GROWTH AND DEVELOMENT-1.pptx

GROWTH&DEVELOPMENT
ArJuN RATHOD

INTRODUCTION
• CONTINEOUS AND TIMELY ASSESSMENT OF CHILD GROWTH
PARAMETERS ARE VERY ESSENTIAL TO FIND OUT THE DEVIATION
ABNORMALITIES AND NEED FOR FUTURE CARE OF CHILDREN.
• ASSESSMENT OF PHYSICAL GROWTH CAN BE DONE BY
ANTHROPOMETRIC MESURMENT AND THE STUDY OF PHYICAL
GROWTH
• NURSE ROLE IS VERY IMPORTANT THESE PARAMETER FOR GOOD
EVELUATION.

ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASUREMENT
• Weight is important element for assessment of growth and a good indicator
health and nutrition of child and care provided by parents.
• The weight of the full term neonate at birth is approximate 2.5 kg to 3.8 kg. in
indian babies. There is 20% loss of weight during first week of life which regains
by 10 days of age. Then weight gain is about 25-30 gm per day for first 3 months
and 40 gm per month till one year of age.
• The infant doubled their birth weight by the 5 months of age, tripled by one year
of age, four times by two years, five times by three years, six times by five years,
seven times by 7 years and 10 times by ten years of age.
• Then weight increases rapidly during puberty followed by gradual maturation to
adjust size. Measurement of weight is to be done by the use of weighing scale
accurately. Beam balance, electronic weighing machine and adult weighing
machine can be used according to availability

LENGTH OR HEIGHT
• Length or height: Height improvement indicates good skeletal growth. At
birth. average length of a healthy indian new born baby is 50 cm. It
increases to 60 cm at 3 months, 70 cm at 9 months.
• 50 cm at birth
• 60 cm-3 months
• 70 cm-9 months
• 75 cm - 1 year
• 12 cm increase in 2nd year
• 9 cm increase in 3rd year
• 7 cm increase in 4th year
• 6 cm increase in 5th year
• doubles the height 4-5 year of age.

CONT…..
• Height 5 cm increases in every year after the 5 years of age till the onset of
puberty.
• For measurement, infantometer or simple tape measures are used for
assessing the crown-heel length by placing the child on hard surface in
supine position with extended legs.
• In older children standing height is measured by vertical height scale with
tape measures. Standing height can be measured against a wall while the
child stands in bare feet on floor surface, arms hang by the side and
occiput, upper back, buttocks and heels touch the wall along with straight
head in parallel vision.
• A flat object is placed at top of the head and the height is then marked and
measured accurately by using simple tape measures and writing the
reading in records.

BMI (BODY MASS INDEX)
• Body mass index (BMI): BMI is an important base to assess the
normal growth and its deviations like: malnutrition and obesity to
child.
• BMI= Weight in kilogram/Height in (meter)2
• BMI remains constant upto the age of 5 years. If BMI is more than 30
kg/m², it indicates obesity and if it is less than 10kg/m², it indicates
malnutrition in children.

CIRCUMFERENCES
• HEAD
• Head circumference: It is good indicator of brain growth and development of intracranial
organ of child.
• Average head circumference is measured about = 35 cmat birth
• At 3 months it is about = 40 cm.
• At 6 months it is about = 43 cm.
• At 1yearit is about = 45 cm.
• At 2 years it is about = 48 cm.
• At 7yearsit is about = 50 cm.
• At 12 years it is about = 52 cm.
• Sometimes Head circumference increases more than 1 cm in two weeks during first 3
months of age, then hydrocehalus should be suspected. Large size of head may be found
in hydrocehalus

CONT….
• Large head is also known as macrocephaly. Small size head or microcephaly
is usually associated with premature closure of skull suture and found in
down syndrome, mental retardation. Abnormal type of head shape are –
• tomb shaped (oxycephaly)
• boat shaped (scaphocephaly)
• Asymmetrical (Plagiocephaly
• We can measure head circumference by ordinary tape placing it over the
occipital protuberence at the back, above the ears on the sides and just
over the supra orbital ridges in front and measure the point of highest
circumference and write the reading.

FONTANELLE CLOSURE
• Fontanelle Closure: Anterior and Posterior fontanelle are usually
present at birth.
• Posterior fontanelle closes early within few weeks (6-8 weeks) of age
• The anterior fontanelle normally closes by 12-18 months of age. Early
closure of fontanelles indicate craniostenosis due to premature
closure of skull suture

CHEST CIRCUMFERENCE
• Chest circumference: Measurement of thoracic diameter is an important
parameter of assessment of growth and nutritional status. At birth, chest
circumference is 2-8 cm less than head circumference.
• At 6 to 12 months of age both become equal. After one year of age, chest
circumference is greater about 2.5 cm than head circumference about 5
years of age. It is about 5 cm larger than head circumference and then
chest always exceeds.
• Abnormal shape of chest is found in rickets, malnutrition and congenital
heart disease. It is measured by placing the tape-measure around the chest
at the level of the nipples in between inspiration and expiration and write
the correct reading of chest circumference in record

