A short note on American literature

2. America: Before the Discovery
• Before the arrival of Christopher Columbus and other European
explorers in the late 15th century, the Americas were inhabited by
diverse indigenous cultures and civilizations. These societies had
developed rich and complex societies with their own languages,
customs, and technologies. Here's an overview of what America was
like before the European discovery:
1. Indigenous Peoples:
The Americas were home to numerous indigenous peoples, each
with their own distinct cultures, languages, and traditions. These
groups included the Aztec and Maya in Mesoamerica (present-day
Mexico and Central America), the Inca in South America (present-
day Peru), the Iroquois Confederacy in North America, and
countless other tribes and nations across the continents.
2. Agriculture and Farming:
Many indigenous societies practiced agriculture, cultivating crops
such as maize (corn), beans, squash, and potatoes. These crops
formed the basis of their diets and allowed for the development of
complex and sedentary societies.
1. Religion and Spirituality:
Indigenous cultures had diverse belief systems and
religious practices. Many of them revered nature and had
deities associated with natural elements like the sun, moon,
and earth. Rituals and ceremonies were an integral part of
their spiritual life.
2. Art and Culture:
Indigenous societies produced a wide range of artistic
expressions, including pottery, textiles, sculpture, and
paintings. These artworks often depicted religious and
cultural themes and reflected the creativity and
craftsmanship of these cultures.
3. Governance and Social Structures:
Indigenous societies had various forms of governance, from
tribal councils to monarchies. The Iroquois Confederacy,
for example, had a complex system of governance with
representatives from different tribes. In the Andean region,
the Inca Empire had a highly centralized authority.

3. Discovery of America
The ‘Discovery of America’ typically refers to the arrival of Christopher
Columbus, an Italian explorer sailing under the flag of Spain, in the
Americas on October 12, 1492. Columbus's voyage is a significant event
in world history because it marked the beginning of European
exploration and contact with the previously unknown continents of the
Americas.
Background:
In the late 15th century, European powers were seeking new trade
routes to Asia and the riches it offered. Traditional routes to the
East, controlled by the Ottoman Empire, were becoming
increasingly difficult to navigate.
Columbus's Ambitions:
Christopher Columbus, convinced that he could reach Asia by
sailing westward across the Atlantic Ocean, sought the support of
Spain's Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, to undertake
his ambitious voyage.
The First Voyage:
On August 3, 1492, Columbus set sail from the Spanish port of
Palos with three small ships: the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the
Niña.
After a long and perilous journey, on October 12, 1492, Columbus
and his crew made landfall in the Bahamas in the Caribbean,
specifically on an island he named San Salvador.
Subsequent Voyages:
Columbus's initial voyage was followed by three more voyages to
the Americas in 1493, 1498, and 1502. During these voyages, he
explored various Caribbean islands, parts of Central and South
America, and the coast of present-day Venezuela.
Impact and Consequences:
• Columbus’s voyages initiated the Age of Exploration, during
which European powers explored and established American
colonies.
• The ‘Columbian Exchange’ began, resulting in the exchange
of goods, plants, animals, and cultures between the Old
World (Europe, Africa, and Asia) and the New World (the
Americas).
• Columbus's voyages paved the way for other European
explorers and eventually led to the colonization of the
Americas by Spain, Portugal, England, France, and the
Netherlands.
• The contact between the Old World and the New World had
profound and often devastating consequences for indigenous
populations, including the introduction of diseases, forced
labor, and displacement.

4. • Pre-Colonial Period (Before 1492):
• Socio-Political Background: North America was
inhabited by various indigenous civilizations, including the
Aztec, Maya, Inca, and numerous Native American tribes.
These societies had diverse political structures, from
chiefdoms to advanced empires like the Aztec and Inca.
• Cultural Background: Pre-colonial cultures were rich and
varied, with unique languages, art, and traditions. These
cultures had complex agricultural systems and made
significant advancements in areas such as astronomy,
mathematics, and architecture.
• Religious Background: Indigenous peoples practiced a
wide range of spiritual beliefs and religions, often centered
around nature and animism. Spiritual practices were deeply
integrated into daily life.

5. • Colonial Period (Late 15th century to 18th century):
• Socio-Political Background: European colonial powers,
such as Spain, Portugal, France, and England, established
American colonies. Each colony had its own governance
structure, often under the authority of a European
monarchy.
• Cultural Background: European colonists brought their
languages, customs, and traditions to the New World.
Cultural exchanges with indigenous peoples and Africans
brought as slaves led to the blending of cultures.
• Religious Background: European colonists brought
Christianity to the Americas, with various denominations
establishing missions and churches. This marked the
beginning of religious diversity in the region.

