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Migrant Communities and Education in the United States:
Past and Present
Noe Valdovinos
DePaul University
Capstone
December 16, 2016
Dr. Chennault

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION -------------------------------------------------------------------- 3-5
2. HISTORICAL CONTENT ---------------------------------------------------------- 5-6
The Bracero Program --------------------------------------------------------- 6-8
H-2A Programs -------------------------------------------------------------- 9-10
Harvest of Shame ------------------------------------------------------------10-14
3. CHALLENGES OF MIGRANTS ------------------------------------------------14-15
Academic Challenges --------------------------------------------------------- 16-18
Parental Involvement ----------------------------------------------------------18-21
4. SUPPORT PROGRAMS --------------------------------------------------------- 21-23
High School Equivalency Program --------------------------------------- 23-24
College Assistance Migrant Program ------------------------------------- 24-30
5. CONCLUSION -------------------------------------------------------------------- 30-31

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“They
were
often
the
first
students
in
their
family
to
go
to
college
and
the
very
idea
of
higher
education
was
still
foreign
to
them.
They
had
to
make
a
conscious
and
often
difficult
decision
to
come
to
college”
(Michael
N.
Castle).
INTRODUCTION
The United States has been known as a country of immigrants. Before and after
the bracero program began in the 1940s, immigrants from all over the globe migrated to
the United States and settled in search of better life opportunities. The causes of such
movements have been very diverse: escape from hunger and political oppression, the
search for economic opportunity and the lust for riches and conquest (Portes & Bach,
1985). I would like to break down some of the terms that will be present throughout this
research. “Migrant” and “Immigrant”. Both terms are used in reference to moving from
one place to another; however, under Migrant Education Programs definitions, these
terms determine eligibility for programs that support migrant communities such as HEP
and CAMP.
The term migrant and immigrant are often times misinterpreted for one another.
Being able to differentiate these terms is crucial to understanding these two different
communities. According to the Migrant Student Data Report (MSDR), a migrant worker
is someone who has moved within the past three years to do seasonal agriculture work.
The term immigrant as we understand it to be, refers to a person who migrates to another
country, usually for permanent residency. Another term that is important to be familiar
with is the term Bracero. Bracero is a Spanish term referred to as “a manual laborer”,
someone who works using his arms; this term will also be discussed in further detail later.

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The United States is known as the melting pot because of its diverse populations.
It is composed of many racial and ethnical groups. Migrants make up a large portion of
the cultural diversity. As the number of immigrant and migrant residents increase, so do
the needs of this specific community. Although Latinos are one of the largest
underrepresented groups in the United States, the graduation rates of these students does
not equate. According to The Pew Institute (2010) (as quoted Dr. Viridiana Diaz who is
the Director of the College Assistance Migrant Program at California State University in
Sacramento), while Latinos are the fastest growing population, their bachelor degree
completion rate remains extremely low, having risen by only 3% in a range of a thirty-
year span.
Migrant workers have played a crucial role in sustaining the economy in the
United States. From The Bracero Program to Harvest of Shame, a documentary that
brought to light the lives of a hidden community in the 1960s by Edward R. Murrow, to
current programs such as H-2A, migrants continue to aspire for a better life and in hopes
to break out of the cycle of poverty (Lopez, 2001). Most migrant workers are hopeful in
achieving the “American Dream”. The focus of this research paper is on migrant
communities and education from past and present experiences. Coming from a migrant
background myself, I chose to focus on this topic because there has not been much
research on working with migrant students, Latinos specifically. In addition, I will
address the challenges of migrant students in school and at home.
Parental involvement literature in academic setting, students’ experiences in
orchard fields and in school settings, as well as social, cultural and educational challenges
will guide my research for better understanding of migrant families. Lastly, the reader

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will be informed about programs and services that exist to support migrant students with
graduation and retention in higher education institutions. Many times migrant
communities are misjudged and misguided. In addition to informing readers about
migrant communities and educational barriers, I hope that this will also serve as a guide
to understand first and foremost, the migrant student holistically, especially for school
staff working with this specific student population.
HISTORICAL CONTENT
Currently the Latino population is amongst the largest and fastest growing
community and continues to steadily increase every year. In 2000, according to the
Census of the U.S. Bureau, the Hispanic population represented 12.5% of the total U.S.
population. In other words, 1 out of every 8 persons in the country is Hispanic (De Los
Santos, 2003). Data from the Pew Research Center states that in 2014 there were 55
million Latinos residing in the United States.
For many immigrants who become migrant workers, migration is a way to escape
poverty and difficult situations they face in their country of origin. Unfortunately, for
many Mexican Americans who have migrated to the United States, the move is due to
complex and painful reasons they face in Mexico. A research by Estudios sobre las
Culturas Contemporaneas titled Migrants, Education and Culture states that the realities
of hardship force many people to leave their place of origin and venture out to live in
another country within a different language and culture.
Historically, many farmworkers have been from migrant backgrounds; these are
the communities that have been harvesting the crops in the United States for centuries. At
first, they were native born displaced former slaves and sharecroppers (Ward, 2003).

