This document defines 11 geothermal provinces in Mexico based on heat flow data, geological and tectonic features, and surface manifestations. The provinces are intended to guide exploration for high, medium, and low-enthalpy geothermal resources. They include provinces associated with the Mexican Volcanic Belt, Cerro Prieto geothermal field, Gulf Extensional region, Sierra Madre Occidental, Rio Grande Rift, central intraplate volcanism, Sierra Madre Oriental, eastern intraplate volcanism, Sierra Madre del Sur, southeast volcanism, and geo-pressurized systems in the Gulf of Mexico. Defining geothermal provinces in this way integrates thermal, geological and tectonic information
2. exploration of new geothermal areas can use information on geo-
thermal gradient and heat flow, which will point out sites with high
temperatures at depth. In addition to heat flow, classifying the geolo-
gical and tectonic characteristics of each region according to the re-
cently proposed concept of geothermal plays may help to direct ex-
ploration according to the expected geothermal plays in each region
(Moeck and Beardsmore, 2014). Here, we present the characterization
of geothermal provinces in Mexico based mostly on the corresponding
definitions of geothermal plays and the patterns observed in the heat
flow data, the geological and tectonic features and surface manifesta-
tions; these provinces may be used as a guide to complement the in-
ventories of geothermal resources released by the Ministry of Energy of
Mexico.
1.1. Regional estimations of geothermal potential
Geothermal potential can be estimated by different methods but the
most commonly used is the volumetric, or heat-in-place, method for
specific geothermal systems (Muffler and Cataldi, 1978). In the case of
regional evaluations, lack of detailed geophysical and geochemical in-
formation hinders the possibilities of applying the heat-in-place
method. Therefore, the United Nations Organization has utilized a
method for calculation of regional geothermal power potential that is
based on the number of known geothermal areas and the equivalent
potential production from known geothermal fields under exploitation
elsewhere to calculate the geothermal potential of large regions like
Central America (McNitt, 1978). However, the depth at which high
enough temperatures are reached is a critical parameter for the eco-
nomic feasibility of the exploitation of the geothermal resource, and the
best regional evaluation can be achieved by thermal models based on
heat flow values.
1.2. Geothermal Provinces as a qualitative method to estimate the
Geothermal potential
Quantitative methods to evaluate geothermal potential (volumetric
method, heat discharge) are used in fields, where enough information
about the temperature and volume of the reservoir is available (Muffler
and Cataldi, 1978; Muffler, 1979; Williams et al., 2018; Garg and
Combs, 2010, 2015; Williams, 2014). However, qualitative methods to
evaluate the potential of a region are useful to identify favorable
characteristics of a specific zone to find different types of geothermal
reservoirs by gathering information about the geology, tectonic evolu-
tion and heat flow. This information is most useful to construct a
country-wide geothermal province map that will lead to plan regional
exploration campaigns and attract attention to areas that have not yet
been considered.
According to Cataldi and Mainieri (1995) a geothermal province is
defined based on its geologic, thermal and hydrogeologic conditions.
This definition has been used to propose a “geothermal ranking” of
areas for production of geothermal energy (Cataldi and Mainieri, 1995;
Shanker et al., 2001; Buonasorte et al., 2007). Most evaluations are
based on temperature and depth by considering the most recent thermal
events; therefore, heat flow maps are an important tool to define geo-
thermal provinces.
The classic definition of geothermal province did not include the
new “geothermal play” concept but it would help to categorize the
geothermal province according to the type of systems expected to be
present in each area. The definition of geothermal plays assembles si-
milar geothermal systems into categories considering basically the heat
source and heat transport in relation with the geological habitat
(Moeck, 2013, 2014; Moeck and Beardsmore, 2014). They propose six
types of plays: three convective and three conductive types: CV1 –
convection-dominated magmatic type; CV2 – convection-dominated
plutonic type; CV3 – convection-dominated extensional domain type;
CD1 = conduction-dominated intracratonic type; CD2 – conduction-
dominated orogenic belt type; CD3 – conduction-dominated basement
type (Moeck, 2013)
In addition to those types, here we had to include a geothermal
province that is not considered in the geothermal plays proposed by
Moeck and Beardsmore (2014), which is the geopressurized geothermal
systems. This type of systems is found in Mexico associated with the oil
fields in the Gulf of Mexico coast. The feasibility of their exploitation
has been promoted with new innovative technologies (Davis and
Michaelides, 2009; Bu et al., 2012; Solfo and Alimonti, 2015; van Wees
et al., 2015; Caulk and Tomac, 2017) and in the near future they will
certainly play an important role in geothermal energy production.
2. Geothermal reserves in Mexico
Mexico hosts abundant subaerial and submarine hydrothermal
systems. The geothermal energy potential of Mexico is evidenced by the
present electricity producing fields: Cerro Prieto, Los Azufres, Los
Humeros, Las Tres Vírgenes, Domo San Pedro and the numerous geo-
thermal prospects under exploration (Flores-Armenta et al., 2014;
Arango-Galván et al., 2015; Prol-Ledesma et al., 2016). With regard to
the submarine systems, there have been attempts to exploit them; there
are research projects that have evaluated three areas in the Gulf of
California and the preliminary design of equipment to exploit sub-
marine vents in a sustainable process (Hiriart et al., 2010; Arango-
Galván et al., 2015).
Since the first stages of geothermal development, evaluation of the
geothermal potential of Mexico has been made with different para-
meters producing a wide range of values (Prol-Ledesma et al., 2016).
Estimations vary within several orders of magnitude, but the most re-
cent evaluation, endorsed by CFE, yielded values of 2077 MW for the
probable reserves and the total calculated reserves are 10,000 MWe
(Ordaz-Méndez et al., 2011). This evaluation included 1380 geothermal
areas, most without any reported geochemical and geophysical data.
Other studies focused on the assessment of some prospects (Hiriart
et al., 2011). Many systems were discarded because they were con-
sidered as medium enthalpy suitable only for direct applications;
however, new technologies are available to exploit them in geothermal
co-production and hybrid systems (Reinhardt et al., 2011).
