1. SOUTH and CENTRAL KALIMANTAN PRODUCTION FOREST PROJECT
Jalan A. Yani, No. 37 (km35), Banjarbaru 70711, Indonesia
Tel. (62) 0511 781 975 – 979, Fax: (62) 0511 781 613
EUROPEAN COMMISSION – INDONESIA FOREST PROGRAMME
Non timber forest products
(NTFPs) and sustainable forest
management in upper Tabalong :
(1) Descriptions
Report No. 92
December 2001
2. Non timber forest products (NTFPs) and sustainable forest management in upper Tabalong :
(1) Descriptions - Report No. 92 - December 2001
i
PREFACE
The South and Central Kalimantan Production Forest Project (SCKPFP) is a
technical co-operation project jointly funded, in terms of the financing
memorandum ALA/95/18, by the European Commission and by the Government
of the Republic of Indonesia through the Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops
(MoFEC).
This report has been completed in accordance with the project Phase I Overall
Work Plan (OWP) and
in part fulfilment of Activities 2.1 “To increase household income in and around
the forest pilot concession areas”, 4.2 “To analyse the potential for non-timber
forest products (NTFP) utilisation”, 6.1 “To undertake environmental assessments”
and 6.2 “To strengthen the capacity to implement and maintain environmental
integrity in production forestry”
to achieve Result 2 “Livelihoods of local communities improved by assisting them
to become more active participants in production forest management”, Result 4
“Strategy developed to balance sustainable supply and demand of raw material for
the forest industry, incorporating opportunities to create added value from forest
products processing” and Result 6 “The forest ecosystem and associated
ecosystems within the project sites managed to maintain viability and diversity”,
to realise the three-year project Phase I purpose, which is “SFM model developed
that incorpPorates the ITTO guidelines and principles developed and implemented
in the forestry operation of Aya Yayang and a Central Kalimantan pilot
concession.”
This report has been prepared with financial assistance from the Commission of the
European Communities. The opinions, views and recommendations expressed are
those of the author(s) and in no way reflect the official opinion of the Commission.
The report has been prepared by:
• Dr. Junaidi Payne (SCKPFP Ecologist)
The report is acknowledged and approved for circulation by the Project Co-
Directors when duly signed below.
Banjarbaru, December 2001
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ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Parts of this report were reviewed by the Forest Industry and Economics
component and the Socio Agriculture component. However, the author is
responsible for the contents of this final version, including opinions expressed
under the Descriptions of the individual NTFPs.
Sections 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4 were contributed by the SCKPFP Forest Economist.
Front cover : Base of meranti kuning tree in the PT. AYI Arboretum (probably
Shorea mujongensis) showing chacateristic clear black damar. Insets : fruits of
lahung (Durio dulcis) and maritam (Nephelium ramboutan-ake), and rattan bag.
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AYI Aya Yayang Indonesia
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora
Dbh diameter at breast height
Ha hectare(s)
HTI Hutan Tanaman Industri (industrial tree plantation)
IDR Indonesian rupiah
Kg kilogram(s)
NTFP non timber forest product
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Table of Contents
PREFACE..................................................................................................................................................................................i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................................................................................ii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .....................................................................................................................................................iii
RINGKASAN (Indonesian Summary) .....................................................................................................................................v
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS...............................................................................................................................vii
1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Objectives........................................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Overview of literature .....................................................................................................................................1
1.3 Definitions.......................................................................................................................................................2
1.4 Classifications .................................................................................................................................................3
1.5 Information sources for this report..................................................................................................................5
1.6 Arrangement in this report ..............................................................................................................................5
2 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE NTFPS OF UPPER TABALONG....................................................................8
2.1 Descriptions of the major NTFPs....................................................................................................................8
2.1.1 Gaharu..........................................................................................................................................................8
2.1.2 Edible birds’ nests ......................................................................................................................................10
2.1.3 Rattan .........................................................................................................................................................13
2.1.4 Damar.........................................................................................................................................................17
2.1.5 Honey .........................................................................................................................................................21
2.1.6 Wild fruits ..................................................................................................................................................24
2.1.7 Song birds...................................................................................................................................................29
2.1.8 Pangolin scales ...........................................................................................................................................32
2.1.9 Kapulaga (“Cardamom”)............................................................................................................................34
2.1.10 Kedaung .....................................................................................................................................................36
2.1.11 Medicinal plants .........................................................................................................................................38
2.1.12 Fish.............................................................................................................................................................42
2.1.13 Wild meats..................................................................................................................................................43
2.1.14 Keruing oil..................................................................................................................................................47
2.1.15 Tengkawang ...............................................................................................................................................49
3 REFERENCES...............................................................................................................................................51
List of Tables
Table 1 Demonstration of NTFP classification and appearance in the study area....................................................................4
Table 2 Classification and description of product sub-groups for major traded items in the study area ..................................5
Table 3. Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPSs) harvested from the PT AYI area .................................................................6
Table 4 Commercial rattans of upper Tabalong......................................................................................................................15
Table 5. Trees of upper Tabalong that produce edible fruits ..................................................................................................25
Table 6. The most popular song birds species native to upper Tabalong ...............................................................................29
Table 7 Some wild medicinal plants of upper Tabalong.........................................................................................................38
Table 8. Main wild mammal species hunted for meat in upper Tabalong..............................................................................45
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List of Figures
Figure 1. A group of Banjar men returning from a gaharu-harvesting expedition in forest on the South and Central
Kalimantan border areas, photographed near Sinangoh River in 1999. They have caught an infant sun bear (man on
left), which was later sold in Tanjung..............................................................................................................................8
Figure 2. Entrance to the Penyanggar edible birds nest cave, in the Tanggur limestone hill north of Missim village. ..........11
Figure 3. Calamus caesius......................................................................................................................................................13
Figure 4. Making a fish trap from rattan.................................................................................................................................14
Figure 5. Bundles of recently harvested rattan .......................................................................................................................16
Figure 6. The characteristic black damar found on meranti kuning trees...............................................................................18
Figure 7. Damar harvesters (from Nusa Tenggara) at Sinangoh river area, 1999; pieces of damar can be seen under the
empty sacks....................................................................................................................................................................19
Figure 8. Ladder built by honey harvesters on to the trunk of a Koompassia excelsa tree near Missim river........................22
Figure 9. Pitanak (Dracontomelum costatum)........................................................................................................................27
Figure 10. Lahung (Durio dulcis)...........................................................................................................................................27
Figure 11. Kembayau (Dacryodes species) ............................................................................................................................27
Figure 12. Kangkala (Litsea garciae).....................................................................................................................................27
Figure 13. Terap (Artocarpus elasticus).................................................................................................................................27
Figure 14. Buku-buku (Dimocarpus longan)..........................................................................................................................27
Figure 15. Maritam (Nephelium ramboutan-ake)...................................................................................................................28
Figure 17. Pangolin (Manis javanica) caught in upper Missim river by ulin wood harvesters ..............................................32
Figure 18. Amomum compactum growing in its natural habitat of fertile, moist lowland soils..............................................35
Figure 19. Kapulaga fruits harvested and dried for sale .........................................................................................................35
Figure 20. Rhizomes and flowers of Amomum compactum....................................................................................................36
Figure 21. Kedaung (Parkia timoriana) .................................................................................................................................37
Figure 22. Luvunga species ....................................................................................................................................................40
Figure 23. Rubus moluccanus (right side, with red berries, used to treat fevers) and Melastoma malabathricum (lower left,
used to treat dysentery) ..................................................................................................................................................41
Figure 24. Recently hunted young male sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) in the PT AYI 1999-2000 felling block.................44
Figure 25. Natural mineral lick on Tutui river, used by large herbivorous mammals to supplement their mineral
requirements...................................................................................................................................................................46
Figure 26. Illegally-felled keruing tree in the PT AYI arboretum ..........................................................................................48
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1 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
The objectives of this report are to provide :
(a) a review of definitions and various ways to classify NTFPs; and
(b) descriptions of all main NTFPs in upper Tabalong.