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Then in early 1940s, due to a shortage of domestic labor, the Bracero Program was
established. In 1943, thousands of Mexican workers were recruited to the United States to
work especially during the beginning of each agriculture season (Ward, 2003). After the
bracero program ended, a similar program called H2A was formally recognized by the
United States. The H2A program is a program designed to allow foreign workers to enter
the United States and work on a temporary basis. Latinos make up a large number of
guest workers through H2A.
The Bracero Program
Recruitment of Mexican workers to the United States was an effort brought to the
Mexican government by the United States when growers in large states such as
California, Texas, Washington, Oregon, and many others were in need of sustaining their
land and crops. Braceros were negotiated by the U.S. and Mexican government for
temporary employment, and in 1942, 4.6 Millions of Mexican workers were recruited to
work the railroads until 1964 (Garcia, 1998). Millions of contracts were signed in efforts
of bringing the U.S. economy back to its feet. According to the Bracero History Archives
4.6 million contracts were signed, with many individuals returning several times on
different contracts, making it the largest U.S. contract labor program.
Although many braceros were returners on different contracts, many stayed in the
United States after the expiration of the contract. However, even after expired contracts,
many growers continued to employ Mexican migrants. The recruitment of contracted
workers through the bracero program was accompanied by a parallel flow of
unauthorized workers from Mexico. Being aware of expired work permits, both
governments ignored the fact that much of the migration was done under the table. Most

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of these migrants entered without inspection and sometimes worked for growers that
hired braceros (Garcia, 1998).
After 1964 and due to larger numbers of migration, the structure of the bracero
program had developed to a more manageable structure with migration stations from both
countries, the United States and Mexico. This structure created a bridge for easy access
for Mexicans looking for employment opportunities on the other side of the border.
Garcia (1998), states that the operations of migration stations were in rural areas where
rural farmworkers were selected as bracero candidates.
Mostly all migrant communities come from a lower socio economic status and
low levels of education. Joining the bracero program was a way to escape below poverty
living conditions for many. Once candidates were selected then they were transported to
migration reception centers in the border where growers hired them on the spot for
temporary employment (Garcia, 1998). Braceros were in high demand in almost every
state in the U.S.; however, Texas was excluded from this process as a request from the
Mexican government due to discrimination and bad treatment of Mexicans who were
already living in Texas.
Historical tensions between Texas and Mexico made it hard for Mexico to want to
send braceros to Texas. None of the 220,000 Mexican farm workers imported went to
Texas (Scruggs, 2015). However, Texas being one of the largest states in most need of
workers was placed under the Department of Agriculture agreement that was set in
August 4, 1942 out of fear of insufficient supply of labor to harvest crops. This
guaranteed that immigrant workers would have at least minimum working and living
conditions (Scruggs, 2015). Abiding by this agreement was not something that growers

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were happy about and respecting the workers was not always the case with the growers
even after the agreement. Many farmers greeted the undertaking with undisguised
hostility (Scruggs, 2015) and workers continued to experience the disrespect within a
system that did not protect them or their rights.
This became even more problematic for workers when the United States relaxed
the restrictions of the contract and left the operations in the hands of the farmers. While
Mexico became passive on the issue facing Mexican workers, growers disliked intensely
the guarantees in the agreement, especially the provisions of an hourly minimum of 30
cents at that time, correctly fearing that the safeguards were part of an effort to bring all
farm labor, domestic as well as foreign within the orbits of existing federal labor
legislation (Scruggs, 2015).
As migration continues today, families follow the path of the original Bracero
Program but of course, without the contracted agreement that once existed. Reasons for
migration from Mexico to the U.S. comes down to the basic need to survive. The
following is a brief example of these realities. Camilo’s story of living and surviving
hardships is one of the many stories of migrating to another country to escape poverty.
His father left him, his mom, and his siblings in search of a better life in the United
States. Camilo’s painful memories of growing up in Mexico often escaped him, and he
vividly remembers growing up in abject poverty (Lopez, 2001). Many stories of migrant
families overlap the same experiences that Camilo and his family faced growing up. And
unfortunately these hardships are current realities for those who are in search of the
American dream