6. • American Revolution and Early Republic (Late 18th
century to early 19th century):
• Socio-Political Background: The American Revolution
(1775-1783) resulted in the formation of the United
States as an independent nation. The U.S. Constitution
was adopted in 1787, establishing a federal system of
government.
• Cultural Background: The early republic was
influenced by Enlightenment ideals, promoting reason,
liberty, and individualism. This period saw the
development of American literature, art, and intellectual
thought.
• Religious Background: The First Amendment to the
Constitution protected religious freedom, leading to the
proliferation of various Christian denominations and the
growth of religious pluralism.

7. • 19th Century and Westward Expansion:
• Socio-Political Background: The 19th century was
marked by westward expansion, territorial acquisitions,
and debates over issues like slavery, manifest destiny,
and states' rights. The Civil War (1861-1865) resolved
some of these conflicts and led to the abolition of
slavery.
• Cultural Background: The expansion westward
brought cultural diversity, and the frontier experience
shaped American identity. Industrialization and
urbanization transformed society, leading to the
emergence of urban culture.
• Religious Background: Religious revivals and the
Second Great Awakening (early 19th century) had a
significant impact, leading to the growth of evangelical
Christianity and new religious movements.

8. • 20th Century to Contemporary Period:
• Socio-Political Background: The 20th century saw the
United States become a global superpower. It
experienced significant social and political movements,
including the civil rights movement, women's rights
movement, and environmental movements.
• Cultural Background: American culture became a
dominant force worldwide, influenced by Hollywood,
music, and technology. Cultural diversity continued to
expand with immigration from various parts of the
world.
• Religious Background: The United States remained
religiously diverse, with a growing emphasis on
individual spirituality. New religious movements and
non-religious or secular perspectives gained
prominence.

9. Timeline of American Literature:
• The following timeline shows the period of each American literary movement and its duration.
• Pre-colonial: Native American Literature
• 1620-1750: Puritan Literature
• 1607-1775: Colonial Literature
• 1775-1783: Revolutionary Age
• 1775-1830: Early National Literature
• 1830-1865: American Romanticism and Transcendentalism
• 1865-1914: Naturalism
• 1914-1940: Modernism and Experimentation
• 1945- Present: Postmodernism

11. The independence of America refers to the American Revolution and the
subsequent establishment of the United States of America as an independent
nation. Here is an overview of the key events and developments that led to
American independence:
1. Colonial Period: The American colonies were originally established by
European powers, primarily Britain, in the 17th and 18th centuries. Over
time, these colonies developed their own distinct identities and economies.
2. French and Indian War (1754-1763): This conflict between Britain and
France for control of North America had significant consequences for the
American colonies. It left Britain with a massive war debt, leading to
attempts to raise revenue from the colonies.
3. Taxation without Representation: The British government attempted to raise
revenue from the American colonies through various taxes and acts, such as
the Stamp Act (1765) and the Townshend Acts (1767). Colonists opposed
these measures, arguing that they were being taxed without their consent.
4. Boston Tea Party (1773): In protest of the Tea Act, which gave the British
East India Company a monopoly on tea sales in the colonies, American
colonists dressed as Native Americans, boarded British ships in Boston
Harbor, and dumped crates of tea into the water.

12. 5. Continental Congress: In response to the growing tensions, delegates from the
colonies convened the First Continental Congress in 1774 in Philadelphia. This
assembly discussed grievances and began organizing a coordinated response to
British policies.
6. Declaration of Independence: On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental
Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, drafted primarily by Thomas
Jefferson. This document proclaimed the colonies' independence from Britain
and articulated the principles of individual rights and self-determination.
7. Revolutionary War (1775-1783): The Declaration of Independence marked the
official beginning of the American Revolutionary War. American forces, known
as Patriots, fought against British troops. The conflict saw significant battles,
including the Battle of Saratoga and the Siege of Yorktown.
8. Treaty of Paris (1783): The war ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1783,
recognizing the United States as an independent nation. The treaty also
established the boundaries of the new nation, stretching from the Atlantic Ocean
to the Mississippi River.
9. Constitution and Government: Following independence, the United States
adopted the Articles of Confederation as its first constitution but later replaced it
with the United States Constitution in 1787. The Constitution established the
framework for the federal government and remains the supreme law of the land.

