Chapter 2 and Appendix B.pptx

Agenda 2x
• Announcements
• Continue notes/reading for next class - Research Enterprise in
Psychology & Statistical Methods
• APA Style Practice Exercise due by end of day (11:59 pm) TODAY
• Exam 1 - Wednesday, Feb 6
• Report 1 due by end of day (11:59 pm) Monday, Feb 25
• Research Enterprise in Psychology & Statistical Methods

Agenda HONORS
• Announcements
• Continue notes/reading for next class - Research Enterprise in
Psychology & Statistical Methods
• Service Learning Project
• APA Style Practice Exercise due by end of day (11:59 pm)
TODAY
• Two research studies due by end of day (11:59 pm) Monday,
Feb 4
• Exam 1 - Wednesday, Feb 6

Psychology Today
• Research
• Scientific study of Biological, Psychological
(thoughts, emotions, actions), and
Social/Environmental factors that influence human
and animal behavior
AND
• Application
• Profession that applies science of psychology to
practical problems

Multifactorial BioPsychoSocial
Model of Human Behavior
Biological
• Genetics
• Anatomy
• Physiology
Psychological
• Behaviors
• Thoughts
• Memories
• Emotions
Social-
Environmental
• Relationships
• Social Interactions
• Culture and Society
• Material Environment

Psychology Today:
A Thriving Science and Profession
• Research:
• Developmental
• Social
• Educational
• Health
• Physiological
• Experimental
• Cognitive
• Psychometrics
• Personality
• Applied Psychology:
• Clinical & Counseling
• School
• Industrial/Organizational
• Psychiatry
• Medical specialty

General
Psychology
PSY101
Psychological Research
& Statistical Methods
Chapter 2 and Appendix B

Learning Objectives
2.1 LOOKING FOR LAWS: THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO
BEHAVIOR
Identify science's main assumption.
Describe the goals of the scientific enterprise.
Outline the process used in scientific investigations and explain
why this process is needed in science.

Looking for Laws:
The Scientific Approach to Behavior
• Basic assumption
• events are governed by some lawful order
• Goals:
• Measurement and description
• Understanding and prediction
• How X affects Y
• Application and control
• Prevent and Solve Problems
Anxiety

What are the steps in the
Scientific Process?

Figure 2.1 Flowchart of steps in a scientific investigation
MYTH:
Science is a
cyclical
process NOT
set steps.

Question/Problem
What is already known
from Previous Research &
what do Theory(ies) predict
Testable Hypothesis
with operational
definitions
Ethical Research
Methods and Design
Representative
Sample Selection
(if experiment, random assignment to groups)
Data collection
(if experiment, manipulation of independent
variable(s) between groups)
Analyze data and
draw conclusions
Report the findings

Learning Objectives
Scientific Process –
Report the findings & What is already known from Previous Research
2.7 FINDING AND READING SCHOLARLY ARTICLES
Characterize the nature of technical scientific scholarly
publications. Distinguish scholarly from popular press sources
and identify the types of scholarly articles.
Explain how to use library databases to search for scholarly
research literature in psychology.
Describe the standard organization of scholarly articles
reporting on empirical research from the Style Guide from the
American Psychological Association (APA).

Reporting research
• Science only progresses when research is
shared publicly
• Publication in scholarly journal
• Presentation at scientific conference
• Peer Review helps maintain scientific
standards
Question/Problem
What do we already
know from Theory &
Previous Research
Report the findings

Learning Objectives
Testable Hypothesis with operational definitions
2.1 LOOKING FOR LAWS: THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO
BEHAVIOR
Clarify the relationships between theory, hypotheses, and research
and the importance of operational definitions in research.