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H-2A Programs
Similar to the bracero program, migrant workers continue to be recruited from
abroad and from rural areas where the poverty level is high. The H-2A program was
instituted to meet the need for seasonal and temporary labor in the U.S., without adding
permanent residents to the population. The Department of Homeland Security states that
H-2A non-immigrant workers coming to the United States to perform seasonal jobs must
leave following a maximum period of stay; however some may apply to extend their stay
or change/adjust status.
Currently migrant workers are in the hundreds of thousands and every year the
number of migrant workers seems to continuously increase. In the state of Washington
alone, the average monthly agriculture employment increased from 81,573 workers in
2011 to 87,249 workers in 2012; this means that seasonal agriculture employment
increased 8.9% within a year (2012 Agriculture Workforce Report, 2013). By bringing in
foreign workers to do seasonal work, the farmers are temporarily alleviated from the
shortages of field workers year round.
In the Washington state, thirty-three Washington based growers were certified to
contract with 3,953 H-2A workers in 2012 (2012 Agriculture Annual Report, 2013). The
qualifications for H-2A consideration for employment entails that the employer must
abide by the following:
- Offer a job that is of temporary or of seasonal nature
- Demonstrate that there are not sufficient U.S. workers who are able, willing,
qualified and available to do the temporary work
- Show that the employment of H-2A workers will not adversely affect the wages

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and working conditions of similarly employed U.S. workers, and lastly
- The employer must submit with the H-2A petition, a single valid temporary
labor certification from the U.S. Department of Labor (USCIS, 2015).
Despite previous and current assisting programs such as the Bracero Program and H2A,
the migrant community that is currently residing in the United States, continues to be one
of the most vulnerable and invisible communities in the states.
Harvest of Shame
Lack of basic human needs such as health, food, and shelter for migrant
communities is what Edward R. Murrow brought to light in the documentary Harvest of
Shame. In the 1960s, migrant workers continued to suffer from many injustices. It
became normalized to exclude migrants from society. Among these exclusions, education
for migrant children was one of them.
During the harvest season, migrant children were often pulled out of their classes
to help the family in the fields, and in many instances the education of migrant children
was interrupted due to their migrancy. Another challenge that migrant children faced was
their transience in the classroom, which created dislocation, disorientation, and
significant educational disadvantages (Branz-Spall, et al, 2003). Parents too, were faced
with work challenges such as dangerous living conditions in the fields due to exposure to
pesticides and insecticides, which caused health illnesses. In addition to the dangers of
work, migrant workers had no insurance to cover for expenses.
One farmer looked at migrant workers and said “We used to own our slaves, now
we just rent them”. CBS broadcasted the Harvest of Shame during thanksgiving in 1960
nationwide and exposed to the United States the marginalized and the less cared for

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community. In the documentary, the migrant plight was addressed by the Secretary of
Labor when addressing the migrant community by saying, “I think they are the great
mass of what I call, the excluded Americans, they are people who cry out, the workers
and their children and their wives who cry out for some assistance. And whose plight is a
shame in America”. Indeed this was a shame in the United States; however, not everyone
thought the migrant plight was as bad as it appeared to be.
During his interview in the documentary, the president of the American Farm
Bureau Federation says, “I think that most social workers would agree that its better for a
man to be employed, even if his capacity is such as to limit his income. And we take the
position that is far better to have thousands of these folks who are practically
unemployable earning some money, doing some productive work for at least a few days
in the year”. Practically unemployable is the cycle of poverty that migrant workers have
been exposed to. In the early stages of migracy in the 1960s, from Florida, to New York,
to New Jersey, to California, Oregon and Washington, migrant workers continued to
work long hours with little pay and back breaking work.
Cranston-Gingras & Paul (2007, as cited by Dr. Viridiana Diaz) says that, the
nature of migrant work is the primary impediment to success faced by migrants. While
some families follow the crops, moving seasonally, others may have seasonal work in
only one location. In early 1960s, men, women, and children would work the fields,
orchards, and all season crops for about $900 dollars a year as stated The Harvest of
Shame.
The reality of not being able to leave the migrant life for something better was a
common theme that all migrants who were interviewed in the documentary had in

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common; throughout history, the migrant waves have shifted ethnically. In the
documentary, migrants are not defined by ethnicity but by the unfortunate nature that
binds them all together, and that is through employment of seasonal work. The film
documents poor whites, Mexican Americans, and blacks as forming part of this
community. They are known as the workers in the sweatshops of the soil, the forgotten
people, the under protected, the under educated, the underfed and the under clothed as
they are referred to in the documentary.
Mrs. Dovey is one of the migrant workers interviewed first in the film. She is 34
years old, mother of 9 and has worked most of her life in agriculture seasonal jobs. All of
her children appear to be under the age of fourteen; however, all of them help out in the
fields except for the baby, she says. Unfortunately this was the life of many migrant
families in the 1960s, and is the life of many migrant families today. Many migrant
children begin to see themselves as adults because they have started to work in the fields
from ages as young as 7 years old.
Some children are given responsibilities of having to work at an early age and see
themselves as adults by the time they are fourteen (Lopez, 2001). When asked what she
wants most for her children, Mrs. Dovey replies, “well, I’d like for them to have a career,
whatever they want to be when they get older”. During the interview however, she does
not seem confident as if this will be a reality for her children. She goes on to say that her
older girl would like to go to school but she would probably be like her boy and she will
have to quit school once she is old enough to help out more.
In many instances of migrant children are left to feed themselves when their
parents are working. Mrs. Aileen King, who is mother to four, has to leave her children at

