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MENSTRAL CYCLE And It's Abnormalities 2021.pptx
1. MENSTRAL CYCLE AND IT’S
ABNORMALITIES
FACILITATOR: DR.GACHUNO
PRESENTER: DR.DORIS
Group 2 Members: DR.CHARLES
DR.MUGAMBI
DR.TEHUNZER
DR.ZAHRA
19th October 2023
2. Outline
Introduction/Overview
Physiology of menstrual cycle
Ovarian cycle
Endometrial cycle
Cervical, tubal and vaginal cycles
Abnormalities of the menstrual cycle
References
3. Overview
Menstruation: is the visible manifestation of cyclic physiologic uterine bleeding
due to shedding of the endometrium.Requires
• HPO axis to be actively coordinated
• Endometrium responsive to ovarian hormones (estrogen,progesterone)
• Patent outflow tract
Menarche: The first menstruation . Occurs between 11- 15 years, with a mean of
13 years.Studies show age of menarche is gradually declining with improvement of
nutrition and environmental condition.
Menstrual cycle: the period extending from the beginning of a period to the
beginning of the next period.
Menopause: is the permanent cessation of menstruation that result from loss of
ovarian follicular activity.
4. Important Numbers
Menarche: 11-15 years
Menstrual cycle: 21-35 days with a mean of 28 days.
Duration: 4-5 days
Estimated blood loss: 20-80ml with an average of 35mls. Nearly 70% of total blood loss
occurs in the first 2 days..
Menopause: 45-50 years
5. Ovarian Cycle
These ovarian changes constitute the:
(1) The follicular phase (day 1 to 13),
(2) Ovulatory phase (day 13 to 15)
(3) The luteal phase (day 15 to 28).
The luteal phase is always constant 14
days(secretory phase)
6. Follicular phase
Constitutes the development and maturation of a
follicle,ovulation,formation of corpus luteum
Consists of :
Recruitment of groups of follicles
Selection of dominant follicle and its
maturation
Ovulation
Corpus luteum formation
7. Follicular phase
Recruitment of groups of follicles-(5 to 20 preantral)
Initial recruitment and growth of primordial follicles are not under the
control of any hormone.
FSH(due to low estrogen and progesterone) needed for eventual
maturation
Granulosa cells develop FSH receptors
Selection of dominant follicle(day 5-7) and its maturation
Follicle with highest antral concentration of estrogen and low
androgens and highest FSH receptors
Enlargement of granulosa cells with lipid inclusion
FSH induces LH receptors
Theca cells become more vascular than those of other antral
follicles.. Separated from granulosa cells by membrana granulosa
9. Ovarian cycle
Ovulation
Dominant follicle reaches surface of ovary
LH surge(24-48hrs prior to ovulation) from anterior pituitary
Cumulus detaches from wall of follicle
Stigma develops and penetrates the outer surface layer of
ovary.
Oocyte oozes out with corona radiata takes about 60-
120secs
Completion of 1st meiotic division.
10.
11. Corpus Luteum formation
Ruptured graffian follicle develops into corpus luteum and undergoes
four stages of development(under the influence of LH)
Proliferation: granulosa cells undergo hypertrophy, become lipid
filled
Vascularization: capillaries grow into granulosa layer, within 24hrs
of rupture of follicle.
Maturation: attains full size of 1-2cm, approximately 7-8 days
following ovulation.theca interna cells become hypertrophied.
Regression: starts on 22-23rd day of cycle if fertilization doesn’t
occur. Life span is about 12-14 days.If fertilization occurs,its
converted into corpus luteum of pregnancy.
Main function of CL is production of progesterone and estrogen
12. Corpus luteum of pregnancy
-In pregnancy: There is a surge of hyperplasia of
all layers between 23rd-28th day due to chorionic
gonadotropin.
-hCG also stimulates the corpus luteum to
secrete progesterone. The growth reaches peak
at about the 8th week.
-The turnover function from corpus luteum of
pregnancy to placenta is called luteal-placental
shift and continues from 7- 10 weeks.
16. Endometrial Cycle
The endometrium consist of surface epithelium, glands, stroma and blood vessels. It has two distinct
divisions:
Basal zone
1/3rd of the total depth
Lies in contact with the myometrium
Uninfluenced by hormones and as such no cyclic changes are observed
Measures about 1mm
Functional zone
Under the influence of fluctuating cyclic ovarian hormones
Estrogen
Progesterone
Undergoes 4 phases
17. Phase of Regeneration
• Starts even before menstruation ceases
• Ends 2-3 days after menstruation ceases
• Vessels grow from stumps in the basal zone
• Stroma and glands regenerate from remnants in
the basal zone
• Thickness averages 2mm
• Glands are lined by cuboidal epithelium and lie
parallel to the surface
18. Phase of proliferation
Extends from 5th or 6th day to 14th day (till ovulation)
Glands become tubular, lie perpendicular to the surface
The epithelium becomes columnar
The epithelium of one gland becomes continuous with the neighbouring gland.