Formulate a testable
hypothesis
• Begins with general question/problem →
• Education: Theory & Previous Research →
• Hypothesis
• Precise testable prediction
• Educated by previous research
• Guided by theory
• Includes operational definitions
• How will measure or control variables
Question/Problem
What do we already
know from Theory &
Previous Research
Testable Hypothesis
with operational
definitions

Select ethical research
methods and design study
• Descriptive
• Correlational
• Experimental
• Methods and Design selection depends on
the hypothesis and ethics and practicality
Ethical Research
Methods and Design

Learning Objectives
Ethical Research Methods and Design
2.5 LOOKING AT ETHICS: DO THE ENDS JUSTIFY THE
MEANS
Identify the APA Ethical Standards for Research (see June 1,
2010 American Psychological Association Ethical Principles of
Psychologists and Code of Conduct Standards 3.04, 4.05, 8.01-
8.09 at http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx for more
information).
Discuss the controversies regarding deception in research with
human subjects and the use of animals as research subjects.

Ethics in Psychological Research:
Do the Ends Justify the Means?
• Ethical standards for research: the American
Psychological Association
• Ensures both human and animal subjects are
treated with dignity
Ethical Research
Methods and Design

Ethics in Psychological Research:
Do the Ends Justify the Means?
• ALL require approval by IRB (institutional review board) prior to research
(APA Standard 8.01)
Animal research
(APA Standard 8.09)
• Decent living conditions
and humane treatment
EXCEPT for harmful
research procedures
including pain, stress,
and death that are
justified based on the
knowledge to be gained
Ethical Research
Methods and Design
Human research
▪ informed consent to voluntarily
participate in research (APA Standard 8.02-
8.06)
▪ deception only if justified and not painful or
distressing, must be fully debriefed after (APA
Standard 8.07-8.08)
▪ no harmful treatment (harm = long term
damage) (APA Standard 3.04)
▪ physical pain and/or emotional distress allowed
only if justified and informed of the potential
▪ individual participant privacy
maintained (APA Standard 4)
▪ disclose confidential information as mandated by
law, such as to protect from harm

Activity
• Play the role of members of an animal care
and use committee at your school.
• Read the research proposal and decide
whether or not to permit the research.
• Decide by consensus rather than majority vote.
It is not your job to suggest improvements to
the studies but to decide only on the proposal’s
merits based on the information provided.
Ethical Research
Methods and Design

Human Research on
Ionization’s Effects
Warm, dry, seasonal winds, like the Santa Ana winds in California, have been blamed for
everything from insomnia to homicide, and there is some research evidence that seems to
support this. These winds increase air temperature, reduce humidity, and alter the
atmosphere’s electron balance, splitting electrons into positively and negatively charged
particles called ions. During these seasonal winds, there is a slightly higher concentration
of positive ions in the air, and a small amount of research evidence suggests that positive
ions can produce negative mood shifts (bad mood). Could negative ions have the opposite
effect, making people feel better? Professor Y wants to test this hypothesis in a laboratory
experiment..
• The researcher plans to use a machine that generates negative ions (as some electronic
air cleaners do) to change the air in a laboratory room so that the concentration of
negative ions will be low (normal ambient), moderate, or high. In each session, a male
student will be led to believe (informed consent) he is involved in an experiment about
learning. His task during the session will involve training another student to reduce his
heart rate with biofeedback. The “learner” will actually be a trained confederate of the
researcher, and his performance will be completely scripted in advance. Every time the
learner makes a mistake, the trainer will THINK he is administering a heat stimulus on
the learner’s wrist. No real heat will ever be delivered in the experiment, but trainers will
believe that they are punishing the learners. Sessions will be set up so that half of the
volunteers will be intentionally angered by nasty comments from the learner during the
session; the other half will not be angered. Each volunteer’s mood will be measured at
the end of the session. The participants can end their participation at any time and no
personally identifiable information will be reported.