This work aims to utilize the compiled and recently produced heat
flow data to define geothermal provinces that will integrate thermal,
geological and tectonic data to add to information of the geothermal
resources inventories in Mexico by integrating the definition of geo-
thermal plays (Moeck and Beardsmore, 2014).
3. Tectonic-magmatic evolution during the Cenozoic in Mexico
The tectonic evolution of Mexico has been extremely complex and
several attempts to explain the tectonic setting of the different terranes
proposed diverging sequences of events that resulted in the present
distribution of geologic provinces (Campa and Coney, 1983; Sedlock
et al., 1993; Keppie, 2004). One of the main difficulties is the intense
Cenozoic volcanic and tectonic activity that often covers previous for-
mations (Morán-Zenteno, 1986). The sequence of events and formations
explained by the tectono-stratigraphic terranes is highly valuable for
ore deposits prospection, as for the most part they will remain where
formed. A different parameter restricts geothermal exploration, and
that is cooling time of the heat sources associated with the resource;
therefore, the geological history before the Neogene will influence the
thermal regime of an area mostly with regards to the heat conductivity
parameters and the presence of permeable structures that would facil-
itate convective heat transport. Some recent tectono-volcanic processes
are expressed in the physiographic features, and a physiographic map
can be an aide in the delimitation of preliminary areas of importance in
geothermal exploration (Fig. 1).
The presence of a heat source in the form of an active magma
chamber or a young pluton, and, in a minor proportion, strata with high
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3. heat generation by radioactivity is common for the presence of a high-
or medium-enthalpy geothermal system. Surface heat flow is the result
of the heat transfer from the inner parts of the Earth plus the heat
produced by radioactive elements (U, Th and K), this heat source can be
significant, especially in areas with young felsic rocks, for instance the
Sierra Madre Occidental. In some regions, it has been observed that
heat production accounts for about 50% of the measured surface heat
flow increasing the geothermal gradient (Roy et al., 1968). The location
of recent volcanic activity (Fig. 1) provides evidence of thermal events
affecting the geothermal regime of each region. According to Moeck
and Beardsmore (2014): “viable” or “active” geothermal systems lie
adjacent to plate tectonic margins or in regions of active tectonism
(Nukman and Moeck, 2013), active volcanism (Bogie et al., 2005),
young plutonism (≤3 Ma), or regions with elevated heat flow due to
crustal thinning during extensional tectonics”; therefore, we denote
recent volcanism that one with age ≤3 Ma.
The cortical structure and evolution of different terranes have an
influence in the geothermal regime, but this is not necessarily high,
especially where recent volcanic activity is superimposed over the
terrane structure. This is the case of central-northern Mexico, where
recent intraplate volcanic activity (Aranda-Gómez et al., 2005) extends
over a diverse range of tectono-stratigraphic terranes. Therefore, we
assume that recent tectonic-volcanic episodes must have a higher
relevance in the definition of geothermal provinces than the tectonic
structure and stratigraphic features of different terranes.
4. Heat flow and hydrothermal manifestations in Mexico
At the beginning of this century there were only 87 heat flow
measurements in wells in the continental part of Mexico and more than
800 measurements in the ocean (Prol-Ledesma, 1991), and the pub-
lished geothermal maps were based mostly on heat flow estimations
(Prol-Ledesma and Juárez, 1985, 1986, Prol-Ledesma, 1989, 1990;
Prol-Ledesma and Torres-Vera, 2007). However, when the Mexican
Center for Innovation on Geothermal Energy (CeMIE-Geo) was created,
one of the main projects was devoted to accomplishing the elaboration
of a reliable heat flow map. This project has undertaken the compilation
and measurement of heat flow data to produce a data base of more than
900 measurements of thermal gradient in wells and bottom hole mea-
surements (BHT) to calculate heat flow (Prol-Ledesma et al., 2018).
Recently published compilations by Espinoza-Ojeda et al. (2017a,
2017b) present a statistical analysis of the heat flow data to define areas
with high probability of finding low, medium and high enthalpy geo-
thermal resources that had not been previously considered. The com-
pilation of heat flow data in Mexican Territory allowed construction of
a map using the IDW interpolation method with a mean squared error
Fig. 1. Physiographic provinces (INEGI, 2008) and recent volcanic activity (after: https://volcano.si.edu/, Aranda-Gómez et al., 2000, 2005; Duffield et al., 2004;
Ferrari et al., 2005, 2007; Morán-Zenteno, 1986; Morán-Zenteno et al., 2005; Vidal-Solano et al., 2005): 1. Baja California Peninsula; 2. Sonora Plains; 3. Sierra
Madre Occidental, 4. NW Basin & Range, 5. Sierra Madre Oriental, 6. North America Great plains, 7. Pacific coast plains, 8. Northern Gulf of Mexico coast plains, 9.
Meseta Central, 10. Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, 11. Yucatan Peninsula, 12. Sierra Madre del Sur, 13. Southern Gulf of Mexico coast plains, 14. Sierra Chiapas –
Guatemala, 15. Central America Volcanic Belt. Triangles denote recent volcanism (age ≤ 3My), OFZ – Orozco Fracture Zone.
R.M. Prol-Ledesma, D.J. Morán-Zenteno Geothermics 78 (2019) 183–200
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4. below 5%, this map is shown in Fig. 2, and the main anomalies define
the areas with significant geothermal potential (Prol-Ledesma et al.,
2018). The highest heat flow values coincide with the Mexican Volcanic
Belt, the Sierra Madre Occidental, the Gulf Extensional Province and
the Alkaline Volcanism areas, with an average heat flow over 100 mW/
m2
.
5. Geothermal provinces
A map representing areas with distinct geology, surface heat flow
and recent thermal events will be the basis for the definition of the
geothermal provinces (Fig. 3). This map shows that the highest heat
flow values are related mainly with four geologic provinces: the Mex-
ican Volcanic Belt, the Sierra Madre Occidental, the Gulf of California
extensional province, and the Alkaline Volcanic Provinces. The higher
than world-average heat flow values measured in other geologic pro-
vinces are mostly subdued by the magnitude of extremely high heat
flow values in the areas with the main anomalies mentioned above;
however, important resources are contained in the Sierra Chiapas –
Guatemala, the Central America Volcanic Belt and the Gulf of Mexico
coast plains.
