without delay
Before the high judge Adonai*. *God
Wherefore I pray you bear me company,
As ye have promised, in this journey.
Fellowship: That is a matter indeed! Promise is duty,
But, and I should take such a voyage on me,
I know it well, it should be to my pain:
Also it make me afeard, certain.
But let us take counsel here as well we can,
For your words would fear a strong man.
Everyman Why, ye said, If I had need,
Ye would me never forsake, quick nor dead,
Though it were to hell truly.

Fellowship: So I said, certainly,
But such pleasures be set aside, thee sooth to say:
And also, if we took such a journey,
When should we come again?
Everyman: Nay, never again till the day of doom.
Fellowship: In faith, then will not I come there!
Who hath you these tidings brought?
Everyman: Indeed, Death was with me here
Fellowship: Now, by God that all hath brought,
If Death were the messenger,
For no man that is living to-day
I will not go that loath journey-
Not for the father that begat me!
Everyman: Ye promised other wise, pardie.
Fellowship: I wot well I say so truly;
And yet if thou wilt eat, and drink, and make good cheer,
Or haunt to women, the lusty companion,
I would not forsake you, while the day is clear,
Trust me verily!
Everyman: Yea, thereto ye would be ready;
To go to mirth, solace, and play,
Your mind will sooner apply
Than to bear me company in my long journey.
Fellowship: Now, in good faith, I will not that way.
But and thou wilt murder, or any man kill,
In that I will help thee with a good will!
Everyman: O that is a simple advice indeed!
Gentle fellow, help me in my necessity;
We have loved long, and now I need,
And now, gentle Fellowship, remember me.
Fellowship: Whether ye have loved me or no,
By Saint John, I will not with thee go.
Everyman: Yet I pray thee, take the labour, and do so much for
me
To bring me forward, for saint charity,
And comfort me till I come without the town.

Fellowship: Nay, and thou would give me a new gown,
I will not a foot with thee go;
But and you had tarried I would not have left thee so.
And as now, God speed thee in thy journey,
For from thee I will depart as fast as I may.
Everyman: Whither away, Fellowship? Will you forsake me?
Fellowship: Yea, by my fay, to God I betake thee.
Everyman: Farewell, good Fellowship; for this my heart is sore;
Adieu for ever, I shall see thee no more.
Fellowship: In faith, Everyman, farewell now at the end;
For you I will remember that parting is mourning.
Everyman: Alack! Shall we thus depart indeed?
Our Lady, help, without any more comfort,
Lo, Fellowship forsaketh me in my most need:
For help in this world whither shall I resort?
Fellowship herebefore with me would merry make;
And now little sorrow for me doth he take.
It is said, in prosperity men friends may find,
Which in adversity be fully unkind.
Now whither for succour shall I flee,
Sith that Fellowship hath forsaken me?
To my kinsmen I will truly,
Praying them to help me in my necessity;
I believe that they will do so,
For kind will creep where it may not go.
I will go say, for yonder I see them go.
Where be ye now, my friends and kinsmen?
Kindred: Here be we now at your commandment.
Cousin, I pray you show us your intent
In any wise, and not spare.
Cousin: Yea, Everyman, and to us declare
If ye be disposed to go any whither,
For wete you well, we will live and die together.
Kindred: In wealth and woe we will with you hold,
For over his kin a man may be bold.
Everyman: Gramercy, my friends and kinsmen kind.

Now shall I show you the grief of my mind:
I was commanded by a messenger,
That is a high king’s chief officer;
He bade me go on a pilgrimage to my pain,
And I know well I shall never come again;
Also I must give a reckoning straight,
For I have a great enemy, that hath me in wait,
Which intendeth me for to hinder.
Kindred: What account is that which ye must render?
That would I know.
Everyman: Of all my works I must show
How I have lived and my days spent;
Also of ill deeds, that I have used
In my time, sith life was me lent;
And of all virtues that I have refused.
Therefore I pray you thither with me,
To help to make account, for saint charity.
Cousin: What, to go thither? Is that
the matter?
Nay, Everyman, I had liefer fast bread and water
All this five year and more.
Everyman: Alas, that ever I was bore!
For now shall I never be merry
If that you forsake me.
Kindred: Ah, sir; what, ye be a merry man!
Take good heart to you, and make no moan.
But as one thing I warn you, by Saint Anne,
As for me, ye shall go alone.
Everyman: My Cousin, will you not with me go.
Cousin: No by our Lady; I have the
cramp in my toe.
Trust not to me, for, so God me speed,
I will deceive you in your most need.
Kindred: It availeth not us to tice.
Ye shall have my maid with all my heart;
She loveth to go to feasts, there to be nice,

And to dance, and abroad to start:
I will give her leave to help you in that journey,
If that you and she may agree.
Everyman: Now show me the very effect of your mind.
Will you go with me, or abide behind?
Kindred: Abide behind? Yea, that I will and I may!
Therefore farewell until another day.
Everyman: How should I be mary or glad?
For fair promises to me make,
But when I have most need, they me forsake.
I am deceived; that maketh me sad
Cousin: Cousin Everyman, farewell now,
For varily I will not go with you;
Also of mine an unready reckoning
I have to account; therefore I make tarrying.
Now, God keep thee, for now I go.
Everyman: Ah, Jesus, is all come hereto?
Lo, fair words maketh fools feign;
They promise and nothing will do certain.
My kinsmen promised me faithfully
For to abide with me steadfastly,
And now fast away do they flee:
Even so Fellowship promised me.
What friend were best me of to provide?
I lose my time here longer to abide.
Yet in my mind a thing there is;-
All my life I have loved riches;
If that my good now help me might,
He would make my heart full light.
I will speak to him in this distress.-
Where art thou, my Goods and riches?
Goods: Who calleth me? Everyman?
What hast thou hast!
I lie here in corners, trussed and piled so high,
And in chest I am locked so fast,
Also sacked in bags, thou mayst see with thine eye,

I cannot stir; in packs low I lie.
What would ye have, lightly me say.
Everyman: Come hither, Goods, in all the hast thou may,
For of counsel I must desire thee.
Goods: Sir, and ye in the world have
trouble or adversity,
That can I help you to remedy shortly.
Everyman: It is another disease that grieveth me;
In this world it is not, I tell thee so.
I am sent for another way to go,
To give a straight account general
Before the highest Jupiter of all;
And all my life I have had joy and pleasure in thee.
Therefore I pray thee go with me,
For, peradventure, thou mayst before God Almighty
My reckoning help to clean and purify;
For it is said ever among,
That money maketh all right that is wrong.
Goods: Nay, Everyman, I sing
another song,
I follow no man in such voyages;
For and I went with thee
Thou shouldst fare much the worse for me;
For because on me thou did set thy hand,
Thy reckoning I have made blotted and blind,
That thine account thou cannot make truly;
And that hast thou for the love of me.
Everyman: That would grieve me full sore,
When I should come to that fearful answer.
Up, let us go thither together.
Goods: Nay, not so, I am, to brittle,
I may not endure;
I will follow no man one foot, be ye sure.
Everyman: Alas, I have thee loved, and had great pleasure
All my life-days on good and treasure.

Goods: That is to thy damnation
without lesing,
For my love is contrary to the love everlasting.
But if thou had loved moderately during,
As, to the poor give part of me,
Then shouldst thou not in this dolour be,
Nor in this great sorrow care.
Everyman: Lo, now was I deceived or was I ware,
And all may wyte* my spending time. *blame
Goods: What, weenest thou that I am
thine?
Everyman: I had wend so.
Goods: Nay, Everyman, say
no;
As for a while I was lent thee,
A season thou hast had me in prosperity;
My condition is man’s soul to kill;
If I save one, a thousand I do spill;
Weenest thou that I will follow thee?
Nay, from this world, not verrily.
Everyman: I had wend otherwise.
Goods: Therefore to thy soul Good is a thief;
For when thou art dead, this is my guise
Another to deceive in the same wise
As I have done thee, and all to his soul’s reprief.
Everyman: O false Good, cursed thou be!
Thou traitor to God, that hast deceived me,
And caught me in thy snare.
Goods: Marry, thou brought
thyself in care,
Whereof I am glad,
I must needs laugh, I cannot be sad.
Everyman: Ah, Good, thou hast had long my heartly love;
I gave thee that which should be the Lord’s above.
But wilt thou not go with me in deed?
I pray thee truth to say.