Human Research on
Ionization’s Effects
• This research study with humans would require IRB approval before it was conducted.
The participants would have to be informed (with some deception allowed if necessary)
before beginning voluntary participation that he/she could end at any time. The identity
and personal information for each participant must be kept secure and private. The
researchers would not be allowed to harm (permanent physical or emotional damage)
the participants in the name of research. Also, the researchers would have been (were)
required to debrief the research participants after the study was complete since there
was deception involved. While many people assume that research participants would be
upset about being deceived, most report being fine with it and understanding why it was
important. For all research with humans, the participants should also be given access to
the research results after the study is completed.
• This proposal is based on a study by Baron, Russell, and Arms (1985). They found that
higher levels of negative ions increased/intensified the mood that the participants
reported, regardless of whether pleasant mood or an angry/irritable mood. Deception is
a necessary part of research in psychology. It is the IRB which is supposed to make sure
that participants are informed without compromising the research. While the experiment
may have been uncomfortable, no one was harmed. Humans can be "hurt" emotionally
and/or physically during research but they cannot be "damaged permanently". For
example, research that looks at the impact of stress on the immune system requires
"hurting" people. In this research, humans are commonly given sores (blisters) and then
how quickly they heal is monitored along with stress levels.

Animal Research on
Executive Monkeys
Professor X has studied the emotional behavior of rhesus monkeys for several years. During the
experimental phases of the research the monkeys were kept in restraining chairs; these allowed
them to move their heads and limbs but not their bodies. They were placed in the chairs so that
they could be trained through various conditioning procedures involving electric shock. The
experimental setup, according to Professor X, seemed to be quite stressful for the animals. Many
of them died during the preliminary study. Autopsies showed that many of the dead animals
developed ulcers, which are unusual in laboratory animals. In this previous research, restraint
alone was not the explanation for the ulcers and deaths; some animals had been kept in the
restraining chairs, received no shock, and did not develop ulcers or die. Therefore, in subsequent
work, Professor X wants to explore the effect of the conditioning procedures.
• She will train two monkeys, designating one an 'executive' and one a 'control'. Both monkeys
will be given brief shocks on the feet. However, the 'executive' monkey will be able to prevent
shock by pressing a lever. Unless the 'executive' acts appropriately and presses the lever in
time, it (and its partner, the 'control' monkey) will be shocked on the feet once every 20
seconds. The monkeys will be exposed to alternating 6-hour periods of shock avoidance and 6-
hours periods of rest (no shock with humane treatment and decent living conditions). Professor
X hypothesizes that the 'executive' monkey will develop ulcers whereas the 'control' monkey
will not. She believes that this difference will occur because the 'executive' monkey will have
the stress of the responsibility of avoiding the shock. Although the 'control' monkey will be
shocked exactly the same number of times and length as the 'executive' monkey, Professor X
believes that it will not develop ulcers because it has no responsibility. Thus, Professor X
believes that the stress of responsibility will be the causative factor in developing ulcers and not
merely being shocked. Professor X argues that this research will have important implications
for humans and their health.

Animal Research on
Executive Monkeys
• This research study with animals would require IRB approval before it was conducted.
Generally speaking, animals must be treated humanely with decent living conditions
BUT animals may be harmed to include killed IF "justified by its prospective scientific,
educational or applied value."
• (predated the current ethical guidelines for research with animals) The case is based on
Brady’s (1958) research with “executive monkeys.” It deals with shock to a species that
is closely related to humans, with results that are potentially applicable to humans. It is
important to note that the shocks are brief and the strength of the shock is designed to
be unpleasant but not tissue damaging. It is also important to note that animals do not
have equal rights with humans in our society. The example I use in my face-to-face
classroom is: If I showed up to class early and a person who did not belong there was in
the room he/she would be asked to leave. If instead, the room was infested with rats I
would be required by health code to remove them using any means necessary to
include killing them. FYI: research has since shown that while stress can make you more
susceptible to ulcers and recovery from an ulcer take longer, it is not the "cause" of the
ulcer.
• Brady, J. V. (1958). Ulcers in executive monkeys. Scientific American, 199(4), 95–100.