1.2 Overview of literature
NTFPs have got much attention during the last decade and the related international
literature has become quite voluminous.
Useful sources on actual literature on NTFPs are:
⇒ For updated references: The FAO website for their NWFP programme
http://www.fao.org/forestry/FOP/FOPW/NWFP with a
long list of literature references
⇒ For updated info.: The FAO Non-wood forest products report serial and
in their information bulletin “non-wood NEWS”. The
latter is available in the above FAO website
Profound’s special website www.ntfp.org
⇒ Species information: ICRAF’s Agroforestree Database on their website
http://www.cgiar.org/icraf
⇒ On bamboo & rattan: International Network for Bamboo and Rattan
(INBAR) website http://www.inbar.org.cn/publist.asp
and INBAR Newsletter
CIFOR has made a description about databases available on NTFPs (Tan et al.,
1996). The list tends to be a bit out-dated. Annex 1 of the list provides contact
addresses of the following databases, here listed by country and creation year:
♦ Belgium, 1986 PHARMEL (PHARmacopoeia MEdicaL plants traditional)
♦ China, 1987 China Bamboo
♦ Costa Rica, 1993 Biodiversity Management Information System
♦ India, 1993 MFP Database
♦ India, 1993 INMEDPLAN (Medicinal Plants Distributed Databases
Network)
♦ Indonesia, 1988 PROCEA Databank
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♦ Kenya, 1990 Plants for life
♦ Philippines (UNESCO) Asian Pacific Information Network on Medicinal &
Aromatic Plants
The most comprehensive and recent reference lists concerning Kalimantan NTFPs,
which includes specific references concerned to information on, are given by
Grossman, 1997 (12 pp) and Valkenburg, 1997 (16 pp). Additionally Leaman,
1991 has a specialized list in plants and animal products that are attributed to
medicinal or toxic properties.
Most valid references concerned to the South Kalimantan conditions on product
specified information:
⇒ General NTFPs Hildebrand, 1949
⇒ Rattan Dransfield & Manokaran, 1994, Tropenbos, 1997
⇒ Bird nests Leh, 1998
⇒ Medical herbs Leaman, 1991
1.3 Definitions
The acronym NTFP (non timber forest product) is used synonymously with NWFP
(non-wood forest product) and preferred, as the term NTFP has been most
widespread and generally accepted, though FAO prefers to continue using the term
NWFP. In studies on NTFPs the term has not been used consistently, and have too
often not covered the same range of products by different authors to be
comparable. Examples of recent definitions are:
FAO www.fao.org/forestry/fop/fopw/nwfp (updated June 2001) has given the
following definition: “NWFP are products of biological origin other than wood
derived from forests, wooded lands and trees outside forests. NWFP may be
gathered from the wild, or produced in forest plantations, agroforestry schemes and
trees outside forests. Examples of NWFP include products used as food and food
additives (edible nuts, mushrooms, fruits, herbs, spices and condiments, aromatic
plants, game), fibres (used in construction, furniture, clothing or utensils), resins,
gums, and plant and animal products used for medicinal, cosmetic or cultural
purposes”
Dykstra & Heinrich, 1996 (FAO): “All biological material, other than industrial
roundwood, that may be extracted from natural ecosystems, either for commercial
purposes, for use within household or for social, cultural of religious uses”.
Sist et al., 1998 (CIFOR) has used the same definition with the exception that
“natural ecosystems” has been replaced with “forest”.
Profound’s www.ntfp.org (2001) has further elaborated this definition as: “NTFP
encompasses all biological materials other than timber which are extracted from
forests for human use”, thereby replaced industrial roundwood with timber and
“use within household or for social, cultural of religious uses” with “human use”.
This last definition is not contradictory to FAO’s website definition and has been
followed in this report with some exceptions described below.
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1.4 Classifications
There is no generally accepted classification standard of NTFPs. Here three
examples of classifications of product types are given:
Pancel, 1993:
1. Gums and resins
2. Dyes and tannins. Dyes come from a variety of plant parts as bark, leaves and
fruits. Tannins are soluble phenols secreted from plant parts as bark or wood.
3. Edible plants
4. Fibre crops
5. Medicine
6. Animal products
Qwist-Hoffman et al., 1998 (RECOFTC):
1. Fibres and flosses
2. Edible products
3. Extracts and exudates
4. Medical plants
5. Ornamental plants
6. Animal products
Profound’s webpage www.ntfp.org (2001) has given the following classification
into five groups, which is a mixture of product groups and product types:
Edible plants
♦ Food
♦ Edible oils
♦ Spices
♦ Fodder
♦ Other edible plants
Non-edible plant products
♦ Rattan
♦ Bamboo
♦ Sustainably produced wood
♦ Ornamental plants
♦ Chemical components
♦ Other non-edible plant products
Medicinal products
♦ All medicinal products
Edible animal products
♦ Terrestrial animals
♦ Animal products
♦ Fish and aquatic invertebrates
♦ Other edible animal products
Non-edible animal products
♦ Insect products
♦ Wildlife products and live animals
♦ Other non-edible animal products
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The basic problem with the classifications has been the mix of structural classes
and use classes. Structural classes are e.g. fibres and extracts and use classes are
e.g. edible and medicinal. Additionally a product, e.g. damar is species related. The
product can be of different quality depending on from which species the resin has
been collected. One resin could be used as a medicinal product, as well as edible
oil and for cosmetics industry and would be classified as “gums and resins” or
“medicine” by Panchel and “extracts & exudates” or “medical plant” by Qwist-
Hoffman but the classifications will not fit for cosmetics use. In Profound’s
classification the resin will fit into all three vegetative groups rather than a distinct
group. Additionally bamboo as NTFP is both edible (young shoots) and non-edible
(culms). This causes confusion in a strict classification.