Goods: No, so God me speed,
Therefore farewell, and have good day.
Everyman: O, to whom shall I make my moan
For to go with me in that heavy journey?
First Fellowship said he would go with me gone;
His words were very pleasant and gay,
But afterward he left me alone.
Then spake I to my kinsmen all in despair,
And also they gave me words fair,
They lacked no fair speaking,
But all forsake me in the ending.
Then went I to my Goods that I loved best,
In hope to have comfort, but there had I least;
For my Goods sharply did me tell
That he bringeth many to hell.
Then of myself I was ashamed,
And so I am worthy to be blamed;
Thus may I well myself hate.
Of whom shall now counsel take?
I think that I shall never speed
Till that I go to my Good-Deed,
But alas, she is so weak,
That she can neither go nor speak;
Yet I will venture on her now.-
My Good-Deeds, where be you?
Good-Deeds: Here I lie cold in the ground;
Thy sins hath me sore bound,
That I cannot stir.
Everyman: O, Good-Deeds, I stand in fear;
I must you pray counsel,
For help now should come right well.
Good-Deeds: Everyman, I have understanding
That ye be summoned account to make
Before Messias, of Jerusalem King;
And if you do by me that journey what you will I take.
Everyman: Therefore I come to you, my moan to make;

I pray you, that ye will go with me.
Good-Deeds: I would full fain, but I cannot stand verily.
Everyman: Why, is there anything on you fall?
Good-Deeds: Yea, sir, I may thank you of all;
If ye had perfectly cheered me,
Your book of account now full ready had be.
Look, the books of your works and deeds eke;
Oh, see how they lie under the feet,
To your soul’s heaviness.
Everyman: Our Lord Jesus, help me!
For one letter here I can not see.
Good-Deeds: There is a blind reckoning in time of distress!
Everyman: Good-Deeds, I pray you, help me in this need,
Or else I am forever damned indeed;
Therefore help me to make reckoning
Before the redeemer of all thing,
That king is, and was, and ever shall.
Good-Deeds: Everyman, I am sorry for your fall,
And fain would I help you, and I were able.
Everyman: Good-Deeds, you counsel I pray you give me.
Good-Deeds: That shall I do verily;
Though that on my feet I may not go,
I have a sister, that shall with you also,
Called Knowledge, which shall you abide,
To help you make that dreadful reckoning.
Knowledge: Everyman, I will go with thee, and be thy guide,
In thy most need to go by thy side.
Everyman: In good condition I am now in every thing,
And am wholly content with this good thing;
Thanked be God my creator.
Good-Deeds: And when he hath brought thee there,
Where thou shalt heal thee of thy smart,
Then go with your reckoning and your Good-Deeds together
For to make you joyful at heart
Before the blessed Trinity.
Everyman: My Good-Deeds, gramercy;

I am well content, certainly,
With your words sweet.
Knowledge: Now we go together lovingly,
To Confession, that cleansing river.
Everyman: For joy I weep; I would we were there;
But, I pray you, give me cognition
Where dwelleth that holy man, Confession.
Knowledge: in the house of salvation:
We shall find him in that place,
That shall us comfort by God’s grace.
Lo, this is Confession; kneel down and ask mercy,
For he is in good conceit with God almighty.
Everyman: O glorious fountain that all uncleanness doth clarify,
That on me no sin may be seen;
I come with Knowledge for my redemption,
Repent with hearty and full contrition;
For I am commanded a pilgrimage to take,
And great accounts before God to make.
Now, I pray you, Shrift, mother of salvation,
Help my good deeds for my piteous exclamation.
Confession: I know your sorrow well, Everyman;
Because with Knowledge ye come to me,
I will you comfort as well as I can,
And a precious jewel I will give thee,
Called penance, wise voider of adversity;
Therewith shall your body chastised be,
With abstinence and perseverance in God’s service:
Here shall you receive that scourge of me,
Which is penance strong, that ye must endure,
To remember thy Saviour was scourged for thee
With sharp scourges, and suffered it patiently;
So must thou, or thou scape that that painful pilgrimage;
Knowledge, keep him in this voyage,
And by that time Good-Deeds will be with thee.
But in any wise, be sure of mercy,
For your time draweth fast, and ye will saved be;

Ask God mercy, and He will grant truly,
When with the scourge of penance man doth him bind,
The oil of forgiveness then shall he find.
Everyman: Thanked be God for his gracious work!
For now I will my penance begin;
This hath rejoiced and lighted my heart,
Though the knots be painful and within.
Knowledge: Everyman, look your penance that ye fulfil,
What pain that ever it to you be,
And Knowledge shall give you counsel at will,
How your accounts you shall make clearly,
Everyman: O eternal God, O heavenly figure,
O way of rightwiseness, O goodly vision,
Which descended down in a virgin pure
Because he would Everyman redeem,
Which Adam forfeited by his disobedience:
O blessed Godhead, elect and high-divine,
Forgive my grievous offence;
Here I cry thee mercy in this presence.
O ghostly treasure, O ransomer and redeemer
Of all the world, hope and conductor,
Mirror of joy, and founder of mercy,
Which illumineth heaven and earth thereby,
Hear my clamorous complain, though it late be;
Receive my prayers; unworthy in this heavy life,
Though I be, a sinner most abominable,
Yet let my name be written in Moses’ table;
O Mary, pray to the Maker of all thing,
Me for to help at my ending,
And same me from the power of my enemy,
For Death assaileth me strongly,
And, Lady, that I may by means of they prayer
Of your Son’s glory to be partaker,
By the means of h is passion I it crave,
I beseech you, help my soul to save.
Knowledge, give me the scourge of penance;

My flesh therewith shall give a quittance;
I will now begin, if God give me grace.
Knowledge: Everyman, God give you time and space:
Thus I bequeath you in the hands of our Savior,
Thus may you make your reckoning sure.
Everyman: In the name of the Holy Trinity,
My body sore punished shall be:
Take this body for the sin of the flesh;
Also though delightest to go gay and fresh;
And in the way of damnation thou did me brine;
Therefore suffer now strokes and punishing.
Now of penance I will wade the water clear,
To save me from purgatory, that sharp fire.
Good-Deeds: I thank God, now I can walk and go;
And am delivered of my sickness and woe.
Therefore with Everyman I will go, and not spare;
His good works I will help him to declare.
Knowledge: Now, Everyman, be merry and glad;
Your Good-Deeds cometh now;
Now is your Good-Deeds whole and sound,
Going upright upon the ground.
Everyman: My heart is light, and shall be evermore;
Now will I smite faster than I did before.
Good-Deeds: Everyman, pilgrim, my special friend,
Blessed by thou without end;
For thee is prepared the eternal glory,
Ye gave me made whole and sound,
Therefore I will bid by thee in every stound*. *season
Everyman: Welcome, my Good-Deeds; now I hear thy voice,
I weep for very sweetness of love.
Knowledge: Be no more sad, but ever rejoice,
God seeth they living in this throne above;
Put on his garment to thy behove,
Which is wet with your tears,
Or else before god you may it miss,
When you to your journey’s end come shall.

Everyman: Gentle Knowledge, what do you it call?
Knowledge: It is a garment of sorrow:
From pain it will you borrow;
Contrition it is,
That getteth forgiveness;
It pleaseth God passing well.
Good-Deeds: Everyman, will you wear it for your heal?
Everyman: Now blessed by Jesu. Mary’s Son!
From now have I on true contrition.
And let us go now without tarrying;
Good-Deeds, have we clear our reckoning?
Good-Deeds: Yea, indeed I have it here.
Everyman: Then I trust we need not fear;
Now friends, let us not part in twain.
Knowledge: Nay, Everyman, that will we not, certain.
Good-Deeds: Yet must thou lead with thee
Three persons of great might.
Everyman: Who should they be?
Good-Deeds: Discretion and Strength, they hight,
And thy Beauty may not abide behind.
Knowledge: Also ye must call to mind.
Your Five-wits as for your counsellors.
Good-Deeds: You must have them ready at all hours
Everyman: How shall I get them hinder?
Knowledge: You must call them all together,
And they will hear you incontient.
Everyman: My friends, come hither and be present
Discretion, Strength, my Five-wits and Beauty.
Beauty: Here at you will we be all
ready.
What will ye that we should do?
Good-Deeds: That ye would with Everyman go,
And help him in his pilgrimage,
Advise you, will ye with him or not in that voyage?
Strength: We will bring him all thither,
To his help and comfort, ye may believe me.

Discretion: So will we go with him all together.
Everyman: Almighty God, loved thou be,
I give thee laud that I have hither brought
Strength, Discretion, Beauty, and Five-wits; lack I
nought;
And my Good-Deeds, with Knowledge clear,
I desire no more to my business.
Strength: And I, Strength, will by you stand in
distress,
Though thou would be battle fight on the ground,.
Five-Wits: And though it were through the world round,
We will not depart for sweet nor sour.
Beauty: No more will I unto
death’s hour,
Whatsoever thereof befall.
Discretion: Everyman, advise you first of all;
Go with a good advisement and deliberation;
We all give you virtuous monitiion
That all shall be well.
Everyman: My friends, harken what I will tell:
I pray God reward you in his heavenly sphere.
Now harken, all that be here,
For I will make my testament
Here before you all present.
In alms half good I will give with my hands twain
In the way of charity with good intent,
And the other half still shall remain
In quiet to be returned there it ought to be.
This I do in despite of the fiend of hell
To go quite out if his peril.
Even after and this day.
Knowledge: Everyman, hearken what I say;
Go to priesthood, I you advise,
And receive of him in any wise
The holy sacrament and ointment together;
Then shortly see ye turn again hither;