Animal Research on Dogs
Professor Z wants to understand depression, which he believes is related to learned helplessness from
people experiencing unpleasant events they can not control. He is specifically studying learned
helplessness using dogs trained to avoid electric shocks.
• He will use a box/room divided into two compartments, placing a dog in one side of the box. This side
of the box will have a floor which is an electrified grid that can be turned off and on to shock the dogs’
feet. The other side of the box will not have the electrified grid. The dogs’ task is to learn to escape the
shock and, later, to avoid it. Some animals will be confronted with a hurdle between the two
compartments; they will have to jump over the hurdle to escape or avoid the shocks. However, some
dogs will be prevented from escaping the shocks because a barrier will block off the second
compartment. The shocks used by Professor Z will be fairly intense (dogs receiving this level of shock
typically yelp, shriek, defecate, and urinate). The length of the shock will vary with the longest time up
to 2 minutes. Each dog will have five initial training sessions with 10 trials per session. Between
training sessions, the dogs will have decent living conditions and humane treatment. For those dogs
previously blocked from escaping, after 50 shocks the barrier will be removed, and the dogs in the
second group will be free to escape. Based on some preliminary findings, Professor Z believes that
the dogs that face the hurdle will easily learn to escape and then to avoid the shocks by immediately
moving to the 'no shock' side the box each time they are placed in the box. However, he thinks that
the dogs that initially cannot escape the shocks will not learn to escape or avoid them even after the
barrier is removed, even though they merely have to walk from one side of the box to the other. If he
is correct, he will have demonstrated “learned helplessness,” a state in which the animals have
learned, in the first stage of the experiment, that they have no control over their environment and its
consequences. This helplessness will generalize to the second stage of the experiment, and the dogs
will not even try to escape because they previously learned to be helpless. Professor Z believes that
this phenomenon of learned helplessness could have important implications for understanding
depression in humans. He believes that people who become depressed may do so because they
learn that they have no control over their environments, just like the dogs in the second group of this
experiment, and so stop trying to overcome life's challenges and thus display the apathy and low
motivation that characterizes depression.

Animal Research on Dogs
• This research study with animals would require IRB approval before it was conducted.
Generally speaking, animals must be treated humanely with decent living conditions
BUT animals may be harmed to include killed IF "justified by its prospective scientific,
educational or applied value."
• (predated the current ethical guidelines for research with animals) The case is based on
Solomon and Wynne’s (1953) experiment on avoidance learning in dogs that contributed
to the concept of learned helplessness. It is considered a very important study that
contributed to our understanding of learned helplessness and depression. Again,
research animals received electric shock, but the results did have important implications
for humans. The level of shock used in this experiment is pretty extreme and would not
be approved today.
• These shocks are nothing like the shocks currently used to train dogs. These include
"scat mats" (plastic sheets with electrified wires embedded) and invisible fences with
corresponding shock collars. These training tools deliver a relatively mild shock that
annoys but does not damage the tissue. It is also important to note that these are
training aids not punishments. I have used both the scat mats and invisible fences with
my dogs. It only takes getting shocked once or twice to learn to stay off the couch or in
the yard.
• Solomon, R. L., & Wynne, L. C. (1953). Traumatic avoidance learning: Acquisition in
normal dogs. Psychological Monographs, 67(4, Whole No. 354).

Types of Research Designs
Descriptive:
goal to measure or describe
Only describes
the data or
variables; do
not predict
relationships
or conclude
cause and
effect
Research
sample
subjects not
assigned to
groups nor
treated
differently
from one
another or
may involve
just one
(few)
subject(s) in
single
subject case
study
Statistical
analysis only
uses
descriptive
statistics
like mean
and
standard
deviation
(SD)
Correlational:
goal to understand and predict
Finds
relationships
between
predictor
variables;
CANNOT
conclude
cause and
effect
Research
sample
subjects not
assigned to
groups nor
treated
differently
from one
another
Statistical
analysis may use
descriptive
statistics, but
focus of
results is
correlation
coefficients (r)
and coefficients
of determination
to show
strength &
direction of
relationship
between
variables
Experimental:
goal to apply or control
Manipulate
independent
variables (IV)
under
controlled
conditions to
determine
CAUSE of
measured
change in
dependent
variables ; limit
extraneous or
confounding
variable effects
with "large
enough"
representative
sampling of
population
randomly
assigned to
groups that only
vary by IV (all
other conditions
equal)
Research
sample
subjects
randomly
assigned to
experimental
and control
groups that
are treated
differently in
terms of IV;
may serve as
own control if
measure DV
before & after IV
manipulation in
a single group
Statistical
analysis may
use descriptive
statistics and/or
correlation
coefficients, but
focus of
results is
inferential
statistics to
show if the
groups are
statistically
significantly
different (p =
probability that
observed
findings due to
chance low) in
measured
dependent
variables; IV
CAUSED
change in DV
Variations
with pre-
existing
groups
limit causal
conclusions
IV controlled/manipulated between pre-existing groups instead of random
assignment to groups = Quasi-experimental (not true experiment)
Pre-existing group where "IV" occurred naturally (NOT intentionally
controlled) compared to group in which "IV" did not occur = Correlational
NOT experimental (no true IV without control/manipulation)