Based on available information and maps of the distribution of
tectonic and stratigraphic features, as well as recent volcanic activity,
11 provinces can be described as follows:
1 Province CV1-MVB (Mexican Volcanic Belt) – Convection-domi-
nated magmatic heat source. Geothermal fields: Los Azufres, Los
Humeros, Cerritos Colorados (La Primavera), Domo San Pedro.
Geothermal prospects: Acoculco, Cuitzeo Lake, Los Negritos, San
Bartolomé, El Molote, Pathé, Ceboruco, Celaya, Cerro Pinto,
Ixcatán, Las Derrumbadas, Araró-Simirao, Sanganguey, Ixtlán de los
Hervores, and Mesillas (prospects are defined from published ex-
ploration reports and from recent exploration permits https://www.
gob.mx/sener/documentos/permisos-y-concesiones-otorgadas-por-
sener-para-la-exploracion-y-explotacion-de-recursos-geotermicos).
2 Province CV3-CP (Cerro Prieto) – Convection-dominated exten-
sional domain – Continental rifting process related to the Gulf of
California opening. Geothermal systems: Cerro Prieto. Geothermal
prospects: Tulechek, Riíto, Aeropuerto, Laguna Salada, Cerritos,
Amarillo, Calderón-Cucapah, Morelos-Paredones.
3 Province CV1-GE (Gulf Extensional) – Convection-dominated with
magmatic source in an extensional tectonics regime –Intraplate
volcanism in the continent within extensional tectonics related to
the opening of the Gulf of California (andesite, alkaline and tholeitic
basalts). Geothermal prospects, in Baja California Peninsula: San
Felipe, Puertecitos, Sansiquismunde, Comondú, Los Volcanes, San
Juan Londó-Centavito, San Cosme, Los Cabos (Arango-Galván et al,
2011). Las Tres Vírgenes is considered a CV1 type system, an active
volcanic complex remnant of the extinct Farallon Plate subduction
stage with a complex magmatic evolution that is presently affected
Fig. 2. Heat flow map of Mexico constructed by interpolation of data calculated from geothermal gradient measurements in wells and BHT (Prol-Ledesma et al.,
2018).
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5. by the Gulf of California extensional regime (Avellán et al., 2018).
4 Province CV2-SMO (Sierra Madre Occidental) – Convection-domi-
nated plutonic source – Sierra Madre Occidental; Geothermal field
(presently decommissioned): Piedras de Lumbre-Maguarichic,
where a geothermal gradient of approximately 100 °C/300 m was
reported, and several geothermal areas in Sonora: Aconchi, Cumpas,
Tonibabi, Huasabas, Divisaderos, Granados, Bacadehuachi, Matape,
Arivechi, San Marcial, Tecoripa and Tonichi (Almirudis et al.,
2015).
5 Province CV3-RGR (Río Grande Rift) – Convection-dominated ex-
tensional domain – Some important hydrothermal systems, like
Valles Caldera in New Mexico, are related with Río Grande Rift
activity. No geothermal fields have been explored nor developed in
the RGR section in Mexico.
6 Province CV1-CIV (Central Intraplate Volcanism) – Convection-
dominated with magmatic heat source – Recent thermal event cor-
responds to intraplate volcanism in the Eastern part of SMO, related
to the Basin and Range province (Aranda-Gómez et al., 2000, 2005).
Geothermal areas in Durango and San Luis Potosí related to very
recent volcanism are presently being studied (Ferrari et al., 2018).
No geothermal fields have been developed.
7 Province CD2-SMOr (Sierra Madre Oriental) – Conduction-domi-
nated orogenic belt type – Western part of Sierra Madre Oriental.
Hydrothermal systems: Cuatro Ciénegas (Wolaver and Diehl, 2011;
Wolaver et al., 2013), La Mina (Alemán-Gallardo, 2013); Baño San
Ignacio (Garza-Castillo, 2006). No geothermal fields have been de-
veloped.
8 Province CV1-EIV (Eastern Intraplate Volcanism) – Convection-
dominated with magmatic heat source – Intraplate Volcanism
(Aranda-Gómez et al., 2005; Ferrari, et al., 2005). Numerous hy-
drothermal systems but no geothermal fields have been developed
except in the section where overlap occurs with the MVB.
9 Province CD2-SMS (Sierra Madre del Sur) – Conduction-dominated
orogenic belt type – Southern Mexico. Low-enthalpy geothermal
areas: Paso Real, Dos Arroyos, Agua Caliente, Tamarindo, Coacoyul,
Rio, Cortes, and Hierve el agua (Tarán et al., 2005). No geothermal
fields have been developed.
10 Province CV1-SEV (Southeast Volcanism) – Convection-dominated
with magmatic heat source. Geothermal areas are associated to the
El Chichón and Tacaná active volcanoes. Early exploration work at
El Chichón was interrupted by a strong eruption, it is likely that
exploration will resume in the near future. No fields have been
developed yet.
11 Province GP (Geo-pressurized) – Hydrothermal systems associated
with oil deposits. Hot wells in Cuenca de Burgos and the Campeche-
Tabasco area. No geothermal fields have been developed but tem-
perature gradients above 70 °C/km have been reported in deep oil/
gas wells owned by Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX -government oil
company in Mexico; Eguiluz-Antuñano, 2009).
Fig. 3. Geothermal provinces in Mexico with the heat flow map in the background (Prol-Ledesma et al., 2018). 1 – Province CV1-MVB (Mexican Volcanic Belt); 2 –
Province CV3-CP (Cerro Prieto); 3 – Province CV1-GE (Gulf Extensional); 4 – Province CV2-SMO (Sierra Madre Occidental); 5 – Province CV3-RGR (Río Grande Rift);
6 – Province CV1-CIV (Central Intraplate Volcanism); 7 – Province CD2-SMOr (Sierra Madre Oriental); 8 – Province CV1-EIV (Eastern Intraplate Volcanism); 9 –
Province CD2-SMS (Sierra Madre del Sur); 10 – Province CV1-SEV (Southeast Volcanism); 11 –Province GP (Geo-pressurized).