Stromal cells become spindled shaped with evidence of mitosis
Spiral vessels extend unbranched to a region below the epithelium where they
form loose capillary networks
Thickness measures 10-12mm at time of ovulation.
19. Secretory phase
Begins day 15 and ceases 5-6 days prior to menstruation
Endometrium has receptors for progesterone which are
primed by estrogen
Blood vessels undergo marked spiraling
Glands become engorged, cock screw shaped and secrete
nutritive fluids
Stromal cells become swollen and large
20. Menstrual phase
• Regeneration of corpus luteum leads to regression of estrogen and progesterone
levels
• Stasis of blood and spasms lead to damage of arteriolar walls
• Auto-digestion by proteolytic enzymes
• Leukocyte and monocyte invasion occurs
• Bleeding from damaged arteries, veins and capillaries and stromal hematoma
• Coagulated blood in uterine cavity broken down by plasmin enabling it to flow
• Endometrial flow stops due to prolonged vasoconstriction, myometrial contraction,
platelet aggregation
• Estrogen facilitates clot formation at blood vessel stumps
• Prostaglandins aid in arteriolar constriction and myometrial contraction
21. - Composition of menstrual discharge;
Dark altered blood
Mucus
Vaginal epithelial cells
Fragments of endometrium
Prostaglandins
Enzymes
Bacteria; lactobacillus spp
22. Cervical cycle
Progesterone rises the tone of the muscles of the
isthmus and internal os so the cervical ‘sphincter’ is
tighter and more competent during the luteal than
follicular phase
The glandular elements proliferate during the follicular
phase and the epithelial cells become taller and
secrete a mucus which will stretch into threads
During the follicular phase the cervical mucus absorbs
water and salts and when allowed to dry, deposits
crystals of sodium chloride and potassium chloride in a
characteristic fern pattern
23. Cervical cycle cont.
The cervical mucus is so profuse at the time of
ovulation that it may be noticed as a vaginal
discharge
Its special character at this time, (low protein
content) makes it easy for spermatozoa
penetration
During luteal phase, cervical glands become
more branched, and their secretion becomes
mores viscous forming a secure cervical plug.
24. Cervical cycle
Cervical characters Follicular phase Luteal phase
Internal os Funnel-shaped Tightly closed
Mucus Thin and watery Thick and viscid
Stretchability Increased to beyond 10cm Lost
Fern tree pattern Present Lost
Glycoprotein network Parallel, thus facilitating sperm
penetration
Interlacing bridges, preventing
sperm penetration
Glandular epithelium Taller Glands-more branched
25. Vaginal cycle
The fully oestrogenic smear, evident during the late
follicular phase, contains a preponderance of large
cornified epithelial cells with pyknotic (condensed)
nuclei.
These stain pink with eosin.
During the luteal phase the smear shows evidence of
increased desquamation, many of the cells having
rolled edges, and is characterized by the
reappearance of clumps of intermediate cells and the
presence of leucocytes.
The maturation index, which is the percentage of
superficial, intermediate and parabasal cells in a
vaginal smear is used as a measure of the levels of
hormones in circulation. It is a useful guide but is not
so precise as assaying the estrogen in blood.
26. Vaginal cycle
Cellular characters Follicular phase Luteal phase
Cytology Showing preponderance of
superficial large cornified cells
with pyknotic nuclei
Preponderance of intermediate
cells with folded edges
(navicular cells)
Background of the smear Clear Dirty due to presence of
leucocytes and bacilli.
27. Fallopian tube cycle
The muscle of the fallopian tube behaves like the myometrium at
the time of ovulation. This is an estrogen effect
The follicular phase is marked by slight proliferation, and
continuing to premenstrual phase then regresses
During menstruation there is further shrinkage and slight shedding
of the surface epithelium.
The secretory activity of the tubes is also cyclical, being highest
before ovulation and in response to oestrogen.
30. Dysmenorrhoea
painful menstruation of sufficient magnitude so as to
incapacitate day-to-day activities.
Primary (spasmodic)
Secondary(congestive)
Other disorders of menstrual pain
Premenstrual syndrome
Mittelschmerz’s syndrome (ovulation pain)
31. Prevalence.
Primary dysmenorrhea is the most commonly reported gynecological and
menstrual disorder.
Primary dysmenorrhea is a significant contributor to approximately 10% of
incapacitating severe menstrual pain among females during adolescence and
early adulthood.