The classification of NTFPs is further made complicated as people sometimes refer
to the collected product and sometimes to the industrial product. Here the NTFP is
the collected product in the forest and not the industrial product. Examples of this
case are:
♦ Wood is collected for industrial extraction of resin to be used as ingredience in
chemical factories, which produce hygienic products as soap or perfume;
♦ Pine resin collected to be used for the industrial product turpentine;
♦ Dipterocarpaceae nuts collected for small-scale industrial extraction of oil to be
used as an ingredience for edible butter.
Table 1 Demonstration of NTFP classification and appearance in the study area
Product type:
Product
group
1
Wooden
2
Fibres
&
Flosses
3
Extracts
&
Exudates
4
Edible
5
Medi-
cinal
6
Ornamen
-tal &
Exhibit.
7
Vegetative
Tree
Palm
Shrub
Climber
Herb
Grass
X
X
X
X X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Non-
vegetative
Mammal
Bird
Insect
X
X
X
X
X
Source : Skarner (2001)
The problem of using a mixture of structural and use related product types remains.
Columns 2-4 in Table 2-1 are structural and columns 5-7 are use related, and
sometimes there is confusion how to classify. When in doubt the most important
product type has been chosen.
The product group “climber” is not clear, as rattan by definition is a spiny climbing
palm (Prosea, 1994), or a thorny climbing palm (FAO, website 2001). In the
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project database rattan has been classified in the “climber” product group and not
in the “palm” product group.
The evaluation groups used in this report are the product sub-groups. The use of
sub-group is convenient, as e.g. the sub-group “rattan” produces NTFP “cane”, but
as NTFP it is generally called rattan. Bee is then the sub-group producing NTFPs
honey and wax, which is collected in the same time.
The major traded products found in the field studies have then been classified and
described as in Table 2.
Table 2 Classification and description of product sub-groups for major traded items in the study area
Product
Sub-group
Product
Group
Product
Type
NTFP Species Price
Factor
Vegetative
Rattan
Damar
Gaharu
Kedaung
Kapulaga
Climber
Tree
Tree
Tree
Herb
Fib. & flo.
Ext. & exu.
Wooden
Medicinal
Edible
Cane
Damar resin
Gaharu wood
Kedaung seed
Seed
Many species
Mainly Dipterocarpaceae spp.
Aquilaria spp.
Parkia timoriana
Amomum compactum
Species
Colour
Fragrance/Colour
Sub-species
Non-veg.
Bee
Animal
Bird nest
Cage bird
Insect
Mammal
Bird
Bird
Edible
Edible
Edible
Ornamental
Honey & wax
Wild meat
Bird nest
Song birds
Honey bees (& host plants)
Different animal/bird species
Two swiftlet species
Various
Taste
Taste
Colour
Beauty, rareness
Source : Skarner (2001)
1.5 Information sources for this report
The information compiled in this report on the NTFPs of upper Tabalong is based on
SCKPFP reports (Alfan & Payne, 2001; Basir, 2000; MacLachlan, 2001a,b; Mogea &
Alfan, 2001; Skarner, 2001; and Werner, 2001), unpublished SCKPFP field reports and
notes, relevant literature, and discussions with SCKPFP advisers.
1.6 Arrangement in this report
Table 3 summarises the main NTFPs recorded in upper Tabalong by SCKPFP. Any
types not listed are unlikely to impinge significantly on forest management issues, or to
be significant in terms of contributing to the income or food requirements of local
people.
The order of NTFP descriptions in section 2 of this report is based on the following
groups (noted in column C in Table 3) :
1. NTFPs characterized by small quantities being available only in remote or
scattered sites; very high value per kg; there is a constant market; most
“harvesting” time is spent seeking or guarding the NTFP; the sole purpose is
for cash income.
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2. NTFPs which are relatively common and widespread, and normally harvested
in large quantities through planned group efforts; most harvesting is done when
there are pre-arranged buyers, when prices paid are satisfactory to harvesters,
and when alternative activities (notably rubber tapping, rice farming) are less
attractive; most is sold but some may be for household use.
3. NTFPs which tend to be available seasonally, or for which harvesting is done
by a small number of specialists; most is sold but some may be for household
use; harvesting can yield a modest “windfall” income.
4. NTFPs harvested for own consumption or sold for human consumption.
5. Potential commercial NTFPs currently not harvested in upper Tabalong.
6. “Minor” NTFPs that are not discussed further in this report.
Table 3. Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPSs) harvested from the PT AYI area
Common name Scientific names of
producing organisms
Some key management
issues
C
Gaharu Aquilaria species Incense produced by fungi
in rare, endangered trees
1
Edible birds’ nests Collocalia fuciphaga & C.
maxima
Small cave-nesting swiftlets 1
Rattan Calamus, Korthalsia,
Plectocomia, Plectocomiopsis,
Retispatha, Daemonorops and
Ceratolobus (family Palmae)
Spiny climbing palms,
stems multi-purpose, local
use & commercial
manufacturing
2
Damar Mainly Shorea species (family
Dipterocarpaceae)
Resinous exudate; from the
major commercial trees
2
Honey Apis species 3
Wild fruits Various, in several families Many species; some
already domesticated
3
Song birds Various wild birds Popular in South
Kalimantan
3
Pangolin scales Manis javanica Chinese medicine 3
Kapulaga
(“Cardamom”)
Amomum compactum Used in jamu (traditional
tonic)
3
Kedaung Parkia timoriana Used in jamu (traditional
tonic)
3
Medicinal plants Many, in many families Complicated array of types
and uses
4
Fish Various For own use & sale 4
Wild meats Various vertebrate animals For own use & sale 4
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Common name Scientific names of
producing organisms
Some key management
issues
C
Keruing oil Dipterocarpus species 5
Tengkawang Some Shorea species, mainly S.
pinanga
5
Sungkai bark Peronema canescens Used for roofing in rural
villages; the bark regrows
readily on healthy trees.