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home with the oldest, Jerome, who is 9 years old. He takes care for the younger children
who are still babies. When Aileen was interviewed she stated not making enough money
to put her children in childcare. She makes a dollar a day picking beans and it cost 85
cents to put her children through childcare. When asked if she ever think she will be able
to leave this kind of work, She replies, no sir.
All individuals interviewed in the Harvest of Shame stated that they would like to
have a different life style, something stable, own their own home, and more education for
their children. Of the eight interviews, not one person said they saw themselves ever
leaving the migratory life. The low wages and the need for employment is not enough to
bring stability to families when work is only seasonal and not always a guaranteed
income.
The United States Department of Education in the 1960s as stated in the
documentary reports that migrant children have the highest level of illiteracy in the
country. This translates to 1 out of every 5 migrant child whose parent was a migrant
laborer would have finished grade school. To illustrate even more shocking statistics
from the documentary, 1 of every 5,000 migrant children finished high school. And, in
the 1940s to the 1960s there was not a case on the record of any child of migrants who
ever received a college diploma.
After the Harvest of Shame telecast, many U.S. citizens became aware and
concerned with the invisible community of migrants and their lack of attention from
health centers, schools and other institutions. With efforts and more advocates for the
migrant community, Congress enacted a program establishing health centers to assist
migrant communities and not be denied services.

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The U.S. Department of Education according to MEP, (Henderson and Draft,
2002 as cited by Branz-Spall et al, 2003) reports that there are 783,867 migrant children
identified for participation in Title I Part C, which falls under the Migrant Education Act.
Federally funded programs such as the College Assistance Migrant Program and the High
School Equivalency Program, have made it possible to work on efforts of bridging the
gap of illiteracy for migrant students and increase college enrollment.
CURRENT CHALLENGES OF MIGRANT STUDENTS
Currently, migrant communities continue to be at the bottom of the status quo
when it comes to social advancements. Whether it is financial, economical or within
education, migrant communities and their children are, and continue to be disadvantaged
under a system that historically has failed them. When it comes to education, migrant
students are falling behind far more than their counterparts. According to Diaz, (2012),
children of migrant farmworkers are one of the most academically vulnerable groups in
the Unites States.
Much of the vulnerability of migrant families and students is attributed to
hardships within economic, health and work related problems that contribute to the
interrupted schooling and limited English proficiency (Diaz, 2012). In addition to migrant
students falling behind academically, the level of education that migrant parents have is
not enough to help their children or guide them with their homework at home. Migrants
live a constant life of uncertainty and instability due to migratory circumstances. Many
families have to make difficult life choices and sacrifices if they want to progress. Too
often these decisions are not voluntary but a necessity to survive as we see in the case of
the Padilla family.

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The Padilla family is a family that grew up very poor in Mexico. In order to
escape poverty, Mr. Padilla had to make a life changing decision that would affect the
entire family. At the age of four, Camilo’s father walked out on them for search of a
“better life” in the United States (Lopez, 2001). It is not uncommon for migrant parents
to separate from the family; in fact, most migrant families have accepted the fact that the
family will be separated for a better future in the end. Like the Padillas, Camilo’s mother
moved from Mexico with her four children to reunite with her husband who was working
at a fruit-packing plant in Bakersfield, California.
Obstacles migrant students encounter, makes it extremely difficult to stay on top
of education requirements. Families make life-changing decisions that affect their
children’s educational development such as moving from Mexico to the United States.
Even more shocking, children themselves are also crossing the boarders unaccompanied.
According to the (Pew Research Center, in 2014), almost 22 thousand migrant
unaccompanied minors were apprehended in the U.S. Mexico border.
Migrating children presents concerning issues for many reasons. They are often
given adult responsibilities and are placing their lives in danger while doing so.
Unfortunately for many living under poverty conditions, this seems to be the only
alternative to escaping poverty. Overall, U.S. officials have apprehended 12, 509
unaccompanied children at the U.S.-Mexico border (Gonzalez-Barrera and Krogstad,
2015). A move such as migration to the United States has left thousands of migrant
children academically deficient.

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Academic Challenges
From a historical perspective on education, the institution of education originated
from an idea that students would be literate and productive members to a progressive
society. The philosophy and basic purpose of higher education as stated from the Student
Personnel Point of View (SPPV) 1937 is to maintain the preservation, transmission, and
enrichment of the important elements of culture; the product of scholarship, research,
creative, imagination, and human experience. In addition, SPPV 1937 states that it is the
task of colleges and universities to vitalize this and other educational purposes as to assist
the student in developing to the limits of his potential and in making his contribution to
the betterment of society.
Many American universities today utilize best practices to assure that students
will have an academically successful college experience; however, not enough research
or practice have taken migrant students into consideration when applying best practices.
The high school completion and graduation rate of migrant children continues to be
below average than the general student. Given the specific circumstances and barriers
that migrant students face within education, they have been left behind.
Past research in the field of education as stated by Contreras and Gandara, (2006)
as cited by Covarrubias and Lara, (2014) has examined the educational outcomes of
Mexican-origin students in the United States and found them to be the most educationally
vulnerable. Migrant students have the lowest academic outcomes in comparison to other
racial/ethnic groups.
The academic deficiency among migrant students in comparison to their
counterparts within secondary education is a concern for many reasons. They have been