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6. The description of each geothermal province is based on geological
and tectonic characteristics and the thermal regime as indicated by heat
flow values. Maps include surface hydrothermal manifestations re-
ported by Iglesias et al., (2015) and Prol-Ledesma et al. (2018).
5.1. Province CV1-MVB (Mexican Volcanic Belt)
This province is mostly contained within the Mexican Volcanic Belt
geologic province that is a continental magmatic arc associated with the
subduction of the Cocos Plate under the North American plate. It con-
sists of 8000 volcanic structures and some intrusives (Gómez-Tuena
et al., 2007, 2018; Ferrari et al., 2012). Its length is approximately
1000 km from the Pacific coast to the Gulf of Mexico, with an E-W
direction in the central and eastern part and WNW-ESE in the western
part (Demant, 1981), and the width varies from 80 to 230 km (Fig. 4).
The whole province is characterized by high heat flow values with
an average value of 180 mW/m2
; therefore, a geothermal gradient
above 80 °C/km is expected in most areas.
Geologic evolution of the MVB includes numerous significant
thermal events since the Miocene grouped in four main stages by
Ferrari et al. (2000). Intermediate volcanic activity was established in
the middle-late Miocene, then a mafic episode took place during the
Late Miocene when extensive mafic volcanism developed throughout
the whole volcanic belt, the younger stages are located to the East,
where it overlaps with the Eastern Alkaline Province (Ferrari, 2004;
Ferrari et al., 2000, 2005). At the end of the Miocene silicic activity
occurred with the emplacement of dacitic and rhyolitic domes and large
ignimbritic eruptions by large calderas that laid to the south of the
previous mafic stage (Ferrari, 2004). Later, the volcanism became bi-
modal during Early Pliocene and is represented by basaltic plateaus
(Ferrari et al., 2000). The arc volcanism was reinstated during Late
Pliocene with large compositional variations. After the Pliocene the
volcanic arc evolved to a more andesitic-basaltic composition.
In Late Pliocene-Quaternary the western section of the MVB formed
an arc with intraplate-and subduction composition lavas (Ferrari et al.,
2000).
In the Eastern part of the belt, the volcanic activity resumed at ∼3.7
Ma after a hiatus that lasted from Late Miocene to the end of the
Pliocene. The more evolved products are found in the calderas Acoculco
and Los Humeros, and in the volcanic centers Las Cumbres, Las
Derrumbadas and Cerro Pizarro.
The Sierra Nevada was formed to the east of Mexico City, which
contains the volcanic complex Iztaccíhuatl and the Popocatépetl vol-
cano. The ages become younger to the south of Sierra Nevada. The
volcanoes La Malinche, Pico de Orizaba and Cofre de Perote are located
to the east. All strato-volcanoes have ages less than 1 Ma.
The Mexican Volcanic Belt has gone through different stages of
volcanic activity almost continuously since Miocene up to the present
with active strato-volcanoes and cinder cones. It is precisely the most
recent activity in all the MVB that heightens its geothermal potential.
Neogene tectonic features along the MVB are diverse and, in many
cases, control the volcanic centers distribution and style. According to
Fig. 4. Geothermal Province CV1-MVB (Mexican Volcanic Belt). Recent volcanism (age ≤ 3My), heat flow, hydrothermal manifestations and geothermal fields. Main
faults from Gómez-Tuena et al. (2007).
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7. the orientation and kinematics of prevalent structures the MVB has
been divided in three main zones (Demant, 1981). The western zone
includes large scale graben and semi-graben structures. The most con-
spicuous of these structures are the Chapala, Tepic-Zacoalco, and Co-
lima grabens, that form a triple junction limiting the western part of the
Jalisco Block (Allan et al., 1991; Ferrari et al., 1994, 2012). The central
zone of MVB includes the ∼ E-W Morelia-Acambay fault system, WNW
to WSW oriented faults of the Michocán-Guanajuato monogenetic fields
and the NNW Taxco-San Miguel de Allende fault system (Alaniz-Álvarez
and Nieto Samaniego;, 2007). This last system divides the central from
the eastern zone of the MVB, which displays structures indicating less
intense Neogene deformation. It is characterized by a series of tectonic
basins including the Toluca, Mexico City and the Puebla depressions, as
well as conspicuous N-S stratovolcanoes alignments.
Fig. 5. Province CV3-CP (Cerro Prieto) and Province CV1-GE (Gulf Extensional). Heat flow, hydrothermal manifestations, recent volcanism (age ≤ 3My), main
tectonic features (Seiler et al., 2010; Fletcher et al., 2007) and the Cerro Prieto and Las Tres Vírgenes Geothermal Fields.
R.M. Prol-Ledesma, D.J. Morán-Zenteno Geothermics 78 (2019) 183–200
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8. 5.2. Province CV3-CP (Cerro Prieto)
The Cerro Prieto province includes all the Mexicali Valley, located
in the northeastern part of the Baja California Península on the border
with the Sonora state (Fig. 5). The western border is the Sierra Cucapá
and it extends to the east up to the Colorado River. This province re-
presents the continuation in the continent of the ocean spreading
centers that have developed in the Gulf of California. Rifting is the most
important thermal event in the region and is presently active. The
Mexicali Valley is part of the NW-SE Salton Trough tectonic province
that marks the transition from an oblique rift boundary to the San
Andreas transformed fault system. The main faults in the Mexicali
valley are the strike-slip Cerro Prieto, Imperial, Algodones and Brawley
faults, all have NW-SE direction but fluid transport in the Cerro Prieto
Fig. 6. SMO province. Heat flow, recent volcanism (age ≤ 3My), hydrothermal manifestations and main faults (Aranda-Gómez et al., 2000; Ferrari et al., 2007).