6
Bamboo Various species Small quantities available,
mainly in villages rather
than forest
6
Mushrooms Various species 6
Orchids Dendrobium species, Eria
species, Coelogyne species and
others
Upper Tabalong has few
wild orchids of significant
commercial value
6
“Wild pets” Primates (Hylobates muelleri,
Macaca species) and honey bear
(Helarctos malayanus)
Occasionally caught
opportunistically for sale
6
In addition, biodiversity prospecting and tourism have been proposed as economic opportunities for upper
Tabalong (MacLachlan, 2001b).
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2 Descriptions of the NTFPs of upper Tabalong
2.1 Descriptions of the major NTFPs
2.1.1 Gaharu
English names : Aloeswood, Agarwood or Eagle-wood
Local name : Gaharu (= the product harvested; the name “put” is
used locally by Manyan Dayaks for Aquilaria trees, and “ramin bukit” for
Gonystylus trees)
Scientific names : Species of the genera Aquilaria and Gonystylus
(family Thymelaceae).
Figure 1. A group of Banjar men returning from a gaharu-harvesting expedition in
forest on the South and Central Kalimantan border areas, photographed near
Sinangoh River in 1999. They have caught an infant sun bear (man on left), which
was later sold in Tanjung
Description
The producing plant & its habitat Aquilaria beccariana, A. malaccensis and
Gonystylus affinis have been identified in upper Tabalong. All are trees of closed
canopy forest, reaching a mximum height of about 40 m.
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The product exploited The heartwood of some Aquilaria and Gonystylus trees
becomes black with aromatic resin probably following a fungal infection. The
aromatic black substance is called gaharu.
Regional distribution Aquilaria malaccensis occurs from India through mainland
South-east Asia to Indonesia and Philippines. Most other species which produce
gaharu are confined to Borneo, Sumatera and/or Peninsular Malaysia.
Use of the product Gaharu is exported, mainly to Arab countries, and is burned
with charcoal to produce a fragrance which is said to relieve mental illnesses and
stress, and induce calmness.
Availability in upper Tabalong
Local distribution Gaharu producing trees occur as scattered individuals in
lowland and hill dipterocarp forest.
Abundance and production potential Two Aquilaria trees (10.6 cm and 15.5 cm
dbh) and two Gonystylus trees (22.5 cm and 36.4 cm dbh) were recorded amongst
2698 trees in 6.63 ha of forest in the PT AYI concession (24 SCKPFP plots and 5
transects). This suggests a density of 0.6 trees/ha with potential to yield gaharu.
However, only some Aquilaria trees (reported in Barden et al. undated, as perhaps
one in ten for mature trees) and fewer Gonystylus trees produce gaharu.
Constraints to harvesting Due to the high value of gaharu, harvesters seek it
everywhere and there are effectively no constraints to harvesting.
Current utilisation in upper Tabalong
Who harvests? The only group met in the PT AYI forest (Figure 1) appeared to
consist mainly of Banjar men from villages in upper Tabalong.
Harvesting methods Gaharu is harvested by groups of men who travel far into
extensive forest areas, seeking gaharu for periods of up to several weeks. A hole is
cut into the trunk of Aquilaria and Gonystylus trees to see if there is gaharu inside.
If gaharu or dark stains are seen, the tree is felled.
Estimate of current annual harvest amounts Unknown.
Prices Good quality gaharu (black, elastic) is sold at IDR1 million / kg in upper
Tabalong, while lower quality (blackish, hard) fetches IDR750,000 / kg (Basir,
2000). World Conservation Monitoring Centre (U.K.) quotes prices of between
US$100 and US$10,000 / kg in Arab countries in the mid 1990’s. A Florida (USA)
based company that retails exotic products by internet (Katmandu Incence and
Imports) currently (year 2001) quotes prices of US$31.75 for a 10 g piece of
gaharu, or US$10 for 40 grams of powder. This is equivalent to US$3175 and
US$250 respectively / kg.
Sustainability of harvesting & species survival Gaharu harvesting is unlikely to
be sustainable. The only Aquilaria trees seen in the SCKPFP plots and transects are
immature. Harvesters now travel to remote areas for periods in excess of two
weeks in Tabalong. Harvesting not only destroys most gaharu-bearing trees, but
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seemingly all Aquilaria trees found are damaged and sometimes felled in search of
gaharu.
Current legislation
Peraturan Pemerintah 59/1998 (“Tarif atas penerimaan Negara bukan pajak yang
berlaku pada department Kehutanan dan Perkebunan”) indicates that gaharu is a
protected species, but no Indonesian law or regulation has been found which
identifies gaharu producing trees as protected.
Aquilaria malaccensis is listed on Appendix 2 of CITES
Relevant information from other areas/studies
A good recent (year 2000) overview of use of and trade in gaharu is available
(Barden et al., undated).
In 2001, gaharu seedlings were offered for sale by a private supplier in Samarinda
(“Gaharu Lestari” at Jl. Bukit Barisan 1 A No. 35, RT 21, Kp. Jawa, Samarinda
75122. Tel 0541 735675. ino_sen@smd.mega.net.id )
Some key management issues
Gaharu trees are endangered not only from overharvesting of trees containing
gaharu, but also reckless damaging or felling of Aquilaria trees without gaharu
even in remote areas. In practice, control may be impossible. Cultivation offers
better prospects for future supplies.
2.1.2 Edible birds’ nests
English name : EDIBLE BIRDS’ NESTS
Local name : Sarang Walet
Scientific names : Collocalia fuciphaga (produces white nests = sarang
putih) and Collocalia maxima (produces black nests =
sarang hitam)
Description
The producing animal & its habitat The edible nests are produced by swiftlets,
small birds of the family Apodidae, which feed on small flying insects. The
swiftlets can survive in urban and non-forested areas, although forest is their
original habitat. Their main limiting factor is access to caves (or buildings) in
which the nests are made. The swiftlets nest communally; the number of nests is
probably limited by amount of surface area for nesting, along with mortality caused
by many generations of harvesting by man.
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The product exploited White nests are made from strands of the swiftlets’ own
hardened saliva. Black nests are made from the birds’ own feathers, stuck together
with saliva.