It affects millions of women during their reproductive years
Globally, the previous epidemiological investigations have reported that the
magnitudes of dysmenorrhea ranges from 41.7% to 94%.
In sub-Saharan Africa, the prevalence of primary dysmenorrhea ranges also
from 51.1% to 88.1%.
In addition, it is severe enough to result in a significant socioeconomic
dysfunction and disability particularly in adolescents and young women
32. Primary/idiopathic dysmenorrhea
(Spasmodic)
• Recurrent crampy lower abdominal pain.
• No identifiable pelvic pathology
• Almost always in adolescents
• Confined to Ovulatory cycles
• Related to dysrhythmic uterine contractions and
hypoxia.
33. Causes of primary dysmenorrrhoea
• Psychosomatic factors
• Uterine myometrial hyperactivity
• Over activity of sympathetic nerves
hypertonicity of isthmus and internal os
• Increased prostaglandin production,vasopressin
and endothelin.
• Platelet activating factor
34.
35. Signs and symptoms
• Usually in teenage girls.
• Pain starts just before or at onset of menstrual period.
Lasts 24 to 48hrs
• May radiate to back or medial aspect of thighs
• Associated symptoms: nausea, vomiting, fatigue, diarrhea,
headache and tachycardia
• Rarely syncope and collapse
• Pelvic and abdominal exam normal
38. Secondary/acquired dysmenorrhea
(Congestive)
Menstruation associated pain attributed to an underlying pelvic pathology.
Causes:
Cervical stenosis,
chronic pelvic infection,
pelvic endometriosis,
pelvic adhesions,
adenomyosis,
uterine fibroid,
endometrial polyp,
IUCD in utero
Pelvic congestion
Obstruction due to Mullerian anomalies
39. Clinical features
• Dull pain in the front and back no radiation
• Older/parous women
• Appears 7-10 days before period and disappears
with onset of bleeding
• Usually, no systemic discomfort
• Abdominal and vaginal examinations reveal
underlying pathology
• May be associated with dyspareunia and abnormal
bleeding.
40. Diagnosis of secondary dysmenorrhoea
-Bimanual exam:
• uterine or adnexal tenderness,
• fixed uterine retroflexion,
• uterosacral nodularity, pelvic mass, enlarged irregular
uterus
-Investigation using ultrasound scan, biopsy, cervical and
vaginal cultures may be required
41. Treatment
The treatment aims at the cause rather than the
symptoms.
Endometriosis: COCP, progesterone GnRH
analogues
Antibiotics for PID
Relief of obstruction (usually surgical)
Therapeutic laparoscopy for
endometriosis,adhesions and complicated PID.
Symptom control-Analgesics,mefenamic acid.
42. Premenstrual syndrome
• Is a psychoneuro- endocrine disorder of unknown
etiology
• Often noticed just prior to menstruation
• cyclic appearance of symptoms during the last 7-10
days of menstrual cycle.
• Common in women aged 30-45years.
• When these symptoms dysrupt daily functioning they
are grouped under the name: Premenstrual
Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD)
43. Diagnostic criteria PMDD (ACOG)
Not related to any organic lesion.
Regularly occurs during the luteal phase of each ovulatory
menstrual cycle.
Symptoms must be severe enough to disturb the life style
of the woman or she requires medical help.
Symptom-free period during rest of the cycle.
45. Treatment
Nonpharmacological:
Assurance, Yoga, Stress management, Diet manipulation.
Avoidance of salt, caffeine and alcohol specially in second
half of cycle
Non hormonal:
Tranquilizers or antidepressant drugs
Pyridoxine – 100 mg twice daily
Diuretics in the second half of the cycle
Anxiolytic agents -Alprazolam 0.25 mg, BID
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRI)
46. Treatment cont.
Hormones
Oral contraceptive pills: suppress ovulation and maintain a uniform
hormonal milieu.
Progesterone: not effective in treating PMS.
Spironolactone: given in the luteal phase (25–200 mg/day)
Bromocriptine: to relieve the breast complaints. (2.5mg/ day)
Suppression of ovarian cycle
Danazol
GnRH analogues: zoladex, decapeptyl, prostap
Oopohrectomy:
last resort
47. Mittelschmerz’s syndrome (ovulation
pain)
Appears in the mid menstrual period
Situated in the hypogastrium or in either of the iliac fossa
Rarely last more than 12 hours
Maybe associated with slight vaginal bleeding or excessive
mucoid vaginal discharge.
Exact cause is unknown, probable factors:
Increase tension of graffian follicle prior to rupture
Peritoneal irritation by the follicular fluid following
ovulation
Contraction of the tubes and uterus
48. AMENORRHOEA
Amenorrhoea means absence of menstrual periods.