CONT..
• Mid upper arm circumference: Mid-upper arm circumference helps to
find out the nutritional condition of children. There is growth
retardation due to inadequate nutrition, which can be detected by
this simple practical and useful measurement.
• At birth, average MUAC is about 11 to 12 cm. in a normal new born
baby.
• → at one year of Age it is about 12-16 cm
• → at 1 to 5 years of Age it is about 16-17 cm
• → at 12 years of Age it is about 17-18 cm
• → at 15 years of Age it is about 20 to 21 cm

CONT..
• or measuring MUAC, the left upper arm is measured gently without
compressing. The arm is measured while the hand is left hang freely.
• The measurement is taken at the mid point of upper arm between
the tip of acromian process of scapula and oleocranon process of
ulna.
• The simple tape measures are used. The arm should not have any
cloth and find the correct reading.

CONT…
• the time of eruption of teeth. First teeth commonly the lower central
incisors may appear in 6 to 7 months of age.
• It can be delayed even upto 15 months, which also can be considered
within the normal range of time for teething. So dentition is not a
dependable parameter for assessment of growth and development of
children.
• Growth and DevelopmentThere are two types of teeth-in
• Temporary teeth - For small face in small size.
• Permanent teeth- Bigger in size for growing face.

Osseous growth
• Bony growth is essential for the proper height of child. Bony growth follows
a definite pattern and time schedule from birth to maturation. It can be
calculated by the appearance of ossification center by x-ray study.
• Skeleton maturation is a good indicator of physiological development.
• Skeletal maturation starts from intrauterine life and continues upto 25
years of age. Full term neonate has five ossification centers namely distal
end of femur, proximal end of tibia, talus, calcaneus and cuboid.
• By 6 month age, two more ossification centre appear in carpal bones, e.g,
capitate and hamate bone of children
• At the age of 2 years child has 3 ossification centres develop at wrist.

SYSTEMIC CHANGES DURING G&D
• Respiratory changes: Respiratory rate in neonates is about 36 to 40
breaths per minutes and gradually it diminishes to 16 to 20 breaths
per minutes at 15 years.
• In newborn baby, the breathing is diaphragmatic and breath sound
brancho-vesicular. In infancy, it is mainly thoracic and breath sound is
vesicular.
• Sinuses gradually developing which complete within 7 years of age. In
young children, larynx is 1/3rd of adult size and maximum growth
occurs at puberty and gives adult shape slowly.

CONT..
• Cardio-vascular Changes: There are great changes which occur in
cardio-vascular system of child. Cardio-vascular closure of temporary
structures of fetal circulation occurs soon after birth and anatomical
closure occurs within 2 to 3 months.
• Apex beat shifted from 4th intercostal space to 5th intercostal space.
Pulse rate in newborn is in between 120 and 160 beats per minute, at
one year it is about 100 to 160 b/min. at 4 years it is about 80 to 130
b/ min. and slowly reach at the level of adult child.

CONT…
• 8 years it is about 70-100 b/minute.
• 15 years it is about 70 to 90 b/minute.
• 18 years it is about 70 to 80 b/minute.
• Blood pressure in neonate is 80/46 mm of Hg.
• 1 year it is about 96/66 mm of Hg
• 4 years it is about 99/65 mm of Hg
• Hb level in newborn baby is about 17 (14-20 gm/dl.)
• 3 months to 6 years - it is about 12 gm/dl.
• Older children 14-16 gm/dl

CONT….
• Brain growth: In children brain growth occurs 2/3 rd in first year,
4/5th in second year and fully developed within 5 years of extra
uterine life.
• Gastro-intestinal System: G.I. system includes secretary enzymes of
the digestive tract which are usually adequate for the newborn baby.
• Liver in neonate is usually 4 percent of body weight and increases
gradually to 10 times in puberty from 1500 to 2300 gms at 15 years.
Liver is palpable throughout the childhood usually upto 18 months of
age of child.

CONT…….
• Urinary system: In newborn the kidneys are large at birth. The urine
amount gradually increases from 250 ml in neonate to 1200 ml in 14 years.
• The amount of creatinine is low in infants about 10-20 mg/kg/day which
gradually changes to 5-40 mg/kg/day in older children.
• Lymphoid Tissue and Immunity: The growth of lymphoid tissue (spleen,
tonsils, thymus) reaches its peak at 6 to 7 years which becomes about
double of adult size.
• Synthesis of gamma globulin antibodies ordinarily begins after 2 to 4
weeks of age.
• Then depending upon the antigenic stimuli, the gammaglobulin level
increases and usually reaches the adult range (700 to 1200 mg/100ml) by
the 3 to 4 years of age and starts function as adult child.

CONT….
• Hormonal changes: In Newborn thyroid is well developed at birth and
islets cells of pancreas are relatively large.
• The adrenal glands are large and become proportionate within one
year. Testicular and ovarian hormones appear at puberty age.
• Sexual development: Related to sexual development, puberty
changes of adolescence may be detectable as early as 7 to 8 years of
age. The process of maturation of adolescence continues till the
attainment of physical, emotional and mental maturity of adulthood
and Function of adulthood.