Regional distribution Southern China, South-east Asia, Indonesia, Philippines
(Collocalia fuciphaga). Malaysia, Indonesia, southern Philippines (Collocalia
maxima).
Use of the product The saliva is consumed cooked as a soup; the softened strands
are gelatinous and almost tasteless.
Figure 2. Entrance to the
Penyanggar edible birds
nest cave, in the Tanggur
limestone hill north of
Missim village.
Availability in upper Tabalong
Local distribution There are scattered small caves in the Tanggur limestone ridge
which extends from Missim village northwards past the upper Tutui and Missim
Rivers into Central Kalimantan; in the small outcrops near Banian; and probably in
the karst limestone of the upper Ayu-Pasuang river. The only cave within the PT
AYI area that produces edible nests that has been visited by SCKPFP staff is
Penyanggar (Figure 2: located at 1o
37’ 30” S, 115o
25’ 10” E, in the Tanggur
ridge, about 2 km upstream from the Pasuang tributary of the Missim River). Other
caves are more remote.
Abundance and production potential Unknown
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Constraints to harvesting Due to the high value of edible birds’ nests, absence of
road access is not an issue. In Sabah, Malaysia, 1 kg consists of approximately 70
nests; the ratio is presumably similar for upper Tabalong nests. Individual lots of
nests brought out of the forest for sale appear to normally be much less than 1 kg
each. There are effectively no constraints to harvesting.
Current utilisation in upper Tabalong
Who harvests? Harvesters are said to be residents of Dusun Missim, Desa
Dambung Raya.
Harvesting methods Nests are simply cut from the cave walls. Ropes and ladders
of rattan, wood or bamboo are used to reach the less accessible nests. Local
informants state that nests are harvested every six weeks.
Estimate of current annual harvest amounts Unknown. Basir (2000) quotes
information from local informants which suggest about 1 kg per year from each of
two caves in Tanggur and 9 nests in one year from a cave at Banian.
Prices Basir (2000) quotes IDR10 million / kg for white nests in 1999.
Sustainability of harvesting & species survival The situation in upper Tabalong
is not known (see below). There appears to be a mistaken belief, however, that (a)
current harvesting in Tabalong is “sustainable” because collecting is “infrequent”,
and (b) “management” by traditional local communities will ensure sustainability.
In Tabalong, as elsewhere, the very high prices paid for nests leads to inevitable
over-harvesting.
Current legislation, regulation and taxation
Peraturan Pemerintah 59/1998 (“Tarif atas penerimaan Negara bukan pajak yang
berlaku pada department Kehutanan dan Perkebunan”) indicates that edible birds’
nests are protected by law, but does not identify which law.
Relevant information from other areas/studies
In theory, harvesting of edible birds’ nests from wild populations can be
sustainable by harvesting each cave twice per year. The swiftets tend to breed
simultaneously. The first harvest should occur just before new nests have been
completed, and before eggs have been laid. The second harvest (about 7-8 months
later) should occur just after young birds have flown from the nest. Any other
“system” leads to mortality of chicks and eggs, and diminished ability of adults to
maintain breeding success.
In practice, due to the very high prices of nests, a sustainable system does not occur
anywhere in the wild. All wild populations of edible nest swiftlets investigated
indicate a continuing trend of declining nest yields due to overharvesting.
Populations could be totally eliminated by harvesting unless there are parts of
caves which are inaccessible to harvesters.
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Some key management issues
Each nest is equivalent to about IDR150,000 stuck to the cave wall. With such
prices, implementation of sustainable harvesting of wild populations may be
impossible. The extremely small numbers of nests harvested from the Missim
River area, quoted by Basir (2000), suggests a population nearing extinction in that
area.
2.1.3 Rattan
English name : RATTAN
Local name : Rotan
Scientific names : All species of the genera Korthalsia,
Plectocomia, Plectocomiopsis, Retispatha,
Daemonorops, Calamus and Ceratolobus
(family Palmae)
Figure 3. Calamus caesius
Description
The producing plant & its habitat Rattans are spiny climbing palms with slender
tough stems that can grow to lengths of tens of metres into the forest canopy
(Figure 3). About 27 species have been identified in AYI area (Mogea & Alfan,
2001), of which about 10 – 12 species are harvested for sale or household use
(Alfan & Payne, 2001). In this report, “commercial” rattan refers to all rattans sold
for industrial manufacture of furniture and mats outside the Upper Tabalong area
and rattans used for manufacture of products used by local households (e.g. bags,
baskets, mats) that are not necessarily always sold but for which there is a local
market in Upper Tabalong.
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The product exploited After removing the leaf sheaths which cover it, the stem
can be bent, split lengthways or cut, thereby making it ideal for production of
furniture, mats, baskets and other items where weaving or tying is required.
Regional distribution Rattans occur in the forests of South and South-east Asia,
and Australasia. Borneo has the greatest number of species. Indonesia is the major
producer of canes and rattan products.
Uses of the product (For sale) furniture, mats, baskets, handicrafts; (for local use)
mats, baskets, fish traps (Figure 4) construction of temporary houses in rice fields,
tying fences etc.
Figure 4. Making a fish trap from rattan
Availability in upper Tabalong
Local distribution Rattan may occur naturally wherever there is forest, including
primary dipterocarp forest, logged forest and secondary growth. Distribution of
rattan is patchy. Rattans appear to be most common in heavily disturbed forest
sites, but most of these rattans (except raung) are non-commercial species. The best
commercial rattans tend to require forest in good condition. Seeds are dispersed by
gibbons, macaque monkeys, hornbills and other birds, all of which require forest
for their survival. Seedlings are sometimes planted in rubber small-holdings.
Abundance and production potential Based on 17 x 0.5 ha plots in the PT AYI
area (Alfan & Payne, 2001), there are an average of 240 rattan stems/ha in the PT
AYI area, of which only 35% are of commercial species. Most rattan species grow
as clumps of stems; harvesting some stems allows the plant to grow new stems.
Amongst commercial species, only manau grows as a single stem, whereby
harvesting kills the plant. Biological production potential is unknown.
Constraints to harvesting (1) Road access to areas not recently harvested. (2) The
species with highest price/stem (notably manau Calamus manan and minong C.
ornatus) are rare and scattered in occurrence.