Agenda 2x
• Announcements
• Exam 1 - Wednesday, Feb 6 – NEXT CLASS
• Report 1 due by end of day (11:59 pm) Monday, Feb 25
• Ch. 2 & Ap. B Quiz due by 11:59 pm Tuesday, Feb 5 in BLACKBOARD

Exam 1
• 50 multiple choice questions in 50 minutes
• Use Unit Learning Guides to study
• Make sure you have good understanding (in your own
words) of both terms and learning objectives
• Need #2 pencil

Agenda HONORS
• Announcements
• Service Learning Project
• Two research studies due by end of day (11:59 pm) TODAY
• Popular press report on approved research study due by end of
day (11:59 pm), Monday, Feb 11
• Exam 1 - Wednesday, Feb 6 – NEXT CLASS

Honors Exam 1
• 50 multiple choice questions
and
• Short answer/essay questions

Reporting Research
• Psychological Research written using formal
rules of APA style
• Title page
• Abstract
• Literature review
• Hypothesis
• Methods section
• Results section
• Discussion section
• List of references
• http://flash1r.apa.org/apastyle/basics/index.htm
Question/Problem
What do we already
know from Theory &
Previous Research
Report the findings

Article example
• A PROFILE OF CONTEMPORARY
COMMUNITY COLLEGE STUDENT
INVOLVEMENT, TECHNOLOGY USE, AND
RELIANCE ON SELECTED COLLEGE LIFE
SKILLS

Learning Objectives
Ethical Research Methods and Design – Descriptive
2.3 LOOKING FOR LINKS: DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH METHODS &
Appendix B GRAPHING DATA, MEASURING CENTRAL TENDENCY,
MEASURING VARIABILITY, & THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
Describe the descriptive research method to include collecting data to
describe large groups as well as case studies of individuals or small
groups.
Define Descriptive Statistics and describe how graphs (Frequency
distribution, Histogram, Frequency Polygon), measures of central
tendency (Median, Mean, Mode), symmetry versus skew (Negatively
or Positively skewed distribution), and variability (Standard Deviation)
are used to describe data.
Describe the normal distribution to include the role of percentile scores
and how the normal distribution it is used in standardized
psychological testing.

Only describes
the data or
variables to take
measure of
population; do
not predict
relationships or
conclude cause
and effect
Research sample
subjects not
assigned to
groups nor
treated differently
from one another
or may involve just
one (few) subject(s)
in single subject
case study
Statistical
analysis only
uses descriptive
statistics like
mean and
standard
deviation (SD)
Descriptive:
goal to measure or describe

Statistical Methods for Describing Data:
Descriptive Statistics
• Descriptive statistics = describe sample; may be
used to infer description of population
• Mean (M), Median (Mdn), Mode (Mo), -/+ skew of
distribution, standard deviation (SD) – describe sample with
SD & sample size used to estimate degree of error in
describing population
• Percentile Scores (%tile) – describe individual place in
“population” (normative sample)
Analyze data and
draw conclusions

A PROFILE OF CONTEMPORARY COMMUNITY
COLLEGE STUDENT INVOLVEMENT, TECHNOLOGY
USE, AND RELIANCE ON SELECTED COLLEGE LIFE
SKILLS
Item to be rated Mean SD
Student Involvement Area
Use campus computing resources 3.28 1.81
Use campus food services 2.87 1.76
Attend a college athletic event 2.87 1.93
Use campus resources for rest and
relaxation
2.53 1.62
Use campus athletic resources 2.46 1.95
Date a fellow student at the college 2.33 1.79
Participate in college social clubs and
groups
1.96 1.37
Participate in college academic clubs and
events
1.87 1.34
Attend a college cultural event 1.75 1.31