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rendered invisible and the lack of attention for these students has resulted in low high
school graduation rates. This means that there is less college enrollment from Latino
students (in which migrant is included) as a whole. In 1975 the percentage of Anglos who
received a Bachelor’s degree was 24% and in 2005 that number increased to 34%.
Comparing this percentage to the Latino student population, in 1975 only 9% held a
Bachelor’s degree and this number slightly increased to 11% in 2005 (Diaz, 2012).
Because migrant students make up a large portion of the Latino population, these
numbers includes them. While the enrollment has slightly increased, there is more work
that needs to be done in terms of continuing support services year round to avoid drop out
rates from being higher than graduation rates.
Retention programs have helped in terms assisting underrepresented students with
graduation. However, for Latino students who are also migrant the high school drop out
rate is only a portion of the larger context of the educational attainment (Diaz, 2012). In
addition, most first generation and low-income students receive very little academic
assistance and guidance from their high schools. Migrant students fit into a double
minority. Being that they are both first-generation to complete and receive a high school
diploma and having migrant status, the academic guidance is not clear, both in school and
at home.
Poverty contributes to the academic detriment of migrant students. Before they
get to twelfth grade, most migrant students have already assumed adult responsibilities;
this includes working more hours than they spend in the classroom. Migrant students
often times work in the fields in order to make sure that the family has food on the table
and clothes on their backs; due to low wages, the labor of every family member is needed

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(Branz-Spall, 2003). In almost all cases, the education level of migrant parents is lower
than a secondary education. Educational difficulties in turn are frequently compounded
by inadequate information about college opportunities and how to access them. Cultural
differences, citizen issues, language barriers, and too frequent discrimination are other
challenges encountered (Baum & Flores, 2011). Parents are interested in their child’s
education but not many know how to properly support their children.
Parental Involvement
Typically when we think about parent involvement in education, oftentimes the
images that come to mind are those of being actively engaged and hands on within school
events and programs such as after school activities, fundraising, attending school
functions such as sports or theatrical plays, helping out with homework at home, etc. The
reality for migrant parents is that parental involvement has played a much different role
in the lives of migrant students. The definition of parent involvement has historically
been quite transparent, relegating it to a scripted role to be “performed”, rather than to
unrehearsed activities that parents and other family members routinely practice (Lopez,
2001). These include but are not limited to advising from faith-based institutions such as
youth groups, other migrant parents and older siblings etc.
Research has shown that parental education is a strong predictor of children’s
educational attainment (Baum & Flores, 2011). Regardless of the level of education,
migrant parents also want to see their children be academically successful. The difference
between migrant parents and affluent parents is that migrant parents often times use real
world experiences to educate and advice their children. Involvement for many migrant

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parents is seen as teaching their children to appreciate the value of their education
through the medium of hard work (Lopez, 2001).
Parental involvement as it has been identified by the dominant culture, does not
recognize non-school involvement as being involved and invested in their children’s
education. Foucault, (1972) as cited by Lopez, (2001), used the term “social regularities”
as a way to say that the sphere of parent involvement has become a privileged domain
signified by certain legitimate acts. Therefore, if social regularities are what identifies
parent involvement, then migrant parents do not meet that criteria of being considered
involved.
Involvement becomes a problematic term for parents who did not obtain a college
degree. Oftentimes parents without a higher education become alienated from the
academic environment because they are perceived differently. Providing spaces that are
welcoming for migrant families has helped in increasing parental involvement in school.
Research has shown that underrepresented parents, including migrant parents, have
demonstrated a deep interest in being involved in the lives of their children (Lopez,
2001). Much of parental involvement efforts can be attributed to the Migrant Education
Programs; which provide a space where migrant students, parents, and school personnel
can work collaboratively.
Fann et al, (2009) argues that parents who have not had opportunities to attend
college themselves have neither experience with the process of college preparation and
college going nor sufficient access to needed information. However, the fact that most
migrant parents have not obtained college degrees, visibility of migrant parents and their
involvement in schools is slowly growing and despite obstacles, more parents are anxious