We will all abide you here.
Five-Wits: Yea, Everyman, hie you that ye ready
were,
There is no emperor, king, duke, ne baron,
That of God hath commission,
As hath the least priest in the world being;
He beareth the keys and thereof hath the cure
For man’s redemption, it is ever sure;
Which God for our soul’s medicine
Gave us out of his heart with great pine;
Here in this transitory life, for thee and me
The blessed sacraments seven there be,
Baptism, confirmation, with priesthood good,
And the sacrament of God’s precious flesh and blood,
Marriage, the holy extreme unction, and penance;
Gracious sacraments of high divinity.
Everyman: Fain would I receive that holy body
And meek to my ghostly father I will go.
Five-wits: Everyman, that is the best that ye can do:
God will you to salvation bring,
For priesthood exceedeth all other things;
To us Holy Scripture they do teach.
And converteth man from sin heaven to reach;
God hath to them more power given,
Than to any angel that is in heaven;
With five words he may consecrate
God’s body in flesh and blood to male,
And handleth his maker between his hands;
The priest bindeth and unbindeth all bands,
Both in earth and in heaven;
Thou ministers all the sacraments seven;
Though we kissed thy feet thou were worthy;
Thou art surgeon that cureth sin deadly;
No remedy we find under God
But all only priesthood.
Everyman, God gave priests that dignity,

And setteth them in his stead amount us to be;
Thus be they above angels in degree
Knowledge: If priests be good it is so surely;
But when Jesus hanged on the cross with great smart
There he gave, out of his blessed heart,
The same sacrament in great torment:
He sold them not to us, that Lord Omnipotent.
Therefore Saint Peter the apostle doth say
That Jesu’s curse hath all they
Which God their Savior do buy or sell,
Or they for any money do take or tell.
Sinful priests giveth the sinners example bad;
Their children sitteth by other men’s fires, I have heard;
And some haunteth women’s company,
With unclean life, as lusts of lechery:
These be with sin made blind.
Five-wits: I trust to God no such may we find;
Therefore let us priesthood honour,
And follow their doctrine for our souls’ succour;
We be their sheep, and they shepherds be
By whom we all be kept in surety.
Peace, for yonder I see Everyman come,
Which hath made true satisfaction.
Good-Deeds: Methinketh it is he indeed.
Everyman: Now Jesu be our alder speed*. * speed in help of all
I have received the sacrament for my redemption,
And then mine extreme unction:
Blessed be all they that counsell me to take it!
And now, friends, let us go without longer respite;
I thank God that ye have tarried so long.
Now set each of you on this rod your hand,
And shortly follow me:
I go before, there I would be; God be our guide.
Strength: Everyman, we will not from you go,
Till ye have done this voyage long.
Discretion: I, Discretion, will bide by you also.

Knowledge: And though this pilgrimage be never so strong,
I will never part you fro:
Everyman, I will be as sure by the
As ever I did by Judas Maccabee.
Everyman: Alas, I am so faint I may not stand,
My limbs under me do fold;
Friends, let us not turn again to this land,
Not for all the world’s gold,
For into this cave must I creep
And turn to the earth and there to sleep.
Beauty: What into this grave? Alas!
Everyman: Yea, there shall you consume more and less.
Beauty: And what, should I smother
here?
Everyman: Yea, by my faith, and never more appear.
In this world live no more we shall,
But in heaven before the highest Lord of all.
Beauty: I cross out all this; adieu by
Saint John;
I take my cap in my lap and am gone.
Everyman: What, Beauty, whither will ye?
Beauty: Peace, I am deaf; I look not
behind me,
Not and thou would give me all the gold in thy chest.
Everyman: Alas, whereto may I trust?
Beauty goeth fast away hie;
She promised with me to live and die.
Strength: Everyman, I will thee also forsake and deny;
Thy game liketh me not at all.
Everyman: Why, then ye will forsake me all.
Sweet Strength, tarry a little space.
Strength: Nay, sir, by thy rood of grace
I will hie me from thee fast,
Though thou weep till thy heart brast.
Everyman: Ye would ever bide by me, ye said.
Strength: Yea, I have you far enough conveyed;

Ye be old enough, I understand,
Your pilgrimage to take on hand;
I repent me that I hither came.
Everyman: Strength, you to displease I am to blame;
Will you break promise that is debt?
Strength: In faith, I care not;
Thou art but a fool to complain,
You spend your speech and waste your brain;
Go thrust thee into the ground.
Everyman: I had went surer I should you have found.
He that trustest in his Strength
She him deceiveth at the length.
Both Strength and Beauty forsaketh me,
Yet they promise me fair and lovingly.
Discretion: Everyman, I will after Strength be
gone,
As for me I will leave you alone.
Everyman: Why, Discretion, will ye forsake me?
Discretion: Yea, in faith, I will go from thee,
For when Strength goeth before
I follow after evermore.
Everyman: Yet, I pray thee, for the love of the Trinity,
Look in my grave once piteously.
Discretion: Nay, so nigh will I not come.
Farewell, every one!
Everyman: O all thing faileth, save God alone;
Beauty, Strength, and Discretion;
For when Death bloweth his blast,
They all run from me full fast.
Five-wits: Everyman, my leave now of thee I take;
I will follow the other, for here I thee forsake.
Everyman: O Jesu, help, all hath forsaken me!
Good-Deeds: Nay, Everyman, I will bide with thee,
I will not forsake thee indeed;
Thou shalt find me a good friend at need.
Everyman: Gramercy, Good-Deeds; now may I true friends see;

They have forsaken me every one;
I loved them better than my Good-Deeds alone.
Knowledge, will ye forsake me also?
Knowledge: Yea, Everyman, when ye to death do go;
But not yet for no manner of danger.
Everyman: Gramercy, Knowledge, with all me heart.
Knowledge: Nay, yet I will not depart from hence depart,
Till I see where ye shall be come.
Everyman: Methinketh, alas, that I must be gone,
To make my reckoning and my debts pay,
For I see my time is nigh spent away.
Take example, all ye that do hear or see,
How they that I loved best do forsake me,
Except my Good-Deeds that bideth truly.
Good-Deeds: All earthly things is but vanity:
Beauty, Strength, and Discretion, do man forsake,
Foolish friends and kinsmen, that fair spake,
All fleeth save Good-Deeds, and that am I.
Everyman: Have mercy on me, God, most mighty;
And stand by me, thou Mother and Maid, holy Mary.
Good-Deeds: Fear not, I will speak for thee.
Everyman: Here I cry God mercy.
Good-Deeds: Short our end, and minish our pain;
Let us go and never come again.
Everyman: Into thy hands, Lord, my soul I commend;
Receive it, Lord, that it be not lost;
As thou me boughtest, so me defend,
And save me from the fiend’s boast,
That I may appear with that blessed host
That shall be saved at the day of doom.
In manus tuas- of might’s most
For ever- commendo spiritum meum.
Knowledge: Now hath he suffered that we all shall endure;
The Good-Deeds shall make all sure.
Now hath he made ending;
Methinketh that I hear angels sing

And make great joy and melody,
Where Everyman’s soul received shall be.
Angel: Come, excellent elect
spouse to Jesu:
Hereabove thou shalt go
Because of thy singular virtue:
Now the soul is taken the body fro;
Thy reckoning is crystal-clear.
Now shalt thou into the heavenly sphere,
Unto the which all ye shall come
That liveth well before the day of doom.
Doctor: This moral men may have in
mind;
Ye hearers, take it of worth, old and young,
And forsake pride, for he deceiveth you in the end,
And remember Beauty, Five-wits, Strength, and Discretion,
They all at last do Everyman forsake,
Save his Good-Deeds, there doth he take.
But beware, and they be small
Before God, he hath no help at all.
None excuse may be there for Everyman:
Alas, how shall he do then?
For after death amends may no man make,
For then mercy and pity do him forsake.
If his reckoning be not clear when he do come,
God will say- ite maledicti in ignem aeternum.
And he that hath his account whole and sound,
High in heaven he shall be crowned;
Unto which place God bring us all thither
That we may live body and soul together.
Thereto help the Trinity,
Amen, say ye, for saint Charity.
THUS
ENDETH THIS MORALL PLAY OF EVERYMAN.
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MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA
1
MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA
24
Politics of the Middle East and North Africa
Name
Institution
1. We have identified numerous stereotypes about the Middle
East and North Africa through the readings and classroom
discussions. Identify and discuss three of these stereotypes.
Explain how these stereotypes may hamper our ability to
understand human rights challenges in the region.
The word stereotype means a mistaken idea that people may
have about someone or something. There are numerous
stereotypes about the Middle East and North Africa that the
media have mostly generated over a long period. According to
Hobbs et al. (2010), the men and women from the Middle East
and Northern Africa are either stereotyped as villains or weak.
The image of Arab males is that of villains, terrorists, oil
sheiks, and kidnappers (Hobbs et al., 2010). This is usually due
to Western media's influence that has depicted the people from
these regions in a negative way. The movies always portray the
Arabs from these regions as the villains who are both brutal and
ruthless. In the Western world, children are raised know ing that
these regions' men are bad and should be avoided. The women
are seen as naïve, passive, and weak, with their faces always
covered by hijab (Hobbs et al., 2010). This misconception
shows that the Middle East and North Africa people are not
ordinary people with families.