A PROFILE OF CONTEMPORARY COMMUNITY
COLLEGE STUDENT INVOLVEMENT, TECHNOLOGY
USE, AND RELIANCE ON SELECTED COLLEGE LIFE
SKILLS
Item to be rated Mean SD
College Life Skill
Work at a job while going to school 4.55 1.82
Plan your career/work after community college 4.51 1.53
Plan your transfer to a 4-year college 4.46 1.79
Think about college as an investment 4.42 1.70
Budget for future tuition expenses 3.55 1.91
Involve a family member in your schooling 3.51 1.66
Introduce yourself to your teachers outside of class 2.89 1.52
Participate in the college's academic activities 2.76 1.61
Participate in the college's social activities 2.67 1.46
Meet with an advisor more than is required 2.30 1.52
Participate in a student organization 2.17 1.55

Normal Distribution Analyze data and
draw conclusions
M
of norm or
standardization sample
assumed =

mean of the population

Article example
• Success in community college: Do institutions
differ?
• How obstacles and facilitators predict
academic performance: The mediating role of
study burnout and engagement

Learning Objectives
Ethical Research Methods and Design – Correlational
2.3 LOOKING FOR LINKS: CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS &
Appendix B MEASURING CORRELATION, CORRELATION AND
PREDICTION
Describe the correlational research method.
Explain how inferential statistics (correlation coefficient) are used in
analyzing correlations; distinguish between positive and negative
correlations and identify how the strength of a correlation is
determined. Discuss how correlations and the coefficient of
determination are used in correlational research in relation to
prediction and causation.
Evaluate the major advantages and disadvantages of descriptive &
correlational research to include the role of ethics and practicality in
selecting research methods.

Correlational:
goal to understand and predict
Finds
relationships
between
predictor
variables;
CANNOT
conclude cause
and effect
Research sample
subjects not
assigned to groups
nor treated
differently from
one another
Statistical analysis may use
descriptive statistics, but
focus of results is
correlation
coefficients (r) and
coefficients of determination
to show strength &
direction of
relationship
between variables

Relationship between Quizzes and
Course Grades In General Psychology
0.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0
120.0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Course
Grade
Average Quiz
Average Quiz and Course Grade

Analyze data and
draw conclusions
Inferential Statistics for correlational designs:
Correlation Statistics - Magnitude
• Inferential statistics = draw conclusions about
relationships between variables; mathematical rules
require strong findings to infer to population
• Correlation coefficient (r)
• Statistical relationship between two variables
• Strength (magnitude): 0 to +/-1
• Higher number (positive or negative) = stronger relationship
Negative Correlation Positive Correlation
High/
Strong
Moderate Low/
Weak
High/
Strong
Moderate
Low/
Weak
1.00
.90
.80
.70
.60
.50
.40
.30
.20
.10
0
-.10
-.20
-.30
-.40
-.50
-.60
-.70
-.80
-.90
-1.00
Strength of Relationship
Increasing Increasing
NO
Correlation

Correlation Statistics – Direction
• Correlation coefficient (r)
• Direction of relationship
• Positive = together
• Negative = opposite
In psychology, positive and negative DO NOT mean good and bad!
X
X
X
Y
Y
X
X Y
Y
Analyze data and
draw conclusions

Increasing Strength of Relationship
Scatter diagrams of correlations
Analyze data and
draw conclusions

Strengths and Weaknesses
of Descriptive & Correlational Research
• Strengths:
• Used when practical or ethical issues do not allow
for variables to be manipulated
• Weaknesses:
• CANNOT draw conclusions about cause-and-
effect
Ethical Research
Methods and Design

Learning Objectives
Ethical Research Methods and Design – Experimental
2.2 LOOKING FOR CAUSES: EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS &
Appendix B HYPOTHESIS TESTING, STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Describe the experimental research method, to include the role of
independent and dependent variables, confounding and extraneous
variables, experimental and control groups, and the importance of the
procedure of random assignment. Explain how experiments can vary
in format and design.
Explain how inferential statistics and statistical significance are used in
hypothesis testing for experiments.
Evaluate the major advantages and disadvantages of the experimental
method to include the role of ethics and practicality in selecting
research methods.