20. 20
for more information and eager to support their children in their educational journey
(Fann et al, 2009). This has put pressure on schools to re-evaluate and reconstruct ways
in which schools can include parents and incorporating their involvement in ways that
represent their culture and language. For example, many parents have called for increased
opportunities to participate in the educational lives of their children (Lopez, 2001).
Among parent petitions to be included in the lives of their children’s academics, other
forms of involvement exist even in the fields/orchards, such as the experience of the
Padilla family.
The Padillas’ perception of involvement is not in the classroom but in the fields.
All of the Padilla family has started to work at a very early age and many valuable
lessons about education have been taught in the fields. However, as previously described
through a traditional academic lens, the Padilla’s would appear to be “largely”
uninvolved in their children’s education (Lopez, 2001). Like many migrant families, the
Padilla’s understood involvement in their children’s academic success as being
supportive and offering real world advise, with the idea of pushing their children towards
academic success and persisting towards a higher education.
Lopez (2001) states that all five Padilla children experienced the hardships of
working first hand at an early age; therefore they were constantly advised by family
members about the limited opportunities available should they choose to forego their
education. The Padilla family’s experience is very unique in a sense that neither parent
graduated from high school, yet all four children excelled academically in high school.
Fann et al (2009) iterate that meaningful parent relationships need to begin with parental
involvement and college preparation early on, particularly in the middle. This gives

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parents an early start on knowing how to properly support their children towards college
preparation such as priority deadlines, requirements, student services etc.
Understanding parent involvement in multiple ways, shape the perception of what
teachers think about parents. Gonzalez (2013) highlights the importance of parents and
teacher relationships, he says that positive feelings from the teacher regarding parental
involvement increases communication with parents, which then increases more
expectations. However, when language is a barrier for migrant parents, the perception of
involvement can be misunderstood from teachers. Gonzalez (2013) also argues that due
to language barriers, the role of parents should not be underestimated. Providing a
welcoming space for parents to partake in their children’s education is the first step
towards inclusivity. This includes parent nights and high school college fairs that are
accommodating.
SUPPORT PROGRAMS FOR MIGRANT STUDENTS
The documentary Harvest of Shame got the attention of many after it aired in
November of 1960, particularly Congress. It was not until after the documentary that the
migrant community was recognized as a forgotten community. Additionally, the
government saw the need to federally protect this community and implement programs
for migrant students. In November 1966, Congress amended the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act (ESEA) as an effort to create a categorical program for children
of migrant workers called “Programs for Migratory Children” (Diaz, 2012). Although
those in congress supported migrant programs, there was much work to be done because
no one knew how to properly assess the effectiveness of these programs.

22. 22
Migrant students are a unique student population and have a need for unique
attention in the public school settings. Among those in Congress who showed an interest
in programs for migrant students, William D. Ford was one of the great supporters of
migrant communities and was considered a steward for migrant children within Congress.
According to Pappamihiem, (2004) as cited by Diaz, (2012), William D. Ford was a
powerful Michigan Congressman and was known as the author of the bill that served
migrant student needs within academia.
Migrant programs were the start of recognizing the need to educate migrant
children; however, since migrant student needs differ depending on location and by state,
different strategies needed to be implemented for all states that served this population. As
stated by Branz-Spall & Wright, (2004); Pappamihiem, (2004), and cited by Diaz (2012),
the federal government allowed states to determine for themselves how to best assist
migrant students. This strategy was beneficial for all states because practices that worked
for migrant students in Texas for example may not have worked for migrant students in
the state of Washington.
As Migrant Education Programs began to develop, educators also began to work
with students to decrease the drop out rates in high school. The purpose was not only
graduate migrant students from high school but also provide assistance to continue their
education in higher education. The High School Equivalency Program known as HEP
and the College Assistance Migrant Program known as CAMP are two of the most
nationally recognized programs that came out of the MEP initiative. These programs
would serve as the pipeline for an equal education completion within high school
students and college enrollment for migrant students.

23. 23
Anstrom and Kindler (1996) as cited by Diaz (2012) states that the overall
purpose of the MEP is to meet the complex needs of migrant students and to facilitate
interstate coordination of services. In Washington state specifically, according to the
Migrant Student Data, Recruitment and Support (MSDR) website, the MEP’s
responsibility is to ensure that all migrant students reach challenging academic standards
and graduate with a high school diploma (or complete a GED) that prepares them for
responsible citizenship, further learning, and productive employment.
The High School Equivalency Program (HEP)
Through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, the Office of Migrant
Education (OME) developed as the umbrella organization that would oversee both HEP
and CAMP financially. The OME as cited by Diaz (2012) and referenced by the No Child
Left Behind Act (2001) section 1301 and also cited by Ramirez (2010), was designed to
provide federal funds to state education agencies and other education related and
community agencies to sustain the following efforts
1. Support high quality and comprehensive programs for migratory children to
reduce school disruption due to moves,
2. Ensure that migrant children are not penalized in any manner by disparities in
the states such as curriculum, graduation requirements and academic
achievement standards,
3. Ensure that all migrant students receive the same academic opportunities as
other school children are expected to meet,