CHANGES IN PUBERTY(ADOLESENCE)

CONT…
• Adolescence begins with the onset of puberty. It is defined by the
UNICEF as "the sequence of events by which the individual is
transformed into a young adult by a series of biologica changes." It is
the period of development of secondary sex characteristics.
• Adolescence period extends from the onset of puberty till the time
sexual maturation is completed.
• According to WHO, adolescence is the period of life that extends from
10 years to 19 years. It is divided in three phases early, middle and
late adolescence.

CONT….
• Important puberty changes In girls
• It includes Accelerated growth in weight and height gain.
• Breast changes like pigmentation of areola and enlargement of breast
tissue and nipple.
• Increase in pelvic girth mainly the transverse diameter.
• Appearance of pubic hair and change in vaginal secretion
• .Activation of axillary sweat gland
• .Appearance of axillary hair.
• Onset of menstruation (menarche) First bleed occurs Abrupt slowing
of gain in height.

CONT…
• Important order of puberty changes in boys
• It includes -Increase in weight and height gain.
• Increase in the size of external genitalia.
• Appearance of pubic hair followed by hair in axilla, upper lip, groin,
thigh and between symphysis pubis and umbilicus.
• Appearance of facial hair, two years after the pubic hair.-
• Changes in voice as cracking then deepening.
• Discharge of semen during sleep.
• Abrupt slowing in height gain.

AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT
• n human, there are different areas of development which include
main four separate areas like-gross motor, fine motor adaptive,
language and personal social behaviour.
• These divisions of development are arbitrary.
• They all usually progress together in the process of maturation and
learning and slowly give symptoms of adulthood.
• (1) Motor development: Motor development depends upon
maturation of muscular, skeletal and nervous system. It is usually
termed as gross and fine motor development.

CONT…
• (a) Gross motor development: Involves control of the child over
his/her body by increasing mobility.
• It is assessed by supine position, prone position, turning, reaching the
object etc.
• The important gross motor development milestones include head
holding, sitting, standing, walking, running, climbing upstairs, riding
tricycles etc.

CONT…
• Fine motor development: Fine motor development depends upon
neural tract maturation. Initial neurological reflexes are replaced by
purposeful activities.
• Fine motor development promotes adoptive activities with fine
sensorimotor adjustment and includes eye-coordination, hand
coordination, hand to mouth co-ordination. Hand skill as finger
thumb apposition, grasping dressing etc.
• Motor development is not affected by sex, or geographical area or
parental education. It is mostly affected by nutritional status and
adverse environmental influence on child.

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
• Language development: It is skill of communication with
development of true speech. It depends upon learning, level of
understanding, power of imitation and encouragement.

PERSONAL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
• ) Personal and social development: It includes personal reactions to
his own social and cultural situation with neuromotor maturity and
environmental stimuli. It is related to interpersonal and social skill as
social smile, recognition of mother, use of toys, play and mimicry.

SENSORY DEVELOPMENT
• Sensory development: It depends upon myelinization of nervous
system and responds to specific stimuli as taste, smell, touch and
hearing are initial senses present in newborn babies.
• The visual system is the fast to mature at 6 to 7 years.

SOCIAL DEVLOPMENT
• Social development: Socialization is achieved through the training of
the child by meeting and communicating with peoples and
participating in the group activities.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT
• Intellectual development: Depends upon genetic inheritance and
environmental influences through mental maturation and
achievement of intelligence.
• It occurs as a result of maturation of innate abilities learning by
association of stimulus, expense, reinforcement of appropriate
behaviours and insight.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT
• Moral development: It helps in formation of value system. It is not
acquired by simply following rules of society but through an internal
and personal series of changes in attitudes.
• Moral development parallels mental development and consists of two
stages ie respect for rules, and a sense of justice.

CONT….
• Development of body image: It occurs as a mental picture of what
the body is like along with certain attitudes towards it and its parts.
• It includes both the conscious and unconscious feeling about the
body. It is closely related with ideas of self worth and acceptance by
family and peers.

SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT
• Spiritual development: It is closely related to cultural background and
influences the family relationship and responsibilities.
• It is expressed through religious belief, rituals.
• symbols specific to religious traditions and faith.
• It is multi dimensional(imp) and a way of learning about life as an
ongoing process.

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
• Emotional development: Personality is the composite of
physiological, psychological and sociological qualities of the
individual.

PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
• The sex of child determine generally at the time of conception
• development of sexuality after birth is influenced by the development
of physical, mental, emotional and I sociocultural aspect of living.
Human sexuality is expressed in everyday life.
• It refers to the total quality of an individual, not just to the genitals
and their functions. It is normal human process that expresses itself
in a vast range of individual variability.
• It is related to many aspects of total personality functions. It is
concerned with cultural beliefs, attitudes, feeling like loving and
caring, sex-role, stereotypes, self- image, body image and spiritual
values. Open communication improves human sexual functioning.