Experimental:
goal to apply or control
Manipulate
independent
variables (IV) under
controlled conditions
to determine CAUSE
of measured change
in dependent
variables (DV); limit
extraneous or
confounding variable
effects with "large enough"
representative sampling of
population randomly
assigned to groups that
only vary by IV (all other
conditions equal)
Research sample
subjects randomly
assigned to
experimental and
control groups
that are treated
differently in terms
of IV; may serve as
own control if measure
DV before & after IV
manipulation in a single
group
Statistical analysis may use
descriptive statistics and/or
correlation coefficients, but
focus of results is
inferential statistics
to show if the groups
are statistically
significantly
different (p = probability
that observed findings due
to chance low) in
measured dependent
variables; IV CAUSED
change in DV

Population
Representative
sample
Experimental
group
Control
group
Random
sampling
Random
assignment
Experimental
group
Control
group
IV or
special treatment
NO IV or
placebo
Measure DV the
same in all
groups

Inferential Statistics for
Experimental designs
• t-test - differences between two group
• ANOVA - differences between three or more groups
• Statistical significance
• p = probability observed findings due to chance low <0.05
• Probability of drawing the wrong conclusion = 5% (5 chances in 100)
Analyze data and
draw conclusions

Strengths and Weaknesses
of Experimental Research
• Strengths:
• conclusions about cause-and-effect can begin to
be drawn
• Weaknesses:
• artificial nature of experiments
• ethical and practical issues
Ethical Research
Methods and Design

Learning Objectives
Representative Sample Selection
2.4 LOOKING FOR FLAWS: EVALUATING RESEARCH
Explain the importance of selecting a representative sample
from the population on interest.

Representative sample selection
Relationship between population and sample
• Statistics assume
sample selected to be
accurate representation
of a population therefore
assume population
would have same result
as sample
• Requires EVERY member
of population to have
equal chance of being
selected at random; RARE
Representative
Sample Selection

Representative sample selection
Relationship between population and sample
• Inferential experimental statistics also require sample to be
randomly assigned to experimental and control groups
• thus each group “equally” representative of the population before IV
• Random assignment SHOULD create relatively equal groups and limit
confounds
Population
Representative
sample
Experimental
group
Control
group
Random
sampling
Random
assignment
Representative
Sample Selection

Learning Objectives
Data Collection
2.2 LOOKING FOR CAUSES: EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS
2.3 LOOKING FOR LINKS: DESCRITIVE/CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
METHODS
Identify the data collection techniques used in psychological
research and explain the unique role of observation,
psychological tests, and surveys (questionnaires and
interviews) in psychological research.

Data Collection
• Methods for collecting data vary by
hypothesis, variables, design, and
practicality
Need reliable and valid measures of all variables in
Descriptive/Correlational research and Dependent
Variables (DV) in Experimental research
• Direct Observation (field/natural vs laboratory/artificial)
• Survey (questionnaire or interview)
• Standardized Psychological Tests
• Physiological Recordings
• Examination of Archival Records (already collected data)
Data collection

Learning Objectives
Analyze the data and draw conclusions
2.4 LOOKING FOR FLAWS: EVALUATING RESEARCH
2.8 The Perils of Anecdotal Evidence
Explain how inferential statistics are used in hypothesis testing
and how statistical significance is used.
Describe common flaws in the design and execution of
research and explain the limitations of anecdotal evidence and
the importance of evidence-based decision making.
Explain the importance of replication and meta-analysis in
research.