The other stereotype is that all the people from the Middle East
and North Africa are Muslims. However, this is far from the
truth as the Middle East, North Africa, and the Islamic world is
not the same (Ridouani, 2011). Arabs inhabit the two regions,
and not all are Arabs are Muslims. The Islamic religion may
have started in the Middle East, but it spread to other parts of
the world. This shows that most Arabs are not Muslims, and
most Muslims are found outside the Middle East. The nation
with the largest Muslim population in the world is Indonesia.
The image of the whole of the Middle East and North Africa
being one big dessert where the majority of the people are
nomads is wrong. The two regions are urbanized, with very few
people living as nomads. Most of the Middle East population
lives in large cities like Damascus, Cairo, Istanbul, and Dubai.
The cities in North Africa and the Middle East are some of the
world's oldest towns, like Cairo and Damascus.
These stereotypes may hamper our ability to understand human
rights challenges in the region. Like all parts of the world, the
area experiences human rights challenges that need to be
addressed. However, stereotypes will always hamper equal
access to justice. The misconception about Islam and the region
is one of the most significant challenges in understanding
human rights challenges in the areas. The misconceptions about
Islam and how Muslims are violent are continuously being
linked to the region. This misconception shows that the part is
full of conflict, whereas most people in the area live in peace
and stability. Ascertaining the human rights issues in the region
is a problem due to the violent perception. The misconception
of the people, way of life, and the culture hamper the ability to
understand the people's challenges daily. However, an
understanding of the culture and the people from the region may
help solve some of the area's human rights challenges.
References
Renee Hobbs., Aghigh Ebrahimi., Nuala Cabral., Jiwon Yoon,
and Rawia Al-Humaidan. (2010). Combating Middle East
Stereotypes through Media Literacy Education in Elementary

School
Ridouani Driss. (2011). The Representation of Arabs and
Muslims in Western Media
2. In Resurrecting Empire, Rashid Khalidi argues that in the
post-9/11 climate, much of the discussion about MENA has
taken place in a "historical vacuum" and is based on
"denigrating stereotypes." Identify and discuss two cases from
MENA where this has been an issue.
One of the negative stereotyping of Arabs that emerged post-
9/11 was that Arabs are religious fanatics who do not value
human life. Stereotyping of Arabs had been around even before
9/11, with the most common description of Arabs being violent,
aggressive, hostile, and radical Muslims (Najm, 2019). For
decades, this stereotyping has been happening, with even
Hollywood movies portraying them as bad and evil terrorists.
This belittling stereotyping of Arabs was used to explain Iraq
and Afghanistan (Khalidi, 2005). During the invasion, various
references were made to the word terrorists where the Bush
administration suggested that Iraq would give weapons of mass
destruction to terrorist groups like Al-Qaida. This belittling
stereotyping meant that MENA supported terrorism and was in
league with the United States' attacks.
The negative stereotyping was one of the NEMA cases that led
to the invasion of both Iraq and Afghanistan. Due to this
portrayed image of Arabs, the Bush administration was able to
receive support to attack Iraq. A study by Pew research (2006)
was able to show how Westerners and Muslims view each other.
The study showed how the public viewed Arabs, with most of
them believing that they carried out the 9/11 attacks. The
increased negative stereotyping has negatively affected the
NEMA region with persistent attacks from the Western allies.
All these attacks have been blamed on the war on terror. In his
book, Khalidi (2005) further explained that the threat posed by
NEMA, specifically Iraq, could not substantiate a war.
The perception that Arabs and Muslims refer to the same people
has been an issue in the NEMA region. The NEMA region is the

birthplace of Islam. However, Indonesia holds the largest
population of Muslims in the world. This perception also arises
from the fact that Arabic is the primary language of the Islamic
religion. All the hostile acts of radical Muslims are therefore
linked to the NEMA region. This also includes the
misconceptions of the Islamic faith.
Tunisia was the first nation from the NEMA region to lead a
revolt against the government in 2010. This was in protest of
bad governance, including issues of corruption. Egypt and
Jordan followed suit as they received support from the Western
government. These cases were based on “denigrating
stereotypes.” The Western public believes that Muslims are held
back by poor governance, corruption, lack of education, and
Islamic fundamentalism. This can be both true and false,
especially in education. The level of education has been based
on the region where those in urban centers. The education also
varies from country to country, where some of the nations in the
region have well-set education policies that the citizens enjoy.
The attacks on Libya by NATO forces were made to implement
a United Nations Security Council resolution 1973. This was in
response to the Libyan civil war that had erupted in Libya
against Muammar Gaddafi's regime. There were casualties in
the war as the loss of more than 1,000 Libyan lives and an
economy that has never recovered.
ReferencesKhalidi, Rashid (2005). Resurrecting Empire.
Western footprints and America’s Perilous Path in the Middle
East.
Najm Najm (2019) Negative Stereotypes of Arabs-Published
2019. The Indian journal of social work 80(1):87–114Pew
Research. (2006). The Great Divide: How Westerners and
Muslims View Each Other. Europe's Muslims More Moderate
3. In the post-Cold War international system, the prospects for
democratization in areas ruled by authoritarian regimes became
a popular topic among scholars and policymakers alike. In your
view, what are at least two challenges to democratization in the
MENA region in this period?

After the Cold War, the United States celebrated together with
its allies as they saw the fall of the Soviet Union. Small nations
were forced into democratization as the process was tied to
grants that these countries would receive from the West. The
90s saw an overwhelming number of countries adopting
democratic policies, especially in Africa, where countries like
the Democratic Republic of Congo, Benin, and Kenya adopted
multi-party democracy. However, the Middle East and Northern
African (MENA) states failed to join the bandwagon as they
could not be tied to the West's conditional grants. There were
various challenges that limited the democratization of the
MENA region. The countries in the MENA region share a lot of
similarities like neo-patrimonial cultures and dictatorship.
According to Tar (2010), Islam's influence in some of the
MENA region nations is enormous. This is affecting the
democratization of the MENA region. Halbert (2012) suggested
that democracy and the Muslim religion are incompatible.
Halbert (2012) stated that “out of the 47 countries in the world
with an Islamic majority, only 23% of them have democratically
elected governments." Mali is considered the only free nation in
the Islamic world, yet it is not in the MENA region. The only
explanation for this is the conservative teachings of the Islamic
religion that lead to more conservative individual notions. There
are some Islamic traditions that lead to the people accepting
authoritarian rule. The Islamic religion can therefore be
considered as a barrier to democracy.
However, most of the MENA region is full of Arabs who are not
Muslims but still accept authoritarian rule. Tar (2010) explained
the influence of culture and traditions in the NEMA region. As
other nations followed their colonial masters after independence
adapting their culture and practices like democracy, most of the
NEMA region countries revolted and stuck to their traditions,
including language. The influence of culture and traditions is so
significant that a majority of the nations would instead stick
with authoritarian rule than become democratic. These people in
these nations are used to being influenced by tribalism. The

tribal lords, who are also the community leaders, have been the
spokesmen of the people and influence all the decisions the
people make. There are monarchy states like Bahrain and the
United Arab Emirates that have been around for centuries ruling
over the people. A shift from the monarchy system seems
impossible as it is entranced in their culture.
The 80s saw some of the nations in the region adopt a multi -
party system. Countries like Tunisia, Jordan, and Egypt were
the first countries from the area to try and democratize after the
Cold war. However, these efforts did not last as the countries
reverted to old practices (Tar, 2010). The past two decades saw
a shift from the influence of religion and culture as some of
these nations revolted. Tunisia was the first nation to revolt and
fought against oppression and corruption. Other countries like
Yemen, Egypt, and Jordan also followed suit as the citizens
fought for change, showing that they were no longer being
influenced by culture and religion.
References
Halbert Robyn. (2012). Prospects and Challenges for the
Development of Middle Eastern Democracy
Tar Usman. (2010). The challenges of democracy and
democratization in Africa and the Middle East. Information,
Society and Justice, Volume 3 No. 2, July 2010: pp 81-94 ISSN
1756-107
4. Reflect on the interplay between Islam and human rights. In
your view, can a case be made that Islam is compatible with the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights? Please explain both
sides of the argument before explaining where you stand on the
issue.
Scholars and theologians have over the decades debated if Islam
and human rights are compatible. A case can be made both for
and against Islam when it comes to human rights. There are
certain aspects that confirm Islam is consistent with the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A look at Islamic laws
shows that there is nothing in the laws that would prevent
human rights. A British Imam once declared that the

misinterpretation of Islamic laws had led skeptics to think that
Islam and human rights are not compatible. The depiction of the
Islamic woman by the Western media has also fueled the debate
on this compatibility. This depiction has created an image
globally about the Muslim woman.
Islamic law permits the woman to work outside her home, with
the only condition being that she holds herself to the highest
esteem. The woman is also required not to work in areas that are
against Islamic Law. The same laws apply to men who are not
supposed to work in places that violate Islamic law. Indonesia,
which has the highest population of Muslims in the world, has
set up organizations like the Indonesian organization Nahdlatul
Ulama (NU) that promote women's rights. This is done by
showing how Islamic law should be interpreted without
disobeying Islamic law's religious authority.
The case against Islam is based on the traditionalists’
interpretation of Islam laws. Dorraj (2011) pointed out that
factors that should be considered when looking at compatibility
include interpreting the Islamic laws, in what historical and
social context, and the purpose for the interpretation. These
questions are essential when trying to look at the compatibility.
The Middle East and North Africa regions have been shown as
the regions with the grossest violations of human rights. The
linking factor has been on Islamic culture and religion.
Women's rights have been highlighted as all the scenarios show
that the rights of the weaker gender are violated. Then there are
the advocates for incompatibility who state the shari’a laws are
the only legitimate laws (Dorraj, 2011).
I believe that Islam is not compatible with the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights. The shari'a laws are regarded as
the way of life for Muslims and act as ethical guides of conduct.
These laws cannot be amended, and most Muslim clerics have
gone as far as stating that these laws are not legal rules that can
be amended to suit some people. According to Dorraj (2011),
the United Arab Emirates did not vote on the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights ratification. The absentia was