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Table 4 Commercial rattans of upper Tabalong
Local name(s) Scientific name(s) M % Main use Price (IDR)
Buyung, Suko
Calamus optimus 6.0 2.5 Mats, plait 600-660/kg
Manau Calamus manan 0.5 0.2 Furniture 3000-
3500/4m (=
850/kg)
Minong Calamus ornatus 2.0 0.8 Furniture 1400-
1500/4m (=
350/kg)
Taman Calamus caesius 2.4 1.0 Furniture,
plait
Semambu (not identified) - - (unknown) 140/kg
Welatong (not identified) - - (unknown) 160/kg
Raung Korthalsia rostrata 45.8 19.2 Plait, fish
traps
1500/kg
Pulut Calamus laevigatus var.
laevigatus; Ceratolobus
subangulatus
7.6 3.2 Furniture,
baskets
80/kg
Talusuk Korthalsia echinometra 17.2 7.2 Plait,
furniture
400/kg
Tu-u Calamus scipionum 1.9 0.8 Furniture 500/4m
Source : Alfan & Payne (2001)
Μ = average number of stems / hectare based on 17 x 0.5 ha plots in PT AYI area
(- not seen in the plots)
% = % of all rattan stems counted in the 17 x 0.5 ha plots; total is less than 100%,
as most rattans are non-commercial (- not seen in the plots)
Price = usual price in IDR paid to harvesters in PT AYI area in 1999 (Basir, 2000)
and 2000 (Alfan & Payne, 2001) by kilogram (kg) or 4 metre length (4m)
Current utilisation in upper Tabalong
Who harvests? Dayak and Banjar men from Dambung Raya, Panaan, Lalap,
Bahalang, Binjai, Pasar Batu.
Harvesting methods Rattan stems are pulled from the forest canopy and cut into
lengths of between 2 – 10 m (depending on species) and either rolled (thin diameter
species) or stacked (thicker diameter species). They are carried or dragged to a
river bank (Figure 5) or road. Rattan is harvested by groups of between about 4 –
40 men, and usually about 20. The groups sell rattan to a local trader (based in
Tabalong or Amuntai).
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Figure 5. Bundles of recently harvested rattan
Estimate of current annual harvest amounts Basir (2000) reported that in 1999,
one trader purchased 468 tons of rattan harvested from the PT AYI area, at a cost
of IDR215.5 million. This rattan was reported to be sold to industries in
Banjarmasin. A second trader was reported to have purchased 9 tons plus 2700
lengths of rattan harvested from the PT AYI area in 1999, at a cost of IDR15.7
million. This rattan was used for manufacture of mats in Amuntai. It is unknown
whether other traders bought rattan from the PT AYI area in 1999.
Prices See Table 4.
Sustainability of harvesting & species survival (1) Varies with species, but no
species is likely to go extinct in upper Tabalong as a result of harvesting, as
“economic extinction” will probably occur before biological extinction. (2)
Amongst commercial species, the rarity of manau (Calamus manan) and minong
(Calamus ornatus) is to due to a combination of their ecological requirements for
closed-canopy forest and long periods of over-harvesting. These species are likely
to decline to levels where commercial harvesting in the AYI area is no longer
viable in the absence of planting. (3) The two commonest commercial species
raung (Korthalsia rostrata) and talusuk (K. echinometra) appear to be more robust
to forest damage and regenerate well naturally. (4) Most commercial rattan species
will regenerate naturally under well-managed commercial logging, but excessive
opening of the canopy (due to wide roads, unplanned “cruising” by bulldozer
drivers, illegal logging) will act to (a) remove essential support trees for rattan
growth, (b) cause high mortality of rattan seedlings from dessication and
competition from weeds, and (c) reduce rattan seed dispersal by primates and birds.
Current legislation, regulation and taxation
None found.
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Relevant information from other areas/studies
There is an extensive literature of rattan, including much from Malaysia that is
relevant to Indonesia.
Some key management issues
The most valuable rattan species (Calamus caesius, Calamus ornatus, Calamus
manan and Calamus scipionum) are all scattered and rare, and have suffered from
over-harvesting. Forest of good structure is necessary to favour these high-value
species and to ensure that they can achieve commercially valuable stem lengths.
For harvesters, raung is now probably the most profitable rattan as it is locally
abundant, allowing bigger harvests per day’s work.
Rattan harvesting in Upper Tabalong has low environmental impact.
Commercial rattan sustainability will be enhanced by implementing practices that
favour good regeneration of timber trees.
2.1.4 Damar
English name : DAMAR
Local name : Damar
Scientific names : Species of the genera Anisoptera, Hopea, Shorea and
Vatica (family Dipterocarpaceae). A few other tree
genera in other families may produce small quantities
of damar, but these are either absent from Upper
Tabalong or of no commercial significance.
Alternative names : There is a complex and confusing traditional naming
of different kinds of damar. Hildebrand (1949)
provides a list of about 55 local names for South
Kalimantan. Most of these names are no longer used,
and their practical application to distinguish either
scientific species or different qualities of damar seems
highly doubtful. It is recommended that local naming
in relation to damar be ignored unless it can be shown
to be of some practical value.
Description
The producing plant & its habitat Damar (Figure 6) is produced as a natural
resin-like exudate from the trunk and large branches of certain tree species. In
relation to upper Tabalong, all damar-producing trees are part of a mature forest
ecosystem. No pioneer trees of secondary forest produce damar. Almost all damar -
producing trees are commercial species which reach 50 cm dbh or more. Some
damar is produced in healthy trees, but the amount produced increases greatly as a
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result of damage (e.g. boring insects, branch falls, damage to the trunk resulting
from nearby tree falls, logging or fire). In the forest, damar is found not only on the
trees but also as lumps on the ground or buried in leaf litter or topsoil.
Figure 6. The
characteristic black
damar found on meranti
kuning trees
The product exploited Damar burns readily with a pleasant odour. It can be used
where a substance is required that can be liquefied (by heat or with a solvent) and
hardened with a glossy, waterproof surface.
Regional distribution Damar is produced throughout the range of the genus
Shorea and other dipterocarp trees (South and South-east Asia).
Uses of the product Caulking joints and cracks in boats, to make fires and light
(traditional use in Kalimantan); cremation of human bodies (India); varnishes and
specialist paints (export elsewhere)
Availability in upper Tabalong
Local distribution Damar occurs wherever there is natural forest with Shorea
trees. Apart from pieces left in soil after natural forest has been cleared, it is absent
from all other vegetation types. It is most common in hill dipterocarp forest
undamaged or minimally damaged by logging.
Abundance and production potential Based on 17 x 0.5 ha plots, it is estimated
that current average damar abundance is about 10 kg/ha (Alfan & Payne, 2001).