Analyze data and draw conclusions
• Strength of conclusions related to:
• Hypothesis Testing using statistics
• Null hypothesis
• no relationship between variables
• no difference between groups
• DV the same, IV does not make a difference
• Research hypothesis predicts
• positive or negative relationship between variables
• difference between groups
• IV caused difference in DV
Analyze data and
draw conclusions

• Statistics = mathematics used to draw objective conclusions
• inherent degree of error in generalizing to population as no
sample is perfect representation of population AND flaws in
measuring/controlling variables
• Descriptive statistics = describe sample; may be used to infer
description of population
• Mean (M), Median (Mdn), Mode (Mo), -/+ skew of distribution, standard
deviation (SD) – describe sample with SD & sample size used to estimate
degree of error in describing population
• Percentile Scores (%tile) – describe individual place in “population”
(normative sample)
• Inferential statistics = draw conclusions about relationships between
variables; mathematical rules require strong findings to infer to
population
• Correlation coefficient (r) – direction & strength of relationship
• t-test or ANOVA – determine if groups differ with statistical significance (p) =
probability that findings due to chance low <0.05
Analyze data and
draw conclusions

• Research flaws - ALL research flawed
• Sampling bias (unrepresentative sample)
• Anecdotal evidence (single case)
• Distortions in self-report data from survey:
• Social desirability bias
• Response set
• Distortions in observational data:
• Observation effect
• Halo effect/bias
• Lack of control over variables (confounding variables)
• In experiments:
• Lack of random assignment
• Placebo effect
• Experimenter bias (double blind solution not followed)
Analyze data and
draw conclusions

Reporting findings:
Importance of continuing process
• Science only progresses when research shared
publicly
• Publication in scholarly journal
• Presentation at scientific conference
• Peer Review helps maintain scientific standards
• Replication, programs of research, meta-analysis
needed to counter flaws of a single study
Report the findings

Question/Problem
Testable Hypothesis
with operational
definitions
Ethical Research
Methods and Design
Representative
Sample Selection
Data collection
Analyze data and
draw conclusions
Report the findings
REPEAT =
Replication,
programs of
research, meta-
analysis needed
to counter flaws
of a single study

Learning Objectives
2.1 & 2.4 LOOKING FOR LAWS: THE SCIENTIFIC
APPROACH TO BEHAVIOR & LOOKING FOR FLAWS:
EVALUATING RESEARCH
Identify the two main advantages of the scientific approach.

Question/Problem
Testable Hypothesis
with operational
definitions
Ethical Research
Methods and Design
Representative
Sample Selection
Data collection
Analyze data and
draw conclusions
Report the findings
WHY do
we go to
so much
trouble?

Advantages of Scientific
Approach
• Clarity and Precision
• Enhances communication
• Relative intolerance of error
• Scientists
• Use empirical tests for objectivity
• Skeptical
• Check each others published work with replication
• Use meta-analysis to combine results of many
studies
• Over time, more accurate and dependable
than any other form of decision making

Should now have organized
notes in your own words on
Psychological Research & Statistical Methods – Chapter 2 and Appendix B
2.1 LOOKING FOR LAWS: THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO BEHAVIOR
2.7 FINDING AND READING SCHOLARLY ARTICLES – not on exam but part of reports
and quizzes
2.5 LOOKING AT ETHICS: DO THE ENDS JUSTIFY THE MEANS
2.3 LOOKING FOR LINKS: DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH METHODS &
Appendix B GRAPHING DATA, MEASURING CENTRAL TENDENCY, MEASURING
VARIABILITY, & THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
2.3 LOOKING FOR LINKS: CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS &
Appendix B MEASURING CORRELATION, CORRELATION AND PREDICTION
2.2 LOOKING FOR CAUSES: EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS & Appendix B
HYPOTHESIS TESTING, STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE
2.2 & 2.3 DATA COLLECTION (this heading is not in the chapter but I find it useful to discuss
this separately)
2.4 LOOKING FOR FLAWS: EVALUATING RESEARCH, 2.8 The Perils of Anecdotal
Evidence &
2.1 & 2.4 LOOKING FOR LAWS: THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO BEHAVIOR &
LOOKING FOR FLAWS: EVALUATING RESEARCH

Chapter 2 Quiz
• Available in Blackboard through 11:59 pm
Tuesday, Feb 5

Chapter 2 and Appendix B.pptx

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