based on articles 16 and 18 that established freedom of thought.
This shows that the gap between Islam and the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights will keep widening. The fight on
the interpretation of Islamic laws has been left betw een the
traditionalists and the modernists. They both have a different
understanding of the law. However, the traditionalists remain
dominant as they claim their interpretation of the various
Islamic laws is based on the Islamic religion.
Reference
Dorraj M. (2011) Islam and Human Rights: Ideas and Practices.
In: Monshipouri M. (eds) Human Rights in the Middle East.
Palgrave Macmillan, New York.
https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137001986_3
5. The authors reviewed in class differentiate between
"endogenous" and "exogenous" factors in explaining the Middle
East's human rights situation. Explain how each element sheds
light on the human rights condition in the region. In your view,
what is the most useful way to conceptualize the relative utility
of each in explicating the potential for change in the region?
Explaining the human rights situation is a complicated
procedure that has over the decades puzzled even scholars.
However, most scholars are in agreement with both the external
and internal factors that would explain the human rights
situation in the Middle East. Differentiating between the
endogenous and exogenous factors is the only way to describe
the human rights situation in the Middle East. Borhani (2018)
explained that most of the blame lies in the Middle East in the
treatment of human rights norms.
Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East. It is also one
of the endogenous factors that would explain the human rights
situation in the Middle East. Scholars, especially from the
western world, have linked the sharia laws to the Middle East's
human rights situation. The application of these Islamic laws,
which act as the way of life for Muslims, ethical guides of
conduct has been lined to cruel and inhuman punishments.
However, the subject of the interpretation of Islamic laws is a

debate between traditionalists and modernists.
The presence of oil in the Middle East is another endogenous
factor. Borhani (2018) stated that oil is the primary source of
wealth in the Middle East and can influence many things,
including those related to human rights. The region boasts of
having more than half of the world's oil reserves. The presence
of this oil in the Middle East has made it possible for Western
interference in the region's affairs. Internal interference by
internal powers like monarchies and governments has been
made possible with the availability of oil. Governments are
interfering with the human rights situation in a different way,
like imposing their own values on the people.
The Arab-Israeli conflict is an endogenous factor that would
explain the Middle East's human rights situation (Castellino &
Kathleen, 2013). Israel is the primary problem in Islamic
Western relations. Because of Israel, there was an imposed
colonization, Palestine been wiped off the map, and Israel was
able to take its place in Arab territory. This has ensured that an
Islamic-Western relationship will be hard to establish. The
collapse of the Soviet Union saw the Islamic world being
referred to as the new threat to the West (Borhani, 2018). This
saw an escalation of human rights abuses, with the West
targeting various Middle East countries in the war on terror.
There was a significant loss of lives in the attack on Iraq and
Afghanistan. This has had a significant negative impact on
Islam-western relations as well as being one of the external
factors that would explain the human rights situation in the
Middle East.
The common factor in both the endogenous and exogenous
factors is Islam-Western relations. The domination of Western
nations on MENA has had significant consequences on human
rights issues in the region. Ending the domination might create
the potential for change in the region. The end of the reign and
interference may have a positive effect on the human rights
issues in the region.
ReferencesBorhani Seyed Hadi (2013). The Regional Context of

Human Rights in the Middle East. Journal of World
Sociopolitical Studies Vol. 2 No. 1 pp. 127-159Castellino
Joshua & Kathleen A. Cavanaugh. (2013). Minority Rights in
the Middle East. Oxford University Press.
6. What are the main narratives regarding human rights in the
Middle East? What are the main challenges we face in deciding
between these narratives? In your view, is it justifiable to
accept restrictions on freedom of speech to protect the human
rights of ethnic or religious minorities? Explain your position
with reference to concrete examples.
A report by Amnesty International (2019) showed an increase in
the number of protests in the MENA region in the year 2019.
This increased number of demonstrations also came with human
rights abuses like death, torture, detention, arbitrary mass
arrests and prosecutions, and the use of excessive force.
Protests in countries like Israel, Iraq, Iran, Lebanon, and
Algeria saw an increase in the number of citizens' deaths while
protesting for their rights. The use of force in these countries to
quell protests lead to the death of over 500 people in Iraq and
300 in Iran (Amnesty International, 2019).
The main narratives regarding human rights in the Middle East
include oppression from authoritarian regimes. The last decade
has seen an increase in the number of protests in the region,
with the citizens fighting for change. This has not been easy as
the human rights abuses like death, torture, detention, arbitrary
mass arrests and prosecutions, and the use of excessive force
shows that the regimes will not relinquish power easily. These
mass protests have seen an increase in the number of both
individual human rights and collective human rights abuses.
Castellino & Kathleen (2013) pointed out Syria as one of the
nations that minorities have experienced individual human
rights abuses.
There are various challenges that are experienced when deciding
between human rights narratives in the Middle East. State
sovereignty refers to a nation that has one central government
and is in charge of its geographical borders. This is a challenge

to human rights because all the human rights enforcement
mechanisms come from the state, and the state can decide what
to enforce and what to ignore. This is common in the Middle
East, where the nations will usually determine what is
considered as a human right and what can be ignored.
Monshipouri (2011) stated that it is challenging to apply human
rights standards across all the nations due to the challenges.
Chase (2017) pointed out post-colonial authoritarianism. The
authoritarianism has shown that there is no other option but a
brutal system of power that is able to eliminate any form of
protest.
The debate on minority rights can be changed to ensure the
minorities benefit from the limiting of various freedoms. It is
justifiable to limit freedom of speech, mostly when it is done to
protect the minorities. This limitation can be made to show the
state’s protection of minority religion as it fights defamation.
According to Monshipouri (2011), limiting freedom of speech
may be done in order to regulate hate speech. This can be done
by the state as it fights religious defamation. A case example is
given where limiting freedom of speech can be done to satisfy
the needs of Muslim extremists needs in MENA and minority
religions. This is because by regulating hate speech, minority
religions are protected from defamation and will also enjoy the
freedom of religion, including political participation. This will
protect the minority religions and ensuring the Muslims and
liberal democracies come closer.
ReferencesAmnesty International. (2019). Human Rights in the
Middle East and North Africa. Review of 2019Castellino Joshua
& Kathleen A. Cavanaugh. (2013). Minority Rights in the
Middle East. Oxford University Press. Chase Anthony Tirado.
(2017). Routledge Handbook on Human Rights and the Middle
East and North Africa
Monshipouri M. (2011) Human Rights in the Middle East.
Palgrave Macmillan, New York.
7. In your view, is it justifiable to accept restrictions on
freedom of speech to protect the human rights of ethnic or

religious minorities? Explain your position with reference to
concrete examples.
It is not justifiable to accept restrictions on freedom of speech
to protect ethnic or religious minorities' human rights. The
restriction of speech to protect religious minorities is usually
done to protect them from hate speech. However, other ways
can be used in protecting them from hate speech. There are
other freedoms that can be implemented, including restrictions
on religious defamation. The United Nations in 2009 passed a
resolution condemning religious defamation (MacInnis, 2009).
This resolution was in light of the intolerance, discrimination,
and acts of violence received by Muslim minorities after 9/11.
There is a difference between freedom of speech and respect for
religions.
The two should be separated as they are two separate entities.
Freedom of expression should be protected at all costs. This is
because limiting freedom of expression will be a gateway to
limit other liberties that are gained through the freedom of
speech. Chase (2017) explained that there would not be
religious tolerance and human progress without freedom of
speech. This is because freedom of speech leads to the exchange
of ideas, which ensures people can share knowledge. These
knowledge and ideas are primary to the economic prosperity of
the regions. Freedom of speech is one of the freedoms that have
to be protected as it will lead to the person's development.
Minority groups require the freedom of speech in order to be
empowered. Kayaoglu (2011) explained that minority groups
need freedom of speech in order to voice their demands without
any fear o retribution. This will allow them to speak of any
discrimination they receive and allow them to achieve and enjoy
other rights. Freedom of speech is empowerment freedom that
will allow the minorities to enjoy the other freedoms that are
there, including the freedom of religion. Minorities will be at a
more significant disadvantage without the freedom of speech
compared to when the freedom is limited. The minorities also
have to know the burden that comes with freedom of speech.