24. 24
4. Design programs that help migrant children overcome educational disruption,
cultural and language barriers, social isolation and other factors that otherwise
would create barriers and lastly,
5. Ensure that migrant children benefit from all educational reform.
The High School Equivalency Program (HEP) was set in place to assist students in
completing their high school requirements in an academic setting. Furthermore, In order
to be eligible to participate in the HEP program the person must meet the following
1. Not have earned a secondary school diploma or its equivalent,
2. Not be currently enrolled in an elementary or secondary institution,
3. Be 16 years of age or over, or beyond the age of compulsory school attendance
in the state that he/she resides in, and lastly
4. Be determined by the grantee to need the academic, support services and
financial assistance provided by the project in order to meet and obtain the
equivalent of a high school diploma and gain employment or meet the criteria to
be enrolled in post-secondary education or training.
Since HEP programs began, migrant students have been able to complete their secondary
education and some have continued to pursue a higher education. In addition, those that
have continued their education at the university level have been academically supported
by CAMP Programs and have successfully graduated from a four-year institution.
The College Assistance Migrant Program (CAMP)
The College Assistance Migrant Program (CAMP) as a federally funded program
for migrant seasonal/agriculture farm-working students has served a purpose for those
who are interested in pursuing a post secondary education. The program as stated by the

25. 25
HEP/CAMP National Association was designed to assist migratory or seasonal
farmworkers (or children of such workers) in enrolling in and successfully completing
their first year of undergraduate studies at an institution of higher education (Diaz, 2012).
The first CAMP programs were implemented in institutions of higher learning in the
early 1970’s
According to the HEP/CAMP National Association (2015) and cited by Diaz,
(2012), Adams State College in Alamos, Colorado; California State College in San
Diego, California; University of Texas PanAmerican in Edinburgh, Texas; and Saint
Edwards University in Austin, Texas were the first programs established in 1972.
Currently there are 40 nationally recognized CAMP programs in the United States. In
addition to recruiting and retaining migrant students in higher education, CAMP
outreaches to its local community and provides information to migrant parents and
informs them on college preparation for their children.
CAMP is designed to assist and foster student success through academic,
personal, and financial support to its participants. Currently CAMP serves approximately
2,400 migrant participants annually (HEP/CAMP National Association, 2015). The
uniqueness of the program is that aside from academic support, student affairs and like
programing, play a crucial role in not only the development of the student but also
academic success. CAMP fosters a sense of belonging and inclusivity to migrant students
in higher education. As research has shown, both a sense of belonging and inclusivity are
crucial in the success and retention of students in higher education.
To be eligible to participate in the CAMP Program and receive CAMP services, a
student must meet specific requirements. According to the Department of Education

26. 26
(DOE) and Ramirez (2010) as cited by Diaz (2012), a person must have worked in
seasonal agriculture work for at least 75 days in the past 24 months, must have
participated or been eligible to participate in the Migrant Education Program (MEP). In
addition, a person must have applied and be admitted in the institution for which he/she is
seeking assistance from CAMP.
- Must be a first year student at the university or college for which he/she
is applying for
- Be determined by the grantee that the student needs the academic,
financial and support services.
CAMP services include retention services designed to be an extension of the student’s
family (Diaz, 2012). Although every CAMP program is autonomous in the way that it
performs and fosters the success of students, all programs work collectively with their
individual institution and builds relationships with key university partners to assure the
success of the program and its students. Specific services include but are not limited to
assistance with admissions, access to financial aid and scholarships, academic and career
based workshops, cultural and civic engagement opportunities, and referrals to other
university services (Diaz, 2012).
CAMP assists students to be successful through its initiatives such as tutoring and
mentoring along with study skill courses that are specifically for CAMP students. A study
by Sweedman (2015) indicated that students found tutoring and mentoring services
provided by CAMP to be most helpful. Additionally, CAMP promoted academic success
and retention by keeping students accountable, teaching students essential skills, and
allowing students to access CAMP resources after completing their first year in college.

27. 27
Student engagement is fostered though a multitude of activities both cultural and
educational provided by CAMP. The social adjustment of an individual consists of
finding a role in relation to others (in this case with CAMP) which will make him feel
valued, will contribute to his self-worth, and will contribute to a feeling of kinship with
an increase number of persons (SPPV, 1949).
Many CAMP programs offer orientations in Spanish, particularly targeting
parents that attend orientation with their children. CAMP orientations provide parents
with the opportunity to ask questions they may have about attending college, how to pay
for college, and address additional concerns. Since most, if not all of CAMP participants
are first generation college students, Spanish orientations have proven to alleviated the
stress of attending college for first generation migrant students. In the previously stated
study, 3 previous CAMP students were interviewed and shared their experiences about
growing up migrant and being involved in CAMP.
Mateo was one of the students interviewed. When asked about the most valuable
services that CAMP offered him, he mentioned tutoring and mentoring being some of the
things that he benefited from the most; “if you are not in CAMP then you kind of have to
go find tutoring yourself”. He also added that the tutors made him accountable for his
homework and he liked the fact that the tutors cared and they showed it. Mateo also
ranked the mentoring program as one of the most helpful services provided by CAMP
(Sweedman, 2015). With mentoring, students are able to find a safe space and comfort
with other students from similar backgrounds.
The second student interviewed was Natalia; Natalia is from a small native and
agriculture town. Similar to the Padilla family, Natalia’s family got separated due to her