13. • Pre-colonial Native American literature encompasses a rich and diverse tradition of oral storytelling, myths, legends, songs, and
oratory passed down through generations among the indigenous peoples of North America. Oral Tradition: Most pre-colonial Native
American literature was transmitted orally rather than in written form. Storytelling was a central means of passing down knowledge,
traditions, and beliefs from one generation to the next.
1. Myths and Legends: Native American cultures developed a rich tapestry of myths and legends that explained the origins of the world,
the creation of the first humans, and the relationships between humans, animals, and the natural world. These myths often featured
iconic figures such as the trickster (e.g., Coyote, Raven) and hero figures.
2. Creation Stories: Creation stories were a common element in Native American literature. These narratives described how the world
existed and how humans emerged within it. Creation stories were closely tied to the cultural and spiritual beliefs of each tribe.
3. Ceremonial Songs and Dances: Music and dance were integral to Native American literature. Ceremonial songs and dances were used
in religious and cultural rituals, conveying stories, spiritual connections, and communal identity.
4. Tribal Histories: Tribes had their own historical accounts and narratives that recounted their migrations, conflicts, alliances, and
interactions with other tribes. These tribal histories were important for preserving a sense of identity and heritage.
5. Oratory and Rhetoric: Oratory and public speaking were highly developed skills among many Native American cultures. Leaders and
elders used speeches to convey wisdom, settle disputes, make decisions, and inspire their communities.

14. • The Colonial Period (1607–1775)
• This period encompasses the founding of Jamestown up to a decade before the
Revolutionary War. The majority of writings were historical, practical, or religious
in nature. Some writers not to miss from this period include Phillis Wheatley,
Cotton Mather, William Bradford, Anne Bradstreet, and John Winthrop. The first
account of an enslaved African person, "A Narrative of the Uncommon Sufferings,
and Surprizing Deliverance of Briton Hammon, a Negro Man," was published
during this period, in 1760 Boston.

15. • JOHN SMITH (1580–1631) is considered the
first American writer. He was an explorer and
colonist; he helped found Jamestown in 1607.
• His A True Relation of Virginia is said to be the
first American book written in English. It
describes the problems of colonizing the area.
• WILLIAM BRADFORD (1590–1657) was a
Puritan writer who described life in the early
English settlements. His book Of Plymouth
Plantation is full of religious topics and
depictions of a difficult life in the colony.
• ANNE BRADSTREET (1612–1672) wrote
lyrical, religious and personal poetry. She is
the author of To My Dear and Loving
Husband.
• MARY ROWLANDSON (1637–1711) gives
us the image of a woman’s life in the
colonial period. Her A Narrative of the
Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary
Rowlandson tells her story of being
kidnapped by Native Americans. The book
became a bestselle

16. The Revolutionary Age (1765–1790)
Beginning a decade before the Revolutionary War and ending about 25
years later, this period includes the writings of Thomas Jefferson,
Thomas Paine, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton. This is
arguably the richest period of political writing since classical antiquity.
Important works include the “Declaration of Independence,” "The
Federalist Papers," and the poetry of Joel Barlow and Philip Freneau.

17. • The Early National Period (1775–1828)
• This era in American literature is responsible for notable first works,
such as the first American comedy written for the stage—"The
Contrast" by Royall Tyler, written in 1787—and the first American
Novel—"The Power of Sympathy" by William Hill, written in 1789.
Washington Irving, James Fenimore Cooper, and Charles Brockden
Brown are credited with creating distinctly American fiction, while
Edgar Allan Poe and William Cullen Bryant began writing poetry that
was markedly different from that of the English tradition.

18. • The American Renaissance (1828–1865)
• Romantic Age/American Transcendentalism
• Also known as the Romantic Period in America and the Age of Transcendentalism, this
period is commonly accepted to be the greatest of American literature. Major writers
include Walt Whitman, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Nathaniel
Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, and Herman Melville. Emerson, Thoreau, and Margaret
Fuller are credited with shaping the literature and ideals of many later writers. Other major
contributions include the poetry of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and the short stories of
Melville, Poe, Hawthorne, and Harriet Beecher Stowe. Additionally, this era was the
inauguration point of American literary criticism, led by Poe, James Russell Lowell, and
William Gilmore Simms. 1853 and 1859 brought the first novels written by African
American authors, both male and female: "Clotel," by William Wells Brown and "Our
Nig," by Harriet E. Wilson.