• According to Sigmund Freud the development of sexuality proceeds
in different stages, i.e. oral, anal, phallic, latency, puberty and
geniality.
• Freud believed that sexual feelings do not suddenly emerge during
puberty and adolescence. They are present from infancy and
gradually change from one form to another until adult sexual life is
achieved.
• Freudian psychoanalytic theory with its stages of psychosexual
development has greatly influenced modern psychiatric thinking.
• In each stages, instinctual sexual energy (libido) is invested in
different biologic areas of body.
• These areas determine how the child interacts with other people.
Freud's phases of psychosexual development include

• The oral stage includes roughly the period of infancy, the first year of
life. T
• he greatest sensual satisfaction is obtained through stimulation of
oral region or sensory area of mouth as in breastfeeding and sucking.

• The anal stage includes the toddler period, the second and third
years of life. Gratification is obtained from the anal and urethral areas
through holding or expelling faces or urine.

The phallic stage includes the preschool period, the 4th and 5th years
of life. The greatest sensual enjoyment is obtained from the genital
region by fondling the genitals.
The oedipal complex develops in this stage. The child loves and feels
attraction to the parent of opposite sex and the parent of same sex is
considered as rival.

• The latency stage includes the school age from 6th to 12th year of life
(roughly). In this stage sexual interests are repressed and lie dormant.
• The child develops close relationship with others of same sex and
same age. This is period of gang formation, gang loyalties and fierce.
Oedipal conflict resolved in this stage.

• The pubescent stage and adolescence include the period from 12
years of age to adulthood. In this period of puberty and geniality, the
secondary sexual characteristics appear in both sexes with experience
of romanticism and emotional changes.
• The psychosexual conflict of oedipal period revived in the phase.
With the resolve of that conflicts, the child develops normal
heterosexual relationship and feels attraction with opposite sex.
• The normal heterosexual relationship is determined by family
relationship and social experiences of the child rather than biologic
factors alone. Early learning of gender role or sexual identity is very
important in determining gender identify of human beings in later
life.

DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONE
• Different children have the different pattern of mile stones
development, some develop early and some develop as delayed.
Development is the functional maturation of organs. Developmental
milestones are physical or behavioral signs of development of
infants and children.
• It depends upon neuromuscular maturity, genetic determinants and
environment influences, Indian infants attain their developmental
milestones earlier than the Europeans.
• The average achievement levels in different age group of children up
to 12 years of age are described in following ways.

INFANTS (0-12 MONTH)
• 1 to 2 months: During this period, newborn is able to lift the chin on
prone position.
• Child regard bright coloured object at 20 cm distance. Child cries
when hungry or at discomfort. The child able to turn head towards
sound.

• 2-3 months: In this age, period, child able to lift the head and front
part of the chest and slowly weight comes on chest to extended arm
• At this age child can follow moving objects with eye movement and
able to focus eyes. In this age produce 'cooing' sound and enjoy the
people taking with her/him and each other.
• Recognize the mother and turn head to sound.

• 4-5 months: Child can hold head steadily in upright position.
• Child able to hold a rattle and bring to mouth can reach a thing and
grasp it strongly in the palm.
• Give respond by making sound and laugh out loudly.

• 5-6 months: Child able to sit with support can hold the cube and can
transfer from one hand to another.
• Try to imitate sound and enjoy own mirror image.
• 7-8 months: In this age child able to sit without support. Child able to
roll in the bed from back to side then back to abdomen. Child
produce bubbles and able to say the "da lama, pa" (monosyllabic)
words. Child able to recognize unknown person and showing the
anxiety.

• 8-9 months: Child able to crawl on abdomen, able to speak Da-Da,
Ma-Ma, Pa-Pa(disyllabic) words without meaning.
• 9-10 months: Child able to creep on hands and knees, can stand with
support e.g. furniture, able to pick up a pellet with thumb and index
finger.
• Child understand the emotions like anger, anxiety, Bye-bye and want
to please care givers say babe with meaning.

• 10-12 months: Child can stand without support and can walk with
furniture holding.
• Able to feed himself/herself. Pick up smell bits of food and take to
mouth able to push toy like car along and play simple ball game, can
able to speak 3-5 meaningful words and understand several words
meaning.
• Respond for affection through the kiss by other person.

• (B). Toddlers:
• 15 months: At this age child able to walk alone, can walk several steps
sidewise and few steps backwards Can feed himself or herself without
spilling. Able to turn 2-3 pages at a time.

• 18 months: Child can creep up stairs. Able to feed from cup. Take
shoes and socks OFF. Want potty, point the parts of body, if asked.
Build tower of two books and stop taking toys to mouth.
• Use 6 to 20 words. Copy mother's action.

• 2 years: During 2 year child able to run and try to climb upstairs by
resting on each step and then climbing up on next. Put shoes and
socks on. Can remove pants.
• Build tower of sixth seven blocks. Can copy and draw a horizontal and
vertical line.
• Control bladder at day times (dry by day) speak simple sentences
without use of verb.

• 3 years: At this age child can walk on tip toes and stand on one leg for
seconds. Jump with both feet. Climb up stairs by co-ordinated
manner. Ride tricycle. Can dress and undress. Brush teeth with help.
• Can draw a circle. Build tower of nine blocks. Has vocabulary of about
250 words. Know own.name and sex.
• Achieve bladder control at night (dry by night). Fear with in dark.
Interacts and play simple games with peer groups.