This is because the freedom will come with an increase in hate
speech and other abuses, including religious discrimination.
Accepting restrictions on the freedom of speech will be a
gateway to restrictions on other freedoms that are connected to
expression. Case examples are the various countries in the
NEMA region where after a guarantee of freedom of speech, the
government went ahead and limited the same freedom (Chase,
2017). Countries like Egypt, Algeria, Turkey, and Tunisia have
laws that guarantee freedom of speech. However, within the
same rules, there are other laws that find ways to limit the same
freedom. The state usually uses these laws to limit freedom of
speech. A study carried out in Egypt showed that 75% of the
young men would value the protection of freedom of speech
(Chase, 2017). This shows a change in generation voicing out
the importance of freedom of speech. A generation once thought
to have been raised in Islamic radicalization and hatred for the
West is able to show the importance of freedom of speech.
ReferencesChase Anthony Tirado. (2017). Routledge Handbook
on Human Rights and the Middle East and North Africa
Kayaoglu, T. (2011) Islamophobia, Defamation of Religions,
and International Human Rights. In: Monshipouri M. (eds)
Human Rights in the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan, New
York.
MacInnis Laura. (2009) U.N. Adopts Resolution on Religious
Defamation. Reuters. Retrieved from
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-religion-defamation-
idUSTRE52P60220090326
8. According to course readings, what role does “freedom of
speech” play in the increasing tensions between religious
minorities and governments in the Middle East?
Freedom of speech is used selectively in the Middle East,
mainly to target religious minorities. There are reports that in
countries like Saudi Arabia of bias in the application of the
freedom of speech laws. Hate speech is propagated by Saudi
officials under the banner of "Freedom of Speech," where these
officials act on instructions of the government to demonize

religious minorities. The government allows government-
affiliated clerics and textbooks to increase the discrimination
against religious minorities like the Shia. The bias is extended
in the criminal justice system and education where other
religions like Judaism, Christianity, and Sufi Islam end up
suffering from hate speech. An example is the use of the word
“rafidha” when describing the Shia. The word means
rejectionists and is discriminatory to the practices and beliefs of
the Shia.
The Shia are part of the religious minorities in the region, and
such discriminatory words have made them targets to Islamic
organizations like ISIS and Al-Qaida. These radical
organizations have been on the rise in the Middle East (Brown
et al., 2006). They use the hate speech that is propagated
towards the religious minorities to justify some of their heinous
acts, like the beheading of individuals. A human rights
watchdog reported attacks on Shia mosques and the killing of
more than 40 people since 2015. These are some of the
consequences of the use of derogatory words like "rafidha" in
educational textbooks and other reading material.
The Saudi Arabia government has been accused of inciting
discrimination against both the Shia and Sufi nationals. This
discrimination of the Shia and Sufi, as well as other religions in
the nation, has been possible by the reforms provided of
freedom of speech. The Ministry of Education, in its curriculum
on religious education, uses disguised language to defame the
other spiritual practices. This is contained in some of the
textbooks of the curriculum that use the "freedom of speech
"narratives to defame the various methods and traditions of the
Shia and the Sufi.
In most nations in the Middle East and Northern Africa,
religious minorities are taken as a threat to the nation. The use
of freedom of speech is used to either silence the treat or create
better ways that will be used in limiting their rights. In
countries like Pakistan and Iran, blasphemy laws have been
enacted, which affect the freedom of speech (Kayaoglu, 2011).

Such laws have been used selectively by the governments to
target minority religions. According to Kayaoglu (2011), the
blasphemy laws are used by the government to justify the state's
discrimination against religious minorities. The use of
blasphemy laws to discriminate against religious minorities was
countered by a group of NGOs that formed a group that would
be used in protecting free speech. These organizations called for
a motion on religious defamation with the aim of protecting
religious minorities from such laws as the blasphemy laws.
However, the complexity of the issue has also led to a split
among the NGOs, with some against the motion and a majority
supporting it.
References
Brown, N., Hamzawy, A., & Ottaway, M. (2006). (Rep.).
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Retrieved
February 4, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep12883
Human Rights Report. (2017). They are not Our Brothers. Hate
Speech by Saudi officials.
Kayaoglu, T. (2011) Islamophobia, Defamation of Religions,
and International Human Rights. In: Monshipouri M. (eds)
Human Rights in the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan, New
York.
9. Explain the main barriers to progress in the area of human
rights. In your view, does the Middle East pose unique
challenges here?
Over the years, progress has been made in the area of human
rights. Such progress has enabled changes in various aspects of
human lives, with the gains being celebrated globally. However,
the Middle East region still poses different unique challenges
and problems that act as barriers to the progress made. One of
the significant challenges posed by the Middle East and
Northern Africa is the belief that human rights were drafted
based on Western ideologies. The drafting is not in line with
their religious beliefs and culture. This is a common belief in
all the countries in the MENA region and a significant and
unique challenge to the progress in the area of human rights.

The logic suggests that the government’s first responsibility is
the protection of the sharia laws and not the will of the people.
The defenders of human rights live in fear due to the
ramifications of criticizing the nation. However, it should be
noted that Muslim scholars and some clerics have said that
wrong interpretation of Islamic laws has led to the notion that
Islam and human rights are not compatible. The Middle East
poses unique challenges, especially in the understanding of
Islamic law.
State sovereignty is a challenge where the enforcement
mechanisms come from the state and have to decide what is to
be enforced and what can be ignored. This challenge is not only
applicable in the MENA region but to other parts of the world.
In Africa, where authoritarian rule still exists in some of the
nations, the use of state sovereignty is used to hide human
rights abuses. Post-colonial authoritarianism is the rejection of
pluralism and is one of the significant barriers to progress in the
area of human rights (Chase, 2017). Dictatorship uses a central
power to eliminate any form of protest, and the brutality of the
system works effectively in ensuring there are fewer
complaints.
Humans are considered the major obstacle to progress in the
area of human rights (Serfontein, 2019). The human factor is
ever-present in all the aspects of human rights, and considering
human behavior is usually influenced by social, ethical, and
legal factors. The human element can be looked at as
individuals or the role humans play while in the government as
they try to protect and preserve the rights of others. Humans are
by nature selfish and will always seek independence at the
expense of others. This is a factor that is difficult to control as
human behavior, whether as individuals or in government, is
difficult to regulate. The other aspect of human behavior that
poses a challenge is knowledge about human rights. This is the
main factor I the MENA region where people are not fully
aware of their rights as individuals. They have to follow the
interpretations given by Muslim clerics whether the

interpretations are correct or wrong. However, the past decade
has seen a surge in the uprising with citizens in most of the
countries in the MENA regions fighting for their rights. This
shows that the citizens have gained the necessary knowledge
about their rights.
ReferencesChase Anthony Tirado. (2017). Routledge Handbook
on Human Rights and the Middle East and North
AfricaSerfontein, E. (2019). Humans: The Biggest Barrier to
Realizing Human Rights- A South African Perspective.
10. In your view, what imprints have violent conflicts left on
the political landscape of the Middle East region? What are the
ramifications of these imprints for human rights in the area?
The Middle East is a highly volatile region with decades of
conflict in some of the nations. These violent conflicts have
shaped the region into what it is today. The violent conflict is
also partially responsible for the numerous stereotypes about
the Middle East and North Africa. Years of conflict between
Israel and Palestine, Iran and Iraq, Iraq and Kuwait, and other
disputes have ensured the countries in the region have fewer
allies. However, even with fewer partners, the perception of the
West still remains the same among all the countries in the area.
The years of violent conflicts in the Middle East have led to an
increase in turbulence in the Middle East (Angrist, 2019). This
is bad for a region that once enjoyed political stability,
especially after the colonization by European powers. The
authoritarian governments enjoyed political stability before the
revolts started. Orhan (2019) explained that the path to political
unrest depends on local and regional factors and is more likely
to intersect with global politics. The influence of the
international community, especially the West would explain the
intersection. The continued violence has led some of the
countries to a standstill with the citizens running to either
neighboring countries or the West. Syria being a case study, has
become a shell of the country it used to be.
There are other positive factors from the violence experienced
from 2010 in the region. Countries like Egypt, Tunisia, Libya,

and Jordan have had violent political unrests that have either
changed the nations for the better, like Tunisia or become worse
for countries like Libya. The citizens in these countries were
fighting against authoritarian rule, and most of them won in the
fight. The thought of being democratic in these countries drove
the citizens to change and shifting from authoritarian leadership
that had been in place for decades. This has changed the
political landscape of these countries as the shift towards multi-
partisan becomes a reality.
The rise of Islamist movements has been on the rise due to the
continued insurgency in the region (Brown et al., 2006). These
movements control most of the aspects of the nations, i ncluding
Islamic law, the use of violence, political pluralism, civil and
political rights, religious minorities, and the rights of women.
Some of the Islamic movements that came about from the
violence include; ISIS, Hezbollah, Muslim Brotherhood, al -
Wefaq, and Islamic Action Front. Some of these movements
have been violent, and their violence has escalated globally.
ISIS, Al-Qaida, and Hezbollah are examples of organizations
that have been too violent, changing the politics of the region.
This has had a significant impact on human rights in the region.
An example is the formation of violent Islamic organizations
that have continued to commit human rights abuses. The laws
that are passed by these organizations have led to the deaths of
thousands of individuals. These laws support violence in the
region and are the leading cause of human rights abuses in the
area. The continued violence in the region is also affecting the
minorities, including the women and religious minorities who
continue to experience various abuses. Religious minorities
continue to be discriminated against with the continued support
of the authoritarian rule.
References
Angrist Michele Penner. (2019). Politics and Society in the
Contemporary Middle East. Lynne Rienner Publishers website
Brown, N., Hamzawy, A., & Ottaway, M. (2006). (Rep.).
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Retrieved

February 4, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep12883
Orhan, M. (2019). Political violence and insurgencies in the
Middle East: Social movements, diffusion of armed conflicts,
and proxy wars. Irish Journal of Sociology, 27(3), 251–272.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0791603519835430
H u m a n R i g h ts i n t h e
M i d d l e E a s t
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H u m a n R i g h ts i n t h e
M i d d l e E a s t
F r a m e w o r k s, G o a l s,
a n d S t r at e g i e s
E d i t e d b y
M a h m o o d M o n s h i p o u r i
HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST
Copyright © Mahmood Monshipouri, 2011.
All rights reserved.
First published in 2011 by

PALGRAVE MACMILLAN® in the United States – a division
of
St. Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY
10010.
Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe and the rest of
the world, this is by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of
Macmillan Pub-
lishers Limited, registered in England, company number
785998, of
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS.
Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of
the above companies and has companies and representatives
throughout the world.
Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the
United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Human rights in the Middle East : frameworks, goals, and
strategies /
edited by Mahmood Monshipouri.
p. cm.
1. Human rights—Middle East. 2. Human rights—Religious
aspects—Islam. 3. Islam and politics—Middle East. I.
Monshipouri,
Mahmood, 1952–
JC599.M53H85 2011
323.0956—dc23
2011020954
A catalogue record of the book is available from the British
Library.