19. • Transcendentalism is a philosophical, spiritual, and literary movement that
developed in the late 1820s and 1830s in the New England region of the
United States.
• A core belief is in the inherent goodness of people and nature, and while
society and its institutions have corrupted the purity of the individual,
people are at their best when truly "self-reliant" and independent.
• Transcendentalists saw divine experience inherent in the everyday, rather
than believing in a distant heaven. Transcendentalists saw physical and
spiritual phenomena as part of dynamic processes rather than discrete
entities.

20. • Transcendentalism is closely related to Unitarianism,
a religious movement in Boston in the early
nineteenth century. It started to develop after
Unitarianism took hold at Harvard University,
following the elections of Henry Ware as the Hollis
Professor of Divinity in 1805 and of John Thornton
Kirkland as President in 1810. Transcendentalism was
not a rejection of Unitarianism; rather, it developed as
an organic consequence of the Unitarian emphasis on
free conscience and the value of intellectual reason.
The transcendentalists were not content with the
sobriety, mildness, and calm rationalism of
Unitarianism. Instead, they longed for a more intense
spiritual experience. Thus, transcendentalism was not
born as a counter-movement to Unitarianism, but as a
parallel movement to the very ideas introduced by the
Unitarians.
• Transcendentalism became a coherent movement
and a sacred organization with the founding of the
Transcendental Club in Cambridge, Massachusetts,
on September 12, 1836, by prominent New England
intellectuals, including George Putnam (Unitarian
minister), Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Frederic
Henry Hedge. Other club members included Sophia
Ripley, Margaret Fuller, Elizabeth Peabody, Ellen
Sturgis Hooper, and Caroline Sturgis Tappan. Male
members included Amos Bronson Alcott, Orestes
Brownson, Theodore Parker, Henry David Thoreau,
William Henry Channing, James Freeman Clarke,
Christopher Pearse Cranch, Convers Francis,
Sylvester Judd, Jones Very, and Charles Stearns
Wheeler.
• From 1840, the group frequently published in their
journal, The Dial, along with other venues.

21. • Nature as a Source of Inspiration: Transcendentalists
believed that nature was a direct manifestation of the
divine and that it held spiritual truths. They often
sought solace and inspiration in nature, viewing it as
a source of wisdom and a reflection of the divine
order.
• Self-Reliance: Transcendentalists placed a strong
emphasis on individualism and self-reliance. They
believed in the importance of trusting one's own
intuition and inner guidance rather than conforming
to societal norms or depending on external
authorities.
• Intuition and Imagination: Transcendentalists valued
intuition and imagination as tools for understanding
the world and accessing higher truths. They believed
that individuals could attain profound insights
through introspection and self-exploration.
• Rejecting Materialism: They were critical of the
materialistic and consumer-driven culture of their
time. They believed that an excessive focus on
material wealth and possessions hindered spiritual
growth and fulfillment.
• Emphasis on Spirituality: Transcendentalists were
interested in exploring the spiritual dimensions of
human existence. They often rejected organized
religion and sought a more personal and direct
connection with the divine or the "Oversoul."
• Social Reform: Many Transcendentalists were
also social reformers who advocated for causes
such as abolitionism (the movement to abolish
slavery), women's rights, and education reform.
They believed that individuals should work to
improve society and promote social justice.
• Optimism and Utopianism: Transcendentalists
were generally optimistic about the potential for
personal and societal improvement. Some even
embraced utopian ideals, envisioning a
harmonious and spiritually enlightened society.
• Nonconformity: They encouraged nonconformity
and a willingness to go against the grain of
conventional wisdom and societal expectations.
This attitude was often expressed through acts of
civil disobedience and a rejection of unjust laws.

22. The Realistic Period (1865–1900)
• As a result of the American Civil War, Reconstruction and the age of
industrialism, American ideals and self-awareness changed in
profound ways, and American literature responded. Certain romantic
notions of the American Renaissance were replaced by realistic
descriptions of American life, such as those represented in the works
of William Dean Howells, Henry James, and Mark Twain. This period
also gave rise to regional writing, such as the works of Sarah Orne
Jewett, Kate Chopin, Bret Harte, Mary Wilkins Freeman, and George
W. Cable. In addition to Walt Whitman, another master poet, Emily
Dickinson, appeared at this time.

23. • The American Realistic Period, often referred to as American Literary
Realism, was a literary movement in the United States that emerged in
the late 19th century and reached its peak in the late 19th to early 20th
century. It was characterized by a focus on depicting everyday life and
the experiences of ordinary people with a commitment to portraying
reality in a detailed and objective manner.