• (c) Pre school
• (3 to 6 years):At this age child can jump and hop. Able to draw a cross
(+) by 4 years and tilted cross by 5 years of age. Can draw a rectangle
by 4 years and a triangle by 5 years.
• Able to copy letters. Can tell stories and describe recent experience.
Become independent, impatient, aggressive physically and verbally.
• Jealous of sibling but gradually improve in behaviour and manner.

• (d) School Age (6 to 8 years):
• At this age child can able to run, jump, top and climb with better co-
ordination. Develop better hand-eye-co-ordination.
• Able to write better and take self care. Able to use complete
sentences to express feelings and follow commands. Play in groups
learn discipline. Appreciate praise and recognition.

• 8 to 10 years:
• This age group child able to play actively with different physical skill.
Improved writing skill and speed.
• Use short and compact sentences. Participate in family discussion.
Peer group involvement and increased awareness about sex role.

• 10 to 12 years: This age group children are able to develop and fulfil
manipulative activities and games.
• Able to use parts of speech correctly.
• Accepts suggestions and instruction obediently.
• May show short burst of anger and slowly become down.

Important Developmental Milestones at a
Glance up to 3 Years Social
• smile: 6 to 8 weeks
• Head holding: 3 months
• Sitting with support: 5 to 6 months
• Sitting without support: 7 to 8 months
• Reaches out to an object and holds it: 5 to 6 months
• Transfers object from one hand to other: 6 to 7 months
• Holding small object between index finger and thumb: 9 months
• Creeping: 10 to 11 months
• Standing with support: 9 months
• Standing without support: 10 to 12 months

Cont.….
• Walking without support: 13 to 15 months
• Feeding self with spoon: 12 to 15 months
• Running: 18 months
• Climbing upstairs: 20 to 24 months
• Says bisyllables words (da-da, ba-ba): 8 to 9 months
• Says two words with meaning: 12 months
• Says ten words with meaning: 18 months
• Says simple sentence: 24 months .
• Tells story: 36 months
• Takes shoes and socks off: 15 to 18 months
• Puts shoes and socks on: 24 months

ASSESSMENT OF DEVELOPMENT
• Assessment of development is essential to detect abnormal
developmental delays.
• The most widely used screening test for detecting developmental
delays in infancy and preschool years is known as Denver
Developmental Screening Test (DDST). It is a worldwide popular test
developed in 1967, for the assessment of development in four areas,
I.E. gross motor, fine motor-adaptive, language and personal-social
behavior.
• There are 105 items, some of which are indeed difficult to administer.
It is inappropriate for children with mothers having poor education.
• It has less items related to language. DDST was modified in 1992 in
the form of Denver II or modified DDST with 125 items.

• Other developmental screening tests include DASII Scale Peer group
(Developmental Assessment Scale of Indian Infant). Baroda DST,
Trivandrum DST, Gessell DST, Bayley DST, Woodside manipulative DST,
cognitive adaptive test, Early language milestones scale.
• In India, Baroda screening Test was developed by Dr. Promila Phatak
with 25 test items primarily for psychological aspects. The test is
relevant for age 0 to 30 months Gross motor, fine motor and cognitive
aspects are evaluated in 10 minutes mainly by the psychologists.
• Trivandrum development screening test is the simplified version of
Baroda DST that can be used by the health workers and nurses and
pediatricians/physicians. It has 17 test items relevant for 0 to 2 years
of age. The children are evaluated in three domains, i.e. gross motor,
fine motors and cognitive for 5 minutes only. presents Trivandrum
Develop ment Screening Test (TDST).

Approaches of Development Screening
• Informal screening during routine paediatric check up and collecting
history from parents.
• Routine formal screening in systemic developmental screening of all
children with the help of standardized screening instruments
• Focus in screening in suspected development problem.

IMMUNIZATION
• Immunization is a process of protecting an individual from. A disease
through introduction of live, or killed or attenuated organisms in the
individual system
• immunization against vaccine-preventable diseases is essential to
reduce the child mortality, morbidity and handicapped conditions. It
is mass means of protecting the largest number of people from
various diseases. It gives resistance to an infectious diseases by
producing or augmenting the immunity. Artificially acquired immunity
is developed by the immunization.

VACCINE PREVENTABLE DISSEASE
• Some infectious diseases can be prevented by vaccines. The diseases
against which vaccines are currently available:
• a. Six-killer vaccine preventable diseases, i.e. Poliomyelitis,
Tuberculosis, Diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanus and Measles.
• b. Other vaccine preventable diseases include Hepatitis 'B', Mumps,
Rubella, Homophiles influenza type B infections, Typhoid,
Meningococcal meningitis, Japanese encephalitis, Influenza,
Pneumococcal pneumonia, Chickenpox, Rotavirus diarrheal, Yellow
fever, Cholera, Malaria, Hepatitis 'A', Plague and Rabies.