Location of the Piedras de Lumbre-Maguarichic geothermal field is shown.
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9. geothermal field is dominated by the SE-dipping normal fault H that has
NE-SW direction (Lippmann et al., 1991).
The whole area is characterized by a thick sediment cover deposited
during Pliocene and Pleistocene (Halfman et al., 1984). Most sediments
are derived from the Colorado River and a small percentage comes from
the Sierra Cucapá. The volcanic rocks present in the area were produced
by the Cerro Prieto Volcano, located nearby the geothermal field, the
volcanic succession has been characterized with samples from the deep
geothermal wells of the Cerro Prieto Geothermal Field (CPGF): basalt,
andesitic-basalt, andesites and dacite, all belong to the Holocene
(Suárez Vidal and Quintanilla Montoya, 1996).
The geologic model contains three units: the basement formed by
Cretaceous granite, overlaid by Tertiary shale interlayered with sand-
stone and siltstone (thickness 2700 m), covered by clastic sediments
deposited by the Colorado river and the alluvial sediments from the
Cucapah (thickness 2500 m) that contain gravel, sand and shale (Puente
and De-La-Peña, 1979; Lira, 2005; Suárez-Vidal et al., 2008).
This province is continued to the North towards the Salton Sea
Trough and includes numerous geothermal fields in addition to the
Salton Sea and Cerro Prieto geothermal fields (e.g. Brawley, Heber and
East Mesa geothermal fields). In the Mexican side, the whole valley
contains numerous geothermal manifestations, mostly hot wells
(Arango-Galván et al., 2015) and there are six prospects with explora-
tion permits granted. The average heat flow is close to 200 mW/m2
;
therefore, the geothermal gradient is approximately 100 °C/km and the
thick sediment cover provides good permeability strata in the geo-
thermal reservoir.
5.3. Province CV1-GE (Gulf Extensional)
This province includes the Alisitos and Caborca terranes and the
Basin and Range province in Sonora (Fig. 5). The most recent thermal
events are those related with the opening of the Gulf of California, in
addition to the intraplate alkaline volcanic activity, and include Qua-
ternary volcanism in Las Tres Vírgenes and Puertecitos Volcanic Pro-
vince in Baja California and the Pinacate in Sonora (Avellán et al.,
2018; Martín-Barajas et al., 1995; Vidal-Solano et al., 2005). The in-
traplate volcanism in the coasts of the Gulf of California presents some
differences from the intraplate volcanism of central México, mostly due
to the prevalent influence of the extinct long-lasting subduction of the
Farallón plate and the proximity to the spreading centers active in the
Gulf (Lynch et al., 1993; Luhr et al., 1995; Bryan et al., 2013).
The Alisitos formation is mainly formed by dacitic-andesitic pyr-
oclastic rocks but the succession includes also members of basaltic and
rhyolitic compositions. The sedimentary fraction includes limestone
and clastic rocks derived from volcanic rocks (Gastil, 1975; Busby,
2004). This formation overlies discordantly Triassic and Jurassic sedi-
mentary and volcanic rocks and is affected by faults and Cretaceous
granitic intrusives. It has been interpreted as a volcano-sedimentary
belt associated to an oceanic fringing arc that evolved at the western
margin of the Mexican crust as a result of an east-verging subduction
(Busby, 2004).
Mesozoic geologic record of the Gulf extensional province is covered
by a diversity of Cenozoic volcanic units that range in age from
Oligocene to Quaternary. The whole succession portrays the transition
from continental arc to extensional and oceanic spreading tectonic
environment (Ferrari et al., 2018).
Heat flow in this province is high, the average is above 130 mW/m2
,
high values have been reported in the state of Sonora and in the
southern part of the Baja California Peninsula (Smith, 1974). Further-
more, this province hosts an active geothermal field: Las Tres Vírgenes
and numerous medium and high enthalpy prospects (Arango-Galván
et al., 2015); for instance, the geothermal prospect Los Cabos, where a
recent exploration permit has been granted.
5.4. Province CV2-SMO (Sierra Madre Occidental)
This province includes the Sierra Madre Occidental Terrane and
some parts of the Chihuahua, Caborca and Guerrero Terranes, which
have been affected by the thermal events that generated the SMO and
the opening of the Gulf of California (Fig. 6).
The SMO is a volcanic province produced in a subduction regime
and it is formed mostly by caldera volcanic structures (McDowell and
Clabaugh, 1979; Swanson and McDowell, 1985; Swanson et al., 2006;
Ferrari et al., 1999, 2007, 2018). The volcanic structures are covered by
Quaternary lacustrine deposits and Plio-Quaternary basalt. Thermal
events occurred recurrently until the Miocene in this province and
additionally the silicic intrusives present a high heat production related
with their high content of radioactive elements (U, Th and K), which
complies with the definition of a CV2 play that incorporates a heat
source in the form of a crystalline rock enriched in heat generating
elements (Moeck, 2013). Therefore, heat flow values in SMO are con-
siderably higher than in the neighboring Basin and Range geological
province and in some areas in Sonora almost half of the surface heat
flow is due to radioactive heat generation (Smith, 1974; Smith et al.,
1979).
This province hosts a decommissioned geothermal field in the
Piedras de Lumbre-Maguarichic hydrothermal system that had an in-
stalled capacity of 300 kWe in the small town Maguarichic, Chihuahua
state. It was commissioned in 2001, unfortunately it was dismantled in
2007 as the town was provided with electricity from the national grid
(Arrubarrena and Pelayo, 2012). Additionally, several geothermal areas
have been reported in the Sonora state (Almirudis et al., 2015).