28. 28
father being deported. This left her mother to care for Natalia and her siblings on her
own. When asked about her upbringing Natalia said “ its tough, I guess you can say
because my parents were migrant and you know, my mom suffered from domestic
violence and everything like that.” Although Natalia’s upbringing was tough, she had the
support from her mother all along. Natalia stated that despite her mother working three
jobs, her mother went out of her way to make sure that Natalia was at school and getting
good grades (Sweedman, 2015). Her story is not uncommon from families in similar
hometowns as Natalia.
When asked about CAMP services, Natalia also mentioned mentoring being
something that positively impacted her while in college. She says, “as an incoming
freshmen you’re really lost and misguided.” Natalia thought she would fail college
because she thought college was though. She continues, “ I didn’t think that I was going
to be able to go through with it (college) because I thought I was going to fail, not that I
didn’t do good in high school because I did, but I just thought college was going to be
much more challenging and it is but its nothing that I can’t handle and they (CAMP) have
given me the push” (Sweedman, 2015). In her statement, Natalia mentioned hardships
growing up and doubt while attending college; however, she mentioned how CAMP also
assisted her in continuing her education through guidance and persistence.
The last interviewee was Lucia. Lucia is also from a small farm-working town.
Growing up she experienced academic difficulties due to lack of support from her high
school. She mentioned that during high school, her teachers were not very helpful.
Teachers being discourteous and unhelpful if she needed additional assistance, she says;
especially on topics that the teachers had already covered (Sweedman, 2015). Like Mateo

29. 29
and Nataia, tutoring and mentoring were also a key component for Lucia during her first
year in college. She says, “ just the fact that they (CAMP) have different tutors there (in
the CAMP office) because subjects we could go into, like we have math, history….
people have Science or Biology or whatever. Like they have someone there who knows
what they are talking about and that’s a lot of help” (Sweedman, 2015). Tutors are
typically upper classmen, graduate students or at times professors depending on
institution and program.
All students interviewed had common themes in their testimonials. They were all
first generation students attending college for the first time, they all faced academic and
personal hardships while in high school, and lastly, they all mentioned how tutoring and
mentoring through CAMP helped them during their first year in college. As stated in
SPPV (1949), part of being academically supported and successful in college is fostering
and preparing student with effective tools to be able to succeed. Having a sense of
belonging to something that will support their academic ambitions is crucial. According
to SPPV, the goal of higher education is to achieve student success and instill a sense of
belonging by stimulating the development of small groups. In this case, the small groups
of development in student lives was mentoring and tutoring services through CAMP.
Fostering the development of a program with student initiated activities,
encouraging the development of a diversified social program, developing opportunities
for participation in college-community, cooperative activities, and fostering teacher-
student intellectual and social relationships outside of the classroom (SPPV, 1949) are all
initiatives that are provided through the CAMP program in college campuses. Although
CAMP is a first year program, it also offers students additional opportunities to stay

30. 30
involved with the program even during the 3rd
or 4th
year of college through internship
opportunities. In addition, students who were previous CAMP students have the
opportunity to mentor current CAMP students and foster the family away from home
concept through cultural identification.
CONCLUSION
This research provided information about migrants in the United States from past
to present, migrant programs, documentaries, federal initiatives and student testimonials.
Initially the intent was to address the need for student support programs for migrant
students. However, in order to understand why migrant programs such as HEP and
CAMP are necessary and exist today, it’s important to also understand the historical
content that surrounded the lives of migrant communities in the United States in the
1940s and on. This research covered the historic bracero program, which began as the
largest temporary and seasonal worker program in the history of the United States. In
addition, it was important to note that the reason for migrant programs today are directly
tied to the lives of migrants which was brought to light with documentaries such as the
Harvest of Shame by Edward R. Murrow in November of 1960.
Today, migrants continue to face academic and financial challenges; however,
federal programs have bridged the gap from academic deficiencies of migrant students to
preparing them to enroll in institutions of higher learning. Programs like CAMP have
played an important role in the lives of migrant students both in the secondary education
and college level. Recruitment and retention has been proved to be effective through
these programs and fostering a sense of inclusivity among students who can identify with

31. 31
one another. In addition, parents of migrant children have become more involved in the
lives of their children especially when it comes to their academics.
The purpose for this research was to create awareness of migrant students and
their unique needs among school personnel, especially for staff who are new to working
directly with migrant students. Parents play an important role in the lives of their children
and the collaboration from school to parents will help to understand where migrant
students are coming from. Ultimately, collaboration among schools and parents will also
help to embrace diversity and support migrant students in the classroom, and eventually
close the gap from high school drop outs while increasing college enrollment for all
migrant communities.

32. 32
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