NATIONAL IMMUNIZATION SCHEDULE
• Immunization schedule should be planned according to the needs of
the community. It should be relevant with existing's community
health problems. It must be effective, feasible and acceptable by the
community. Every country has its own, immunization schedule.
• The WHO, launched global immunization program in 1974, known as
Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI) to protect all children of
the world against six killer diseases. In India. EPI was launched in
January 1978.
• The EPI is now renamed as Universal Child Immunization, as per
declaration sponsored by UNICEF. In India, it is called as Universal
Immunization Program (UIP) and was launched in 1985, November,
for the universal coverage of immunization to the eligible population.

• The Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI) is
worldwide coalition of organization, established in 1999, to reduce
disparities in life-saving vaccine access and increase global
immunization coverage.
• GAVI is collaborative mission of Govt., NGOs, UNICEF, WHO and World
Bank.
• The GAVI and Vaccine Fund also adopted the objective of new
introduction but under used vaccines in the developing countries,
where the diseases like hepatitis-B and H. influenza 'B' (Hib) are highly
prevalent.

• National Immunization Schedule as recommended By Government of
India for uniform implementation throughout the country was
formulated.
• The schedule contents the age at which the vaccines are best given
and the number of doses recommended for each vaccine. The
schedule also covers immunization of women during pregnancy
against tetanus

Note…..
• i. Interval between 2 doses should not be less than one month.
• ii. Minor cough, colds and mild fever or diarrhoea are not a
contraindication to vaccination.
• iii. In some states hepatitis 'B' vaccine is given as routine
immunization.
• iv. At 9 months of age, vitamin 'A' oil should be given orally with
recommended dose and then to be continued at six months interval
unto 5 years of age.

• v. Measles "Booster dose" is now recommended in children at the age
of 16 to 24 months.
• vi. Interruption of the schedule with a delay between doses not
interfere with the final immunity achieved. There is no basis for the
mistaken belief, that if a second or third dose in an immunization is
delayed, the immunization schedule must be started all over again.
So, if the child missed a dose, the whole schedule need not be
repeated again.

COLD CHAIN
• The 'cold chain' is a system of storage, transport and distribution of
vaccines in the state of efficacy and potency at recommended
temperature from the manufacturer to the actual recipient of the
vaccine.
• The failure of cold chain system may lead to ineffective protection
against the vaccine preventable diseases. Maintenance of cold chain
is the corner stone for the success of immunization program.
• All vaccines must be stored, transported and distributed at the
recommended temperature by the manufacturer in the literature
accompanying the vaccine, otherwise they may become denatured
and totally ineffective with loss of potency. For successful cold chain
system, three elements are essential, i.e. cold chain equipment,
transportation system and motivation and training of the workers for
maintenance of cold chain link.

• Among all vaccines, polio is the most heat sensitive, requiring storage
at -20°C. Polio and measles vaccines must be stored in the freezer
compartment.
• DPT, DT, TT, BCG, Typhoid and diluents of vaccines must be stored in
the cold part and never allowed to freeze. Vaccines must be protected
from sunlight and contact of antiseptic
• . At the health centres, most vaccines, except polio, can be stored at 4
to 8°C for 5 weeks.
• Multidose opened vial, which is not used fully must be discarded,
within one hour, if no preservative is present. It should be discarded
within 3 hours or at the end of a session when preservative is used.
• Necessary instruction for the particular vaccine must be followed
regarding maintenance of required temperature. Instruction for
maintenance of vaccine vial monitor (VVM) especially for oral polio
vaccine should be followed strictly.

COLD CHAIN EQUIPMENT
• WALK IN COLD ROOMS
• In the regional level, vaccines are stored for 4 to 5 districts in the walk
in cold rooms (WIC), at recommended temperature upto 3 months.

DEEP FREEZER
• Deep freezer is a top opening cold chain equipment and available as
300 liters or 140 liters capacity.

ICE LINKED REFRIGERATOR
• Ice lined refrigerators (ILR) is top opening refrigerator. Two types of
ILR are available, one with ice tubes (Electrolux) and other with ice
packs (vest frost) as the ice lining. The bottom of the ILR is the coldest
part. DPT, DT, TT and diluents should not be kept directly on the floor
of the ILR as they can freeze and get denatured.
• These vaccines should be kept in the basket provided within the ILR.
Temperature of the ILR should be recorded twice a day with the dial
thermometer which should be kept inside the ILR, even if there is an
in built thermometer. Defrosting should be done at regular interval
with alternative arrangement of storing the vaccines. During electric
supply failure or equipment failure, vaccines should be transferred to
cold boxes and then to alternate storage.

COLD BOX
• Cold boxes are available at all peripheral health centres. They are
used for transporting vaccines and also for storing vaccines during
failure of electric supply.
• Fully frozen ice packs are placed at the bottom and sides of the cold
box before placing the vaccines in it. The vaccines should be first
packed in cartons or polythene bags, then to be kept inside the cold
box. DPT, DT, TT vaccines and diluents should not be kept in direct
contact with the frozen ice packs.