5.5. Province CV3-RGR (Río Grande Rift)
This province is contained in the Chihuahua Terrane within the
Basin and Range province (Fig. 7). It is the southern extension of the
Rio Grande Rift that has been well defined by numerous studies (Reiter
et al., 1975, 1978; Reiter and Barroll, 1990; Keller et al., 1990). The rift
is the product of regional extension that started at about 30 My ago and
consists of two well defined stages: the first extension stage (30-15 My)
had a NE-SW direction and in the second one that started 10 My ago the
stress orientation changed to E-W. As a result of this extension, geo-
physical data indicate thinning of the crust that reaches values < 25 km
in the southern continuation in Mexico of the Rio Grande Rift (Keller
et al., 1990). High heat flow values of approximately 100 mW m−2
characterize this province (Reiter and Tovar, 1982), and local studies
have shown an increase in heat flow values towards the south (Reiter
et al., 1986; Reiter and Barroll, 1990).
The most recent thermal event is related to the Rift volcanic ac-
tivity, which has been continuous for the last 10 My and the last pro-
ducts have alkali-olivine basaltic composition (Keller at al., 1990).
There are no geothermal prospects reported in the Mexican section of
this province, but the Valles Caldera is in the northern part of the rift
and hosts the Baca geothermal demonstration power plant project (Goff
et al., 1981; White et al., 1984) and there are two recent volcanic fields
Palomas and El Potrillo (Fig. 7) near Ciudad Juarez on the Mexican
border (1Ma and 8ka; Aranda-Gómez et al., 2005)
5.6. Province CV1-CIV (Central Intraplate Volcanism)
Intraplate Volcanism (Late Oligocene-Quaternary) occurs in México
in continental areas of the North American plate and in the ocean
bottom in the Pacific Plate. Alkaline magma formed large shield vol-
canoes in the oceanic plate (Socorro Island: ∼2400 km3
). The asso-
ciated volcanic rocks formed continuous series as in Guadalupe Island
or bimodal as in Socorro Island (Aranda-Gómez et al., 2005). In the
continental area there are numerous localities to the north of the
Mexican Volcanic Belt (MVB) that constitute the Intraplate Volcanism
Central Province (Fig. 8). This volcanic activity is not related with older
R.M. Prol-Ledesma, D.J. Morán-Zenteno Geothermics 78 (2019) 183–200
191
10. volcanic provinces, the present limits of geologic/tectonic provinces
nor with the tectono-stratigraphic terranes. Frequently, the volcanic
rocks produced by the intraplate volcanism are alkaline. Some volca-
noes are aligned along regional normal faults that define the Basin and
Range province, but some volcanic activity is simultaneous to the
normal faulting produced by the ENE to NE extension. (Aranda-Gómez
et al., 2005).
The most recent thermal event in this province is the intraplate
volcanism located to the East of the SMO, within the Basin and Range
province, and includes parts of the tectono-stratigraphic terranes: SMO,
Guerrero and SMOr (as defined by Campa and Coney, 1983). The Basin
and Range province is the result of extensional tectonics that pre-
dominated after the Farallon Plate ceased subduction under the North
America Plate (Aranda-Gómez et al., 2000). Extension events produced
N-S to NW oriented normal faults. Grabens resulted from faulting and
accumulated significant terrestrial clastic deposits that represent most
important aquifers in the region (Henry and Aranda-Gómez, 2000).
Volcanic activity has occurred from Miocene to Holocene (Aranda-
Gómez et al., 2005). Some of the studied areas include: Durango vol-
canic field (age < 0.8 Ma) with more than 100 cinder cones and the
very recently active maar complex La Breña-El Jagüey, the intraplate
volcanism in Rodeo and Nazas (age 20–24 Ma) and Metates (12 Ma)
(Aranda-Gómez et al., 2005).
In the San Luis Potosí state there are numerous areas with intraplate
volcanism: Los Encinos (10.6–13.6 Ma), Santo Domingo and Ventura-
Espíritu Santo, where the maar Joya Honda and Joyuela have ages of K-
Ar of 1.1 and 1.4 Ma, respectively (Aranda-Gómez and Luhr, 1996), and
a recent Ar-Ar age indicates for Joya Honda an age of 311 ± 19 ka
(Saucedo et al., 2017). Santo Domingo rock samples have been dated by
K-Ar that yields ages of 0.35 and 0.45 Ma (Aranda-Gómez and Luhr,
1996).
The heat flow values range from 80 to more than 120 mW m−2
(Fig. 8) and the hot springs are only used in balneology applications.
Nevertheless, recent studies have started to evaluate some geothermal
areas in this province (Ferrari, 2018).
5.7. Province CD2-SMOr (Sierra Madre Oriental)
This province is located mostly within the Coahuila Terrain and the
Sierra Madre Oriental province, which is typically characterized by
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks deposited on a Paleozoic – Precambrian
basement (Fig. 9). The SMOr is an orogenic mountain belt with narrow
folds that extends to the south with a NW-SE trend and near Monterrey
changes to an E-W direction on its way to the East (Eguiluz de Antuñano
et al., 2000; Fitz-Díaz et al., 2018)). The SMOr presents Oligocene-
Quaternary andesitic and rhyolitic deposits (SGM, 2008) and the Plio-
Quaternary Ocampo volcanic field with ages between 1.82 and 3.41 Ma
related with a regional WNW-ESE lineament of intraplate type, mafic
volcanic rocks (Valdez-Moreno et al., 2011).
Heat flow values are higher towards the west, but they keep below
100 mWm−2
. Nevertheless, there are abundant hydrothermal mani-
festations with average temperatures up to 46 °C, which can be used for
direct utilization of geothermal energy (Alemán-Gallardo, 2013; Garza-
Castillo, 2006; Chacon-Baca et al., 2015; Wolaver and Diehl, 2011;
Wolaver et al., 2013).
5.8. Province CV1-EIVP (Eastern Intraplate Volcanism)
This province is located on the Gulf of Mexico coast (Fig. 10) and
the most recent thermal event is the volcanic activity that occurred
Fig. 7. Rio Grande Rift province, heat flow, main faults (Keller et al., 1990), hydrothermal manifestations, recent volcanism (age ≤ 3My) and the location of the
Valles Caldera (Baca geothermal field).