Primary amenorrhea:
Lack of menstruation by age 16years in the presence of
secondary sexual characteristics.
Lack of menstruation by age 14 years in the absence of
secondary sexual characteristics.
Secondary amenorrhea: absence of menstruation for 6
months or more in a woman that previously had established
menstrual cycle.
49. There are at least 5 basic factors involved in
the onset and continuation of normal
menstruation:
I. Normal female chromosomal pattern
II. Coordinated HPO axis
III. Anatomical presence and patency of outflow tract
IV. Responsive endometrium
V. Support from thyroid and adrenal glands
50. Causes of primary Amenorrhoea
1) Anatomical defects/developmental defects of genital tract.
-Mullerian agenesis
-Gonadal agenesis e.g., in Turner’s Syndrome (Abnormal sex chromosomes leading to hypergonadotropic
hypogonadism)
-Imperforate hymen
-transverse vaginal septum
-isolated absence of uterus, vagina or cervix
-Atresia upper third of vagina and cervix
2) Elevated Follicle-stimulating Hormone
-High levels of FSH can cause ovarian failure
3)Hyperprolactinemia
-High prolactin levels causes inhibition of Gonadotropin releasing hormone which negatively modulates the secretion of
pituitary gonadal secretion.
-Can be caused by Pituitary Tumors like Prolactinomas
51. Causes of amenorrhoea
4) Hypothalamic Amenorrhea
-Hypothalamic dysfunction causes decrease/inhibits GnRH secretion which affects the pulsatile
release of FSH and LH resulting in anovulation or abnormal release of hormones (functional
hypothalamic amenorrhea)
5) Abnormal chromosomal patterns
Turner’s symdrome
Partial deletion of X chromosome
6) Polycystic Ovary Syndrome
-most common cause of amenorrhea in women
-It is the result of excessive androgens
7) Metabolic disorders and other systemic illnesses
8) Other Endocrine disorders that cause hypogonadotropic hypogonadism include; congenital
adrenal hyperplasia and Cushing Syndrome,dysfunction of the thyroid.
52. Assessment of primary amenorrhoea
Always exclude pregnancy in all females with
amenorrhoea—pregnancy test
Initial hormone tests
- Prolactin
-TFT’s
-LH and FSH
-Testosterone
-Progesterone withdrawal test
Karyotyping for those with absent uterus,primary
ovarian insufficiency and chromosomal abnormalities.
Radiological imaging-pelvic ultrasound.
-Management is treatment of underlying cause
58. PCOS management
Oligomenorrhoea and amenorrhea:
Medroxy progesterone acetate 10mg for ten days
Insulin resistance
Metformin
Hirsutism
Cyproterone acetate: competitive inhibition of androgen
receptor 2mg with 35mcg of ethinylestradiol
GnRH analogues reserved for resistant cases
Laser therapy to destroy hair follicle
Subfertility
Clomiphene or letrozole
Weight loss with dietary modification or medication.
59. Abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB)
Any uterine bleeding outside the normal
volume,duration, regularity or frequency outside of
pregnancy.
Patterns of AUB
Menorrhagia-(heavy periods>80mls or >7 days)
Metrorrhagia ( intermenstrual bleeding)
Polymenorrhea (shorter cycles <21 days)
Oligomenorrhea(cycles >35days)
Hypomenorrhea(light/scanty periods)
60. Etiology of AUB
PALM-COEIN (FIGO-2021)
The acronym PALM-COEIN subdivides all the causes of AUB into 9 categories.
PALM- are structural or histologic causes
COEIN- nonstructural causes
In this classification the acronym AUB is followed by PALM-COEIN and a subscript 0 or 1 to
indicate absence or presence of the abnormality.
Example patient with AUB due to adenomyosis
AUB:P0A1 L0 M0 -C0O0E0I0N0
61.
62. Heavy menstrual bleeding (HMB)
• Is the most common type of AUB disorder
• Blood loss of greater than 80mls per period.
• Common causes:
• Fibriods
• Pelvic endometriosis
• Adenomyosis
• Chronic tubo-ovarian mass
63. HMB Associated Symptoms
• Irregular bleeding
• Symptomatic or non symptomatic anaemia
• Intermenstrual bleeding
• Postcoital bleeding
• History of PPH
• Unusual vaginal discharge
• Abdominal mass
64. AUB Investigations
• Pelvic and cervical exam.
• FBC
• Coagulation screening
• Pregnancy test.
• Pelvic USS
• High vaginal and endometrial swabs
• TFT
• Endometrial biopsy
• Hysteroscopy