Design by MPS Limited, A Macmillan Company
First edition: December 2011
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN 978-1-349-29882-2 ISBN 978-1-137-00198-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1057/9781137001986
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2011 978-0-230-
12061-7
C o n t e n ts
List of Tables vii
Acknowledgments viii
Introduction 1
Part I Introduction I: Problems with
the Current Frameworks 23
1 Framing the Human Rights Discourse: The Role
of Natural Localism and the Power of Paradigm 27
Lawrence Davidson
2 Islam and Human Rights: Ideals and Practices 41
Manochehr Dorraj
3 Human Rights through the Lens of

Islamic Legal Thought 57
Halim Rane
4 Islamophobia, Defamation of Religions,
and International Human Rights 73
Turan Kayaoğlu
Part II Introduction II: Common Goals and Case Studies 91
5 Human Rights and the Kurdish Question
in the Middle East 95
Nader Entessar
6 The Janus Nature of Human Rights in Iran:
Understanding Progress and Setbacks on Human
Rights Protections since the Revolution 111
Barbara Ann Rieffer-Flanagan
7 From Omission to Reluctant Recognition: Political
Parties’ Approach to Women’s Rights in Turkey 129
Zehra F. Kabasakal Arat
8 Minorities and Marginalized Communities in
the Middle East: The Case for Inclusion 153
Mahmood Monshipouri and Jonathon Whooley
9 Lessons from Movements for Rights Regarding
Sexual Orientation in the Arab World 171

Anthony Tirado Chase
Part III Introduction III: Strategies 189
10 A Prospect of Democratic Uprisings in the
Arab World 193
Bahey eldin Hassan
11 Counterterrorism, Nation- building, and
Human Rights in the Middle East: Complementary
or Competing Interests? 211
Mahmood Monshipouri and Shadi Mokhtari
12 Migrant Workers and Their Rights in
the United Arab Emirates 227
Mahmood Monshipouri and Ali Assareh
13 Health and Human Rights in Palestine:
The Siege and Invasion of Gaza and the Role of the
Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions Movement 245
Jess Ghannam
List of Contributors 263
Index 267
vi C o n t e n t s
Ta b l e s

4.1 Voting Patterns at the HRC and UNGA 78
7.1 The list of political parties and programs
included in the study 132
8.1 Selected minority groups 155
12.1 Population of the United Arab Emirates 230
13.1 PHCR summary of deaths and injuries in Gaza
during 23-day IOF offensive by province 250
A c k n ow l e d g m e n ts
This volume, which grew out of a conference on the Middle
East and
Islamic Studies, held on the campus of San Francisco State
University,
October 16–17, 2009, intends to enhance the global parameters
of
human rights by illustrating ways in which the protections
against
violence, torture, and discrimination, extrajudicial killings, as
well as
freedom from hunger in the region—and for that matter, the rest
of the
world—must be upheld in the name of human dignity, welfare,
security,
and social justice.
Of particular relevance to this project is the question of whether
a
commitment to the full range of human rights is even feasible
given
the cultural diversity, unequal economic circumstances, and

socio-
economic priorities of the expanding globalized world. It is
equally
important to ascertain the appropriateness and desirability of
applying
the international human rights framework in the Middle East.
More-
over, we hope the debates offered in this volume will shed light
on
the international human rights project originating from the
Middle
Eastern countries by helping to defi ne political and human
rights dis-
courses in a way that transcends traditional and conventional
thinking.
Thus, in addition to inquiries about how international human
rights
norms have shaped the consciousness and behavior of actors in
the
region, we are interested in exploring the ways in which Muslim
actors
themselves have potentially contributed to the promotion of
interna-
tional human rights norms.
A culmination of many years of work on human rights in the
Middle
East and North Africa, this book represents a joint effort by
many schol-
ars from different disciplines—history, political science,
international law,
religious studies, public health, and international relations —and
various
parts of the world, including Australia, Egypt, Iran, Turkey,
England,
the Palestine, and the United States. I owe a debt of gratitude to

all
contributors to this volume who submitted several drafts of their
proj-
ects and endured through the lengthy process of review. Special
thanks
are also due to Jonathon Whooley and Ali Assareh whose
assistance
was an equally valuable part of completing this volume. Some
of the
most insightful remarks that we received were provided by
anonymous
external reviewers. We gratefully acknowledge their invaluable
assistance
and support at various stages of this book. Finally, we express
our deep
gratitude to the Middle East and Islamic Studies Center of the
San
Francisco State University that made it possible to bring about
this
human rights workshop.
A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s ix
4I n t r o d u c t i o n
M a h m o o d M o n s h i p o u r i
There is unfortunately little prospect of eliminating all
obstacles to
protecting human rights in the twenty- fi rst century. Applying
universal

human rights standards across the globe is a diffi cult and
daunting task.
Many problems and challenges lie ahead. One of the most
formidable
tasks facing the international human rights community is to
establish
whether a commitment to the full range of human rights is even
feasible
given the cultural diversity, unequal economic circumstances,
and socio-
economic priorities of the expanding globalized world. A
related focus of
this volume will be on the extent to which the dynamics
surrounding the
human rights challenges in the Middle East conform to or
diverge from
such dynamics in other parts of the world. Since the protection
of all
human rights requires perfection regardless of region, two
sensible ques-
tions to ask regarding the Middle East are: (a) To what extent
progress
or improvement can realistically be made on the status quo? and
(b) To
what extent are the apparent or real features of such uniqueness
a func-
tion of contemporary manifestations of Orientalism and
Islamophobia?
Another line of inquiry we would like to pursue in this volume
is
to ascertain the appropriateness and desirability of applying the
inter-
national human rights framework in the Middle East. What does
the
international human rights framework offer Middle Eastern

countries?
In what ways does it foster local efforts to improve human
rights in the
Middle East and in what ways does its baggage of imperialism,
neoimperi-
alisms, power relations, and appropriations of human rights
discourses by
governments pursuing their own geopolitical interests damage
such local
and authentic efforts? This fi rst inquiry inherently leads to a
second: Is an
Islamic social, political, and legal framework compatible with
the notion of
human rights? In addressing these two main questions, we hope
to take on
2 M a h m o o d M o n s h i p o u r i
the task of examining the human rights project, proposing ways
to apply
universal norms across diverse nations and cultures in the
region.
Additionally, we hope the debates offered in this volume will
highlight
potential contributions to the international human rights project
origi-
nating from the Middle Eastern countries. Thus, in addition to
inqui-
ries about how international human rights norms have impacted
the
consciousness and behavior of actors in the region, we are
interested in
learning about how Muslim actors—scholars, activists, lawyers,

journal-
ists, cultural elite, and policymakers—have, and potentially can
contribute
to the development of international human rights norms. There
is a good
deal of discussion about the barriers of transcending the
application of
Western human rights standards. They may have been Western
in origin,
but they have been globally endorsed, which suggests that
human rights
norms responded to dangers to human dignity found in all states
and
regions. We need to engage such discussions in order to
substantiate or
disprove the reasoning and rationale underlying it all.
Finally, given the state of contemporary international affairs,
few discus-
sions of human rights in the Middle East can transpire without
at least some
reference to the relationship between the Middle Eastern
countries and the
West, particularly the United States, its policies, geopolitical
considerations,
and human rights practices and discourses. We hope that
contributors to
this volume will help to illuminate the complexities of this
relationship and
the impact of its discourses and counterdiscourses on human
rights, in a
way that transcends traditional and conventional scholarship.
There can be no doubt that the increasing global attention to
legal
matters and human rights has fostered the idea of holding states