R.M. Prol-Ledesma, D.J. Morán-Zenteno Geothermics 78 (2019) 183–200
192
11. from Miocene to Quaternary that is represented by the volcanic fields of
San Carlos, Sierra de Tamaulipas, Tlanchinol–Tantima–Alamo, Chi-
conquiaco–Palma Sola, Anegada High and Los Tuxtlas (Gómez-Tuena
et al., 2003; Ferrari et al., 2005). The volcanism in this region has been
studied by Robin (1982), who associated this activity with an exten-
sional regime; however, more recent studies (Ferrari et al., 2005b)
provide geochemical and isotopic evidence that relate this volcanic
activity with “slab detachment” processes. Heat flow measured in this
province is higher than 100 mWm−2
, especially where it overlaps the
MVB. The overlapping obscures the definition of this province and
hinders separation of the EIV and the MVB, where important geo-
thermal prospects and geothermal fields are located, as for instance the
Acoculco Caldera (Sosa-Ceballos et al., 2018).
5.9. Province CD2-SMS (Sierra Madre del Sur)
This province is a typical conductive-orogenic belt and includes
parts of the Guerrero, Xolapa, Mixteco, Oaxaca and Juárez terranes
(Fig. 11) that are formed by petrotectonic contrasting basements, vol-
canosedimentary and sedimentary Mesozoic successions that under-
went a significant episode of W-E shortening from the Late Cretaceous
to de Paleogene (Nieto-Samaniego et al., 2006; Cerca et al., 2007). The
Cenozoic magmatic record is represented by extensive successions of
Late Cretaceous to Miocene volcanic rocks in the interior zone and a
belt of batholiths distributed along the exhumed Pacific continental
margin (Morán-Zenteno et al., 2018).
The Xolapa Terrane extends for 600 km along the Pacific Coast in
the states of Oaxaca and Guerrero. It is characterized by metamorphic
units including migmatites intruded by granodioritic and tonalitic
batholiths (Morán-Zenteno et al., 2018). The rock ages in this terrane
vary from Jurassic to Neogene (Campa and Coney, 1983).
The terrane consists of a crystalline basement known as the “Oaxaca
Complex”, which contains Middle Proterozoic granulite facies quartz-
feldspatic to gabbroic gneisses, paragneisses with pegmatites and
charnokites (Ortega Gutiérrez, 1981; Solari et al., 2003; Ortega-
Gutiérrez et al., 2018). Cenozoic conglomerate interlayered with
sandstone and shales is overlain by thick layers of andesite and ande-
sitic tuffs associated with dykes and sills. Small intrusive bodies from
Miocene-Pliocene have variable composition, mostly granodioritic. The
base of the Quaternary is characterized by thick rhyolitic tuff from the
Pliocene, and the Pleistocene is constituted by lacustrine sediments.
The Juárez Terrain is also known as the Cuicateco Terrain (Sedlock
et al., 1993). This is the easternmost terrain with volcanic arc char-
acteristics and it represents the border with the passive margin in
eastern Mexico. Cretaceous pillow lavas contain gneiss xenoliths,
probably from the Oaxaca Complex (Sedlock, et al., 1993). Mafic in-
trusive bodies belong also to the Cretaceous Period.
A mafic volcano-sedimentary sequence was deposited from 99.6 to
23.03 Ma (Pérez-Gutiérrez, 2010). A Miocenic regional volcanic event
produced a sequence of pyroclastic flows, dacitic lavas and the em-
placement of hypabyssal plutonic bodies (Pérez-Gutiérrez et al., 2009).
The Quaternary cover is formed by conglomerate, sandstone and shale.
The most recent thermal events are associated with Miocenic vol-
canism, there are some local Quaternary volcanic activity.
This province has scarce heat flow measurements and they are all
below 80 mW m−2
. Heat flow increases in the proximity of the MVB
and also reveals the continuation of the Orozco Fracture zone (OFZ) in
the continent. Warm springs are common (Paso Real, Dos Arroyos,
Agua Caliente, Tamarindo, Coacoyul, Rio, Cortes, and Hierve el agua;
Taran et al., 2005) with temperatures below 42 °C that are adequate for
Fig. 8. Intraplate Volcanism Central Province. Heat flow, main faults, hydrothermal manifestations and reported recent (age ≤ 3My) volcanic structures (Aranda-
Gómez and Luhr, 1996; Aranda-Gómez et al., 2005).
R.M. Prol-Ledesma, D.J. Morán-Zenteno Geothermics 78 (2019) 183–200
193
12. direct utilization.
5.10. Province CV1-SEVP (Southeast Volcanism)
This is a typical convection-dominated magmatic heat source pro-
vince related with active volcanism represented mainly by El Chichón
and Tacaná volcanoes (Fig. 11). Its limit to the west is the Itsmo fault
system that separates the Eastern Intraplate Volcanic Province.
The abundant hydrothermal manifestations nearby El Chichón
attracted the attention of the electricity company (Federal Commission
of Electricity) and one year before eruption they started exploration
work (Canul & Rocha, 1981), but early exploration was interrupted by a
major eruption. El Chichón volcano last documented eruption was in
1982 (Duffield et al., 1984) and previous activity has been dated at 550,
900, 1250, 1500, 1600, 1900, 2000, 2500, 3100, 3700 and 7700 years
B.P. (Espíndola et al., 2000). The cone is built by pyroclastic flows and
it is inferred that it has had at least three other eruptions that involved
pyroclastic flows in the last 1250 years. Its composition is mostly
Fig. 9. Sierra Madre Oriental Province. Heat flow, main faults (Keller et al., 1990), recent volcanism (age ≤ 3My) and reported hydrothermal manifestations.
R.M. Prol-Ledesma, D.J. Morán-Zenteno Geothermics 78 (2019) 183–200
194
13. andesitic and the products present anhydrite and halite contamination
by the evaporitic strata (Duffield et al.., 1984). El Chichón volcano is in
the North American Plate but it is located relatively close to the triple
junction of the North-America-Caribe-Cocos plates. It is related to the
Cocos Plate subduction, but the regional tectonics is very complex,
characterized by E-W to NE oriented Miocene folding structures that are
in part coeval with near parallel or oblique strike-slip faults. In addition
to the triple junction the area is affected by the fault systems of Mon-
tagua-Polochic and the Istmo faults (Nixon, 1982).