24. • Reaction to Romanticism: Realism was a reaction against the Romantic literary movement that had
dominated American literature in the first half of the 19th century. While Romanticism celebrated
emotion, imagination, and the exotic, Realism sought to depict life as it was, without
embellishment.
• Emphasis on Detail and Accuracy: Realist writers were meticulous in their attention to detail and
accuracy. They aimed to provide precise and objective descriptions of characters, settings, and
events, often drawing from firsthand observation or research.
• Portrayal of Everyday Life: Realist literature often focused on the lives of ordinary people and the
mundane aspects of daily existence. It explored the challenges, struggles, and aspirations of
common individuals.
• Character Development: Realist writers paid significant attention to character development,
creating well-rounded and believable characters with complex motivations, flaws, and desires.
These characters often faced moral dilemmas and ethical choices.

25. • Regionalism and Local Color: Realism frequently incorporated regional settings and dialects to
capture the distinct cultural and social characteristics of different parts of the United States. This
approach is sometimes referred to as "local color."
• Social Critique: Many Realist works offered social commentary and critiqued the issues and injustices
of the time, such as class disparities, industrialization, urbanization, and the impact of societal changes
on individuals and communities.
• Prominent Authors: Some of the most notable American Realist authors include Mark Twain (known
for "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn"), Henry James (known for "The Portrait of a Lady"), Edith
Wharton (known for "The Age of Innocence"), and Stephen Crane (known for "The Red Badge of
Courage").
• Naturalism: Realism is closely related to Naturalism, another literary movement that emerged around
the same time. Naturalism took the realistic approach further by emphasizing the role of environment
and heredity in shaping human behavior and often depicted characters as victims of their
circumstances.

26. • The Naturalist Period (1900–1914)
• This relatively short period is defined by its insistence on recreating
life as life really is, even more so than the realists had been doing in
the decades before. American Naturalist writers such as Frank Norris,
Theodore Dreiser, and Jack London created some of the most
powerfully raw novels in American literary history. Their characters
are victims who fall prey to their own base instincts and to economic
and sociological factors. Edith Wharton wrote some of her most
beloved classics, such as "The Custom of the Country" (1913), "Ethan
Frome" (1911), and "The House of Mirth" (1905) during this time
period.

27. • The Modern Period (1914–1939)
• After the American Renaissance, the Modern Period is the second most influential and
artistically rich age of American writing. Its major writers include such powerhouse poets
as E.E. Cummings, Robert Frost, Ezra Pound, William Carlos Williams, Marianne Moore,
Langston Hughes, Carl Sandburg, T.S. Eliot, Wallace Stevens, and Edna St. Vincent
Millay. Novelists and other prose writers of the time include Willa Cather, John Dos
Passos, Edith Wharton, F. Scott Fitzgerald, John Steinbeck, Ernest Hemingway, William
Faulkner, Gertrude Stein, Sinclair Lewis, Thomas Wolfe, and Sherwood Anderson.
• The Modern Period contains within it certain major movements including the Jazz Age, the
Harlem Renaissance, and the Lost Generation.
• Many of these writers were influenced by World War I and the disillusionment that
followed, especially the expatriates of the Lost Generation.
• Furthermore, the Great Depression and the New Deal resulted in some of America’s
greatest social issue writing, such as the novels of Faulkner and Steinbeck, and the drama
of Eugene O’Neill.

28. • The Contemporary Period (1939–Present)
• After World War II, American literature has become broad and varied in terms of theme,
mode, and purpose. Currently, there is little consensus as to how to go about classifying
the last 80 years into periods or movements—more time must pass, perhaps, before
scholars can make these determinations.
• That being said, there are a number of important writers since 1939 whose works may
already be considered “classic” and who are likely to become canonized. Some of these
very established names are Kurt Vonnegut, Amy Tan, John Updike, Eudora Welty, James
Baldwin, Sylvia Plath, Arthur Miller, Toni Morrison, Ralph Ellison, Joan Didion, Thomas
Pynchon, Elizabeth Bishop, Tennessee Williams, Philip Roth, Sandra Cisneros, Richard
Wright, Tony Kushner, Adrienne Rich, Bernard Malamud, Saul Bellow, Joyce Carol
Oates, Thornton Wilder, Alice Walker, Edward Albee, Norman Mailer, John Barth, Maya
Angelou, and Robert Penn Warren.