Note that this estimate is of damar on the ground and low parts of tree trunks, and
excludes damar higher up. This estimate is of “current standing crop” in year 2000;
it consists of many years of production with periodic harvesting in some areas.
Biological production potential is unknown, but is expected to be on average much
less than 10 kg/ha/year.
Constraints to harvesting Road access to areas not recently harvested.
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Current utilisation in upper Tabalong
Who harvests? The first group of damar harvesters met in the forest by the
Ecologist in 1999 were from Nusa Tenggara (Figure 7). No such people were
evident when formal data collection of damar harvesting was being done. Basir
(2000) reports that some harvesters were from Bahalang (Manyan Dayak). Many
harvesters, however, appear to be Banjar from outside the AYI area. Residents of
Dusun Bianon (on the west side of Kasali hills), mainly Dayak Lawangan,
harvested damar from upper Karau River and Kasali in 2001.
Figure 7. Damar harvesters (from Nusa Tenggara) at Sinangoh river area,
1999; pieces of damar can be seen under the empty sacks
Harvesting methods (1) Damar is harvested by groups of between about 5 – 15
people who reportedly walk up to about 7 km from their current base camp or from
their house if they live near forest. Existence of motorable roads is an important
feature, (a) to allow collectors into previously rather remote areas where there has
been no damar collection in recent years and (b) to allow access to trucks (given
the ratio of price/kg of damar to weight, it is not worth carrying damar more than a
few km to a roadside). (2) All damar seen by collectors and accessible to them is
collected. Most is picked up from the ground or from with leaf litter or buried
under the soil surface (damar may fall to the ground and remain for many years,
being slowly degraded by natural physical and chemical processes). A relatively
small percentage is knocked or cut from tree trunks or branches (damar is often too
high up to be worth the effort climbing to obtain it). Pieces of damar harvested
from the forest vary in weight from about 100 g to more than 10 kg, but most
weigh less than 500 g per piece (survey notes, Alfan Subekti). Very small pieces
are not worth the effort to seek and collect. (3) Harvested damar pieces are
collected in used sacks (ex rice, sugar or chicken-feed) which can hold up to 50 kg
of damar each. Damar of all sizes and qualities is mixed into the same bag. (4)
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Basir (2000) reported that three groups of damar collectors operated in the AYI
area during 1999. Each group was led by a coordinator, and each consisted of
between 10 – 15 persons. Working schedule was roughly 2 weeks’ work followed
by 1 week off. One group worked this schedule over a 9-month period, another
over a 6-month period, and the other over a 3-month period. The groups sell damar
to traders who are often based temporarily at Kalingai. Unlike in some other parts
of Indonesia and Philippines, trees are not damaged by damar harvesters in upper
Tabalong in order to stimulate damar production.
Estimate of current annual harvest amounts Basir (2000) reported that three
groups of damar collectors harvested a total of about 172,500 kg of damar in the
AYI area during 1999. This figure may be compared to the estimate of Alfan &
Payne (2001) of 10 kg available/ha, implying that annual harvesting must occur
over an area of about 17,250 ha. This is unlikely. Instead, presumably harvesters
concentrate effort where damar abundance is high (patches of forest with numerous
Shorea trees), and do not spread searching effort evenly through the forest. The
Ecologist observed intensive and widespread damar harvesting along all roads, by
harvesters, mainly Banjar, who entered via the main PT AYI logging road, from
early to about November 2000. No damar harvesting activity was seen in the PT
AYI area during 2001. However, Dayak residents harvested damar (mainly outside
upper Tabalong, but on the western fringes of the PT AYI area in Central
Kalimantan) during 2001, in response to requests from Banjarmasin buyers; there
had been no market in this area during year 2000 (reported by residents of Bianon,
9 November 2001).
Prices Basir (2000) and Alfan & Payne (2001) report that damar (all qualities
mixed together) was sold during 1999-2000 for IDR 600/kg, with higher prices for
“red” or “black” damar if separated. Residents of Bianon reported prices of
IDR600/kg for mixed pieces and IDR500/kg for damar powder in November 2001.
Official export data for South Kalimantan province are 94.8 tons exported from
Banjarmasin January-July 2000, valued at US$14,670 (Maclachlan, pers com.,
2000); most of this probably derives from upper Tabalong and parts of Meratus
mountains.
Sustainability of harvesting & species survival (1) Most damar collected is old.
In one year, harvesters may remove many years of damar production from one site.
Damar production potential continues to fall as forest condition is degraded.
Potential extraction rate in the medium-term (c. 5 years) will depend mainly on
extent and location of road access into areas not yet worked. Long-term
productivity depends on retaining some mature Shorea trees in all areas at all times
and halting of illegal logging. Production is likely to decline greatly after about 5 –
10 years from now, as amount harvested/year clearly is much greater than the rate
of natural production. (2) Survival of the species (= mature Shorea trees) depends
on halting illegal logging and improving forest management by PT AYI.
Current legislation, regulation and taxation
None found.
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Some key management issues
As long as collection methods do not involve damage to damar-producing
trees, damar can be harvested from protection forests, protection zones and
unloggable sites in production forest without detriment to the forest function.
Damar harvesting is compatible with timber production in a well-managed
production forest because such forests are managed to retain old damaged trees
and large seed source trees, and to stimulate growth of young timber trees
which will produce damar as they mature.
Conditions in upper Tabalong (logging damage by PT AYI, along with
massive illegal logging and ladangs), however, are converting accessible parts
of the region into secondary growth depleted in damar producing trees.
Stimulation of damar production by means of deliberately damaging trees in
the forest should not be permitted. The practice would merely serve to further
degrade degraded forests and undermine the prime goal of future commercial
timber production.
2.1.5 Honey
English name : Honey
Local name : Madu
Scientific names : (Wild bees that produce the honey) Apis dorsata, A.
koschevnikovi, A. andreniformis & A. cerana
Description
The producing animal & its habitat Wild honey is produced by bees of the genus
Apis which make nests on the branches of tall forest trees. The bees apparently
select very tall trees where the crown emerges above the surrounding forest
canopy, and smooth-barked trees are preferred. The probable main reason for
selection of emergent trees is to permit easy navigation of bees back to the tree.
The probable main reason for preferring smooth bark is to avoid predation by bears
(Helarctos malayanus), which seek honey and which can climb smaller, rough-
barked trees. The great majority of nests are made in Koompassia excelsa trees
(Figure 8; local names manggeris or kusi); some nests are made in Canarium
decumanum and C. pseudodecumanum trees (local name gagala); and some in
Ficus albipila trees (local name wilas). Few nests are made in other trees, although
very tall, emergent Shorea trees are used by the bees in hilly areas where smooth-
barked trees are absent.