El Chichón volcano represents an isolated heat flow anomaly that is
not well described because of the scarce number of well measurements.
Heat flow reaches more than 100 mW m−2
but higher values would be
expected in an area with an intensely active volcano. Silica
geothermometer calculated for chemical analyses of thermal water near
the volcano indicates deep temperature higher than 200 °C (Prol-
Ledesma and Juárez, 1986).
The Tacaná volcano is located within a volcanic complex that is
formed by four volcanic centers and it is directly related with the Cocos
Plate subduction under the Caribbean Plate (García-Palomo et al.,
2006). Tacaná is formed by andesitic-basaltic lava flows but it has
produced andesitic and dacitic domes that generated ash flows in sev-
eral episodes 38,000, 28,000 and 16,000 years ago (García-Palomo
et al., 2006). There is abundant hydrothermal activity in the sur-
roundings of the Tacaná characterized by hot springs and fumaroles,
seven groups of springs are related to a NW-SE fault (Rowet et al.,
2009). The CO2/3
He and 3
He/4
He ratios are similar to the typical for
Fig. 10. Eastern Intraplate Volcanic Province: heat flow, main faults (Padilla y Sánchez et al., 2013; Eguiluz de Antuñano et al., 2000), hydrothermal manifestations
and recent volcanism (age ≤ 3My).
R.M. Prol-Ledesma, D.J. Morán-Zenteno Geothermics 78 (2019) 183–200
195
14. Central American Belt volcanoes. Here, we applied silica and Na/K
geothermometers to the published spring composition (Rowet et al.,
2009) and obtained temperatures as high as 186 and 235 °C, respec-
tively, which is evidence of the high geothermal potential of this area,
provided the volcanic risk is considered when planning exploitation.
5.11. Province GPP (Geo-pressurized)
This province is not associated to the typical geothermal plays;
however, these regions possess high medium enthalpy geothermal po-
tential with the advantage that there are numerous wells that could be
used to exploit these resources without having to include in the project
the drilling expenses. The province is divided into two areas: the
northern one contains the Burgos Basin with a thick Cenozoic dom-
inantly siliciclastic marine sequence, which is well known by the pet-
roleum reservoir engineers; and the southern one that contains the
Tabasco and Campeche petroleum reservoirs (Fig. 12) with significant
carbonate and siliciclastic marine record. All these zones have wells
where fluid temperature is reported to present values above 100 °C and
geothermal gradients as high as 70 °C/km (Eguiluz-Antuñano, 2009:
Gutiérrez-Paredes et al., 2018). The largest expense in geothermal
projects is drilling and development of the geopressurized resources
would most likely depend on the wells abandoned by the oil industry.
These resources have not been considered for exploitation, but they
could increase the geothermal reserves of Mexico significantly.
6. Concluding remarks
High heat flow and intense volcanic activity are the typical features
that are present in most parts of Mexico. The active tectonics and
volcanism are consequence of the exceptional convergence of four
different plate boundaries and intraplate volcanic manifestations. The
complex geological setting generates diverse geothermal provinces that
may include different types of volcanic activity; for instance, the Gulf
Extensional Province contains Las Tres Vírgenes volcanic complex and
the Puertecitos Volcanic Province in Baja California that represent
different types of volcanism but nevertheless, they can be considered
CV1-geothermal plays with magmatic source that characterize this
province.
A better understanding of the geothermal potential for this highly
diverse continental zone requires a systematic approach based on a
classification scheme balancing geologic, geophysical and heat flow
information.
Geothermal fields currently in exploitation are contained in only
three geothermal provinces; this shows that eight geothermal provinces
presented here might enclose geothermal resources that could be ex-
plored, evaluated and exploited, if feasibility studies demonstrate their
potential. The Mexican Government plan for geothermal includes ex-
ploitation for electricity production and a strong support to develop
direct utilization schemes that may help to replace fossil fuels in an
assortment of economic activities: industrial, agricultural, comfort and
leisure. This work represents the integration of diverse geoscientific
data to provide information about geothermal resources as indicative
evidence for developers and geoscientist that hopes to stimulate future
work on geothermal in Mexico.
Role of the funding source
The funding source was the SENER-CONACyT (Mexico) Fondo de
Sustentabilidad Grant 207032 of the Centro Mexicano de Inovación en
Fig. 11. Sierra Madre del Sur and Southeast Volcanism Provinces. The map shows heat flow, main faults, thermal springs, active volcanoes and recent (age ≤ 3My)
volcanic structures. OFZ – Orozco Fracture zone (after Morán-Zenteno et al., 2018; García-Palomo et al., 2006; Taran et al., 2005).
R.M. Prol-Ledesma, D.J. Morán-Zenteno Geothermics 78 (2019) 183–200
196
15. Energía Geotérmica (CeMIE-Geo) project P-01 to R.M. Prol-Ledesma
and was not involved in the project activities nor in the decision to
submit this article for publication in Geothermics.
Disclosure statement
There is no potential conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank M.Sc. Alejandra Selene Membrillo-Abad
for her assistance in map design work. Also, Marcela Errasti-Orozco,
Augusto Rodriguez, Juan Luis Carrillo De la Cruz, Daniel Elizalde,
Irving Antonio Gonzalez Romo, Oscar Alberto Quintanilla Padrón,
Xóchitl Flores and J. Miguel Flores Velazquez, for their help in
collecting and processing data. This work was supported by Fondo de
Sustentabilidad Energética SENER-CONACyT Grant 207032 of the
Centro Mexicano de Inovación en Energía Geotérmica (CeMIE-Geo)
project P-01 to R.M. Prol-Ledesma: “Mapas de Gradiente Geotérmico y
Flujo de Calor para la República Mexicana”. Authors would like to
thank Dr. C. Williams and two anonymous reviewers for their sugges-
tions that greatly improved this work.
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