to higher
moral and legal standards, causing more dissonance than
consensus
among states on matters of interpretation and enforcement. With
some
exceptions, states have nevertheless cooperated with the
International
Criminal Tribunals for Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia, both
of which
have issued powerful indictments against war criminals. The
International
Criminal Court (ICC) has come closer to becoming an
operational insti-
tution. This is evident by the way in which the ICC’s Prosecutor
Luis
Moreno Ocampo has pushed for the arrest of Sudanese President
Omar
Hassan al- Bashir, the most senior fi gure and the fi rst sitting
head of state,
charged and pursued by the court. There are new developments
in crimi-
nal justice and international criminal law. While many obstacles
remain
en route to protecting human rights globally, it is important to
continue
efforts aimed at doing so. Human rights continue to fi gure in
high- level
foreign policy, as in the 2011 US- China summit. Similarly,
human rights
continue to fi gure in many regional and national developments,
as can be
seen in Ivory Coast, Honduras, and other cases.
These positive trends have marked a new era in defense of
human
rights, but the larger question of transnational norms

development
I n t r o d u c t i o n 3
and transsovereign law enforcement still remain unanswered.
Several issues
typify practical and normative diffi culties facing states,
including sovereignty,
military and humanitarian intervention, globalization, universal
jurisdiction
(national courts can prosecute serious human rights violations
committed
anywhere in the world), and international justice. It is in this
context that we
turn to the Middle East as a region that has been resistant to the
enforcement
of universal standards of human rights. It is imperative to
explore the possi-
bilities for compatibility—or their absence—between universal
human rights
norms and the tremendous diversity of cultural traditions, local
and national
identities, as well as socioeconomic and political conditions.
Without taking
into account the entire array of factors contributing to human
rights viola-
tions or improvements, it is not possible to identify variables
and policies that
affect human rights practices in the region. The Middle Eastern
region has
no robust regional regime for real human rights protections,
whereas some
other regions, such as Latin America and Europe, do.

This book represents a joint effort by many scholars from
different
disciplines (history, political science, international law,
religious studies,
psychiatry and health sciences, and international relations) and
various
parts of the world (Australia, Egypt, Iran, Turkey, Palestine,
England,
and the United States) to explore the contemporary roots of
human
rights violations in the Middle East. The volume’s main focus is
to pro-
vide a systematic analysis of looking beyond the abuses of
human rights
in the Middle East with a view toward (1) problematizing
traditional
doctrinal thinking and concepts in the region; (2) ascertaining
histori-
cal roots of human rights abuses in the Middle East, and (3)
developing
strategies for improving human rights conditions of the vast
majority of
people more generally and those of minorities and marginal
communities
more particularly. To constructively address and deal with
human rights
conditions, we will fi rst attempt a thematic analysis to frame
the debate
by measuring and mapping out the nature of human rights and
dignity.
Here we will turn to the issues of group rights and localism that
give
meaning and value to human existence, diversity of
perspectives, limits
to the defamation of religion, and ways to reconcile Islam and
the global

normative consensus on human rights. Our analysis will also
examine the
diffi culties as well as challenges one encounters in privileging
Islam as
either the savior of human rights or the main source of its
violations.
In the second section, our focus will then shift to comparative
his-
torical studies to demonstrate the underlying human rights
abuses in
the region. In this section, we set out to examine the Kurdish
question,
sexual orientation and gender identity, the case study of Iran in
the post-
revolutionary period, and the extent to which women’s rights
have been
incorporated into the programs of political parties in Turkey.
These
studies will scrutinize the status and acceptance of human rights
condi-
tions in the region. More broadly, this section attempts to
illustrate that
Islam per se does not determine developments; that women’s
rights and
political rights, inter alia, depend on more than just a nation’s
dominant
religion; and that it does make a difference that Turkey is offi
cially secular
even with an Islamic party in power.

This volume’s fi nal section identifi es strategies of promoting
human
rights through nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and
mechanisms
to include minorities—both economically and politically—in
national
affairs. Also in this section, we argue that in the post-9/11 era,
some
Islamic movements have distanced themselves from condemning
human
rights and repositioned themselves toward embracing important
parts
of the internationally recognized human rights. Such a shift has
enhanced
the internal logical consistency and legitimacy of the human
rights notion
throughout the region. Human rights NGOs will need to work
with
states and civil society not only on whether their goals are
desirable but
chiefl y on whether they are feasible and sustainable in the long
run. To
do so, it is necessary to engage Islamic networks, scholars, and
activists,
who—through study of and interaction with society—have
gained a bet-
ter understanding of local conditions, that is, the socioeconomic
status
of women, children, and the elderly. This cooperation toward
achieving
common goals is the key to fi nding the most effective
strategies to obtain
a wider acceptance of human rights standards in the region. To
this end,
both Islam, as a religion, and Islamic law (Shari’a), as a legal
system, can

be positively employed for the promotion of human rights in the
Middle
East. Thus a pragmatic version of Islam can affect developments
if it is
carefully related or adjusted to the facts of the region.
The fi ndings and implications resulting from this volume will
have
theoretical as well as policy application. We hope to
demonstrate the rele-
vance of area studies to the study of contemporary international
affairs.
The similarities, differences, and interactions between Middle
Eastern
countries and the West must be fully explored to prevent
potential con-
fl icts in the future. Still, this volume, which grew out of a
conference
on the Middle East and Islamic Studies, held on the campus of
San
Francisco State University, October 16–17, 2009, intends to
analyze
the global parameters of human rights by illustrating ways in
which the
protections against violence, torture, and discrimination,
extrajudicial
killings, as well as freedom from hunger in the region—and for
that mat-
ter, the rest of the world—must be upheld in the name of human
dignity,
welfare, security, and social justice.
Human Rights in the Middle
East: An Overview
The spread of democratic values and fundamental freedoms

across the
globe in the past quarter century has turned the attention of
experts
I n t r o d u c t i o n 5
to the Muslim world’s internal struggles in achieving universal
human
rights standards. Whether impediments to observing modern
notions
of human rights in the Muslim world are inherent to Islam or
linked
to the social, structural, and cultural factors is an issue that has
sparked
intense debate over the nature of democratic change in these
societies.
More broadly, the struggle for human rights has revived an old
rivalry
within the Muslim world between secular rationalists and
Islamists. In
today’s globalizing world, religious heterogeneity, emerging
norms, and
multiple loyalties have become so intricately entangled that it
makes
eminent sense, therefore, to talk about values and religious
pluralism.
Can embracing religious pluralism provide the best hope for
effective
adjustment to global change and the information age? Is value
pluralism a
necessary condition for making progress toward achieving
social justice in
the international community? What role does the human rights
discourse

play in nudging along the debate between Western and non-
Western
worlds, and who should be held to account for the persistence of
human
rights abuses in the Middle East? These are critical and complex
issues
that should be addressed.
In Iran, Barbara Ann Rieffer- Flanagan points out, there is
some basis
for hope in the future: There is limited progress on second
generation
rights (socioeconomic and cultural rights) and the political
elites are
increasingly using the language of international human rights. A
prag-
matic Islam that seeks a dynamic interpretation of Islamic law
(Shari’a)
can be an effective alternative to the sacred and textual rigidity
of ortho-
dox Islam. On balance, human rights prospects in the Middle
East are
uncertain if not entirely bleak. But beyond the Middle East,
experiences
of Muslims in Turkey, Indonesia, and India have been positively
linked to
human rights and democracy at least in certain periods.
Deciding between competing narratives regarding the
relationship—
or even the conversation—between religion and human rights
has not
been an easy affair. This can also be comparatively
demonstrated, by
examining the role of Catholicism and human rights both in the
Western

world and Latin America, Hinduism and human rights in India,
Con-
fucianism and Buddhism and human rights in East Asia—to cite
a few
examples. It is worth noting that some ostensibly Christian
nations have
produced admirable records of human rights and democracy,
while oth-
ers have produced fascism and other forms of totalitarianism.
The same
nation with the same religious heritage has sometimes produced
both.
Put very simply, the linkage between religion and human rights
needs
further nuanced and subtle analysis.
The Catholic Church has faced a myriad of criticisms regarding
its
complicity in corrupt regimes, gender bias in the nonordination
of
women and the regulation of reproductive freedom, unfair
treatment
of its own employees and members, and, perhaps most crucially,
the
exploitation of dependent and unemancipated persons receiving
its ser-
vices.1 Over time, however, the infl uence of the Church’s basic
theologi-
cal message and legal forms and policies has arguably helped
account for
the realization of human rights as a feature of Western legal

institutions.
The key point to note is that the richness and complexity of
Catholicism’s
role in advancing human rights point to both successes and
failures.2 The
Vatican has both identifi ed with some human rights and also
endorsed
those violating rights, depending on which rights, eras, and
issues one
is addressing. One Pope was all for democracy in Poland, and
another
helped cover up child abuse in Ireland and elsewhere.
Similarly, it is important to understand the ways in which Hindu
traditions both strengthen and weaken the struggle for human
rights in
South Asia today. Opposition to caste discrimination in the
Hindu world
has a long history. Yet many Indians tend to attribute the
persisting dis-
crimination against untouchables (Dalits) to Hinduism. As it is
the case
in Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, Hinduism has always
contained both
conservative and reformist, even radical variants.3 In
contemporary India,
as Jack Donnelly notes, “Hinduism functions as both a support
for and
an impediment to the exercise and enjoyment of internationally
recog-
nized human rights.”4 The universalist elements of Hinduism—
a single
dharma governing an integrated, divinely infused reality and
regulating
a universal struggle toward liberation—have provided in both
principle

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