VACCINE CARRIERS
• Vaccine carriers are used to carry 16 to 20 vials of vaccines to out-
reach sites to the subcenters, village, vaccination clinic or camp. Four
fully frozen ice packs are placed for lining the sides of the carriers.
DPT, DT, TT and diluents should not be placed in direct contact of
frozen ice packs. The carrier must be closed tightly

• Day carriers are used for nearby areas and only for few hour period
with two fully frozen ice packs. It is used to carry small quantities of
vaccines, i.e. 6 to 8 vials only.
• Ice packs are used for cold boxes and vaccine carriers. It is prepared in
the deep freezer. Ice pack contains water, filled upto the level marked
on the side. No salt is added to it. Leak ice pack should not be used.

NURSING RESPONSIBILITES
• Motivation of general people about the importance of immunization
and its benefits.
• Estimation of beneficiaries of the area and identification of
nonparticipants and dropouts of immunization. storing
• Assessment of problems and reasons for non acceptances
immunization and intervening to solve the problems.
• Information, health education and communication about the
immunization session, time, place, available vaccines inside and other
health facilities related to immunization.
• Organization of immunization clinics at different health institutions,
immunization camps, out-reach and home- based services.

• Arrangement and maintenance of required amount of vaccines and
other necessary equipment and materials for particular
immunization centre or clinic.
• Maintenance of cold chain system at immunization centre or during
transportation of vaccines to home or clinics with necessary
precautions to preserve the efficacy and potency of the vaccines. Care
of cold chain equipment and maintenance of recommended
temperature for vaccines

• Information about the next date of visit to complete the
immunization as per schedule and dangers of default.
• Maintenance of immunization card with required information and
next date of visit.
• Maintenance of clinic records, registers, stocks, number of
attendance for vaccination, vaccine used, etc..
• Reporting about immunization coverage and problems of the
particular area.
• Participating in research activities and new approaches related to
immunization program.
• Updating own knowledge and developing skill regarding advancement
of immunization practices and changing attitudes.

TOILET TRAINNING
• Toilet training is teaching your child to recognize their body signals for
urinating and having a bowel movement. It also means teaching your
child to use a potty chair or toilet correctly and at the appropriate
times.

SAFETY MEASURE AND PREVENTION OF ACCIDENT
• Safety measures are important aspect of child care to minimize the accidental
hazards. Children are by nature accident prone. They are curious,
investigative, impulsive, impatient and less careful to listen warning.
Accidental injuries are the leading cause of hospitalization, disability and
death of children.
• It is expensive aspect of community health. Greatest number of accidental
injuries occur in 2 to 3 years and 5 to 6 years of age. Most frequently young
children are injured at home and older children are injured outside the home.

• According to WHO, an accident is an event, independent of human will
caused by an outside force acting rapidly and resulting in physical or
mental injury. The occurrence of injury is unintended. About 90 percent of
all accidents are preventable by safety measures.
• Certain Situations may Predispose the Accidental Injury in Children
• Curious, interested, hyperactive, and daring child has more chance of
accidents than lethargic and uninterested one.
• Boys are more daring and having risk of more accidents than girls.
• Accidents are more common in aggressive, stubborn poor concentration
and unsupervised children.
• Single child and oldest child of the family are having less chance of
accidents than others.

 Accidents increased in overcrowded home, when the child is hungry and
tired and parents are busy or if mother is pregnant and the child is cared in
unfamiliar environment or cared by unfamiliar person or by the too young
to assume this responsibility.
Change in daily routine of the child or parent may cause accidents.
 Lack of outside play facilities is responsible for more home accidents.
Accidents may occur frequently if the parent is having poor knowledge,
ignorance, carelessness or lack of awareness about safety measures for
accident prevention or lack of supervision of children.

• Common Accidental Injury indifferent Age Groups
• Infant: Falls, burns, cuts and injury, suffocation, foreign
body(aspiration, ingestion, in the ear, nose, etc.)
• Toddlers and pre-schoolers: Falls, burns, cuts and injuries, ingestion
and aspiration foreign bodies, drowning and near drowning,
poisoning, electrocution, suffocation and strangulation, bites and
stings, vehicle or road-traffic accidents, sports injury, etc.
• School-age children and adolescents: Sports injury, falls, electrical or
instrumental injury, road-traffic accidents, bites and stings, drowning,
etc.

MAJOR TYPES OF ACCIDENT
• Accidents can be classified, according to the required health
intervention into five categories:
• 1. Accidents requiring medical interventions: Drowning, burns
(especially in homes), falls, cuts and wounds. agro industrial injuries,
animal bites (dogs, snakes). poisoning (insecticides, rodenticides,
kerosene oil, drugs, acids, etc.)
• 2. Accidents requiring surgical interventions or observations: Head
injuries, burns, soft tissue injury (faciomaxillary injuries) fractures,
trauma to abdominal organs, etc.
• 3. Accidents involving eyes: Bow and arrow play, gulli-danda play, fire
works, stone throwing, broom stick injury, sharp-edged toys, balls,
shuttle cocks, fist fighting, fall from height, knife or scissors or needle
injury, chemical or thermal injury.

• 4Accidents involving ENT: Foreign bodies, roadside accidents,
corrosive poisoning (K. oil), sudden exposure to noise causing sudden
deafness, physical injuries (slap). mechanical injuries with sharp
objects, strangulation from cloths being entangled in rotary machines,
and automobiles, kite flying causing laryngotracheal cut, loss of pinna,
etc.
• 5. Road Traffic Accidents (RTA): Careless road crossing, reversing car,
playing in streets with vehicular traffic. allowing children to stand in a
car or to sit in driver's lap.

PREVENTION
• For infants:
• Never leave an infant alone on cot or table or in unprotected place to
prevent fall.
• Never give very small things to the child.
• Toys should not have removable small parts which can be aspirated or
put into the ear or nose.
• Never feed solids which are difficult to chew, e.g. ground nut.
• Coins, buttons, beads, marbles must not be left within child's reach.
• Keep the stove or fire source and hot things far away from the child.
• Electrical appliances should be kept out of reach.
• Never leave the infant near water tub or pond and never allow to go
out alone.

• For toddlers and pre-schoolers:(dogs, snakes), . Never use negative
statement for any activities, i.e. 'don't , do that, 'don't go there, etc.
• Give proper directions for activity. or observations:
• Provide constant supervision.
• Protect stairs by gate and keep doors closed.
• Keep harmful substances like hot things, drugs, poisons, kerosene oil,
electrical appliances, sharp objects, etc. out OF child's reach.
• Give adequate instructions to the care taker to look the child and to
follow the precautions.
• Provide safe play materials and toys.
• Floor should not be slippery.

• Furniture should be placed firmly to prevent fall and the child should
not be allowed to climb over it.
• The child must not be allowed to wear inflammable synthetic
materials which may catch fire easily.
• Mother should not hold the baby in lap when drinking tea or coffee
or during cooking.
• Children should not be allowed to play with cord, plastic bags or
pillow which may cause suffocation.
• Batteries of the torch must not be left free to avoid risk or lead
poisoning. .
• Children must not be allowed to stand in a car when in motion.
Electric switch should be out of child's reach.

• For school children and adolescents:
• Teach safety precautions with fire, fire works, match electricity, sharp
instruments, etc.
• The child should be taught swimming as soon as he/she is old
enough.
• Encourage playing in safe places and whenever needed to prevent
sports injury.

NURSING RESPONSIBILITIES
• Health education is considered as vaccination for prevention of
accidents. The significant role of nursing psycho personnel is to
improve the level of knowledge awareness about the safety
precautions. Parents should be taught to anticipate the risk to
maintain discipline and to provide time to supervise children.
• Anticipatory(Happened) guidance should be provided to the parents,
family members, school teacher, grown up children and general public
about prevention of accidents.
• Provision of safe environment to eliminate or reduce hazardous
conditions for the children. It should BE arranged at home, school,
community and hospital

• Safe child care should be organized and provided to prevent accidental
hazards. Assessment of child's characteristics for accidental liability is
important. Need Parents should be involved in safety program of child care.
• Elimination of causative factors need to be emphasized through health
education.
• Assisting in medical care to prevent disabilities and handicapped condition
is an important responsibility of nurse.
• Emergency care at comprehensive trauma care unit improves the survival
rate. Rehabilitation facilities should be organized with necessary referral.
• Participate in policy making and research activities related to accidents
prevention and changing of behaviour for controlling accidents.

SEX EDU………….
• Sex education is high quality teaching and learning about a broad
variety of topics related to sex and sexuality. It explores values and
beliefs about those topics and helps people gain the skills that are
needed to navigate relationships with self, partners, and community,
and manage one's own sexual health.

COMMON SEXUAL PROBLEM OF
ADOLESENCE
• The sexual concerns of adolescents leads to various problems like
homosexuality, promiscuous sexual behaviour, unprotected and
unsafe sex, unwanted pregnancies, illegal abortion and its
complications (like septicaemia, maternal death),
• unwanted child or orphanage, sexually transmitted diseases including
HIV/AIDS and psychological problems related to sexuality and sexual
concerns.

NEED……
• Sex education is an important preventive and continuing approach to
the care of preadolescents and adolescents.
• They have great need of appropriate and adequate orientation about
sex and sexual concerns.
• They need guidance regarding sexual development, sexual hygiene,
sexual impulse, curiosities, and reactions to opposite sex.

• In the absence of sex education at home and schools, the
preadolescents and adolescents learn about sex from peers,
magazines, TV, movies, etc. which may confuse their sexual behaviour.
So, sex education should be started early in school age. The time and
process of sex education are both vitally important.
• Sex education helps to induce safe sex practices thus to control
unwanted pregnancy and STDS/RTIs. It also helps and motivates the
young people to prepare for responsibility of married life and
parenthood by a healthy and responsible sex behaviour.
• It protects from sexual abuse, exploitation and molestation. It
prevents sexual calamities and promotes positive attitude toward sex
in a socially approved and desired means.

HEALTH PROMOTION
• HEALTH PROMOTION IS THE PROCESS OF ENABLING PEOPLE TO
INCREASE CONTROL OVER, AND TO IMPROVE, THEIR HEALTH. IT
MOVES BEYOND A FOCUS ON INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS A
WIDE RANGE OF SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL INTERVENTIONS.

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