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Figure 8. Ladder built by honey
harvesters on to the trunk of a
Koompassia excelsa tree near
Missim river.
The product exploited Honey.
Regional distribution Through mainland South-east Asia to Indonesia and
Philippines.
Use of the product Some local village residents and visitors buy as much honey as
is available for their own consumption. Many villagers or outsiders buy honey in
large quantity to be resold in Tanjung and Amuntai.
Availability in upper Tabalong
Local distribution The trees preferred by wild bees for nesting are most common
on flat land, valleys, riversides and lower slopes of hills on relatively fertile soils.
Abundance and production potential Alfan & Payne (2001) record an average of
about 1 honey bee nesting tree / ha in the PT AYI area. However, the distribution
of these trees is very patchy, and many parts of upper Tabalong have no such trees.
One honey bee tree may support between five and several tens of nests. Honey
production potential of upper Tabalong is unknown.
Constraints to harvesting None significant
Current utilisation in upper Tabalong
Who harvests? Residents of villages near the forest, usually Dayak.
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Harvesting methods Honey is normally harvested from the nests five months after
the nest has been started, in order to ensure that the maximum amount of honey is
obtained. A team of at least five men is involved in harvesting. A ladder is built
into the bole of the nest tree, using ulin wood pegs hammered into the trunk, and
tied together with rattan (Figure 8). Since bees normally return to the same trees
year after year, it is common for old ladders to be repaired and re-used annually.
Harvesting is done at night in order to use a combination of restricted light and
smoke to lead bees away from the nest and therefore to minimize stings to the
harvesters. A fire is lit under the honey bee tree, serving to provide light and to
help direct the bees away from the nest site once the nest is disturbed. One man
ascends the ladder carrying a wad of smoky burning bark (used to help disperse the
bees away from the nests), a wooden knife to slice pieces of nest from the branch,
and a container attached to a long rattan rope used to lower the nests to the ground.
Normally, the honey is squeezed from the waxy nest immediately into small plastic
containers for storage and sale.
Estimate of current annual harvest amounts Annual honey production in this
area fluctuates greatly from year to year, being linked to annual variation in
weather conditions. Basir (2000) records that about 690 litres of wild honey were
harvested from the PT AYI area in 1999, which was considered to be rather low
but more than 1997 or 1998 (both years affected by the El Nino drought). If one
nest yields 20-25 litres of honey (Alfan & Payne, 2001), this implies that about 30
nests were harvested in 1999. It is likely that several tens of trees are harvested in
years with more “normal” rainfall, with perhaps a minimum of 3 nests per tree.
This suggests that more than 100 nests are harvested in “good” years.
Prices In 1999, honey was sold by the harvesters at IDR30,000/litre to local traders
and consumers; traders sold the honey at IDR35,000/litre (Basir, 2000). In 2000,
harvesters sold honey for between IDR25,000 – 50,000/litre (Alfan & Payne, 2001;
MacLachlan, 2001a). Prices in year 2001 are reported at IDR30,000-35,000 (local
informants to J. Payne)
Sustainability of harvesting & species survival Traditionally, all honey bee trees
are protected by local people and never felled. PT AYI does not fell these trees. It
is widely assumed by rural people that the continued existence of these “honey bee
trees” is necessary to permit the continued production and harvesting of honey.
Some local residents also believe that another tree species (Endertia spectabilis;
locally known as biwan) is important as the main supplier of nectar and pollen as
food for wild honey bees. However, biwan trees are unlikely to be such a limiting
factor as nesting trees, because biwan is absent from most of Kalimantan, yet
honey bees occur and breed throughout the island wherever suitable nesting trees
exist. Harvesting of honey from wild bee nests is inevitably destructive in that
normally the entire contents of every nest are harvested, and so none of these nests
will produce breeding bees. Thus, the sustainability of honey harvesting
presumably depends on the survival of some bee nests which are too far from a
settlement for commercial harvesting. Presumably, to date, there have always been
sufficient remote nests to produce bees that migrate to more accessible areas. It
should be cautioned that if market prices of wild honey increase significantly, there
may be increased pressure to harvest nests from remote areas, thereby leading to a
real decline in the bee populations. In terms of conserving honey bee trees, current
sentiment is positive, and no local residents will knowingly cause the loss of a
nesting tree. Traditionally, anyone who fells a honey bee tree is fined a gong. Now,
a fine of IDR 500,000 is normal. However, it should not be assumed that this
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situation will necessarily persist. As large trees currently cut for sale disappear,
there will be pressure to fell any remaining trees that can be accepted by a factory
or mill. Residual “customary norms” of the Dayak community in Upper Tabalong
may continue to weaken, especially in the absence of law enforcement.
Current legislation, regulation and taxation
None found.
Some key management issues
The SCKPFP Socio-agriculture adviser recommends that harvesting of wild honey
be banned because traditional methods damage bee populations. However, granting
of formal recognition and protection of all honey bee trees, and allowing traditional
harvesting, may represent the sole means of protecting such trees from illegal
loggers.
2.1.6 Wild fruits
English name : Wild fruits
Local name : Various (see Table 5)
Scientific name : Various (see Table 5)
Description
The producing plants & their habitat Trees and one genus of lianas. All are
predominantly species of closed canopy forest; no pioneer species produce fruits
edible to people. They range from under-canopy small trees which fruit when the
tree trunk is about 12 cm dbh (such as Microcos and Baccaurea) to trees which can
exceed 100 cm dbh (such as Dialium and Pometia).
The product exploited Fruits.
Regional distribution Various.
Use of the product Human food.
Availability in upper Tabalong
Local distribution Varies with species. It is likely that in some locations, wild
fruit trees (especially Durio and Artocarpus) were planted in long-abandoned rice
field and villages, that have regenerated to forest. Old fruit tree groves are
maintained in cultivated areas in Dambung Raya, Salikong and the old settlements
between Panaan and Durui.
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Abundance and production potential Table 5 provides an indication of relative
abundance in the PT AYI area, based on SCKPFP forest, soil and ecology survey
plot and transect data. No absolute estimates are available.
Constraints to harvesting For all species, a combination of the scattered
distribution of trees, uncertainty over fruiting frequency, relatively high weight
compared to low market price, and short period available to transport fruit to a
market make wild fruits of rather limited significance as a NTFP.
Table 5. Trees of upper Tabalong that produce edible fruits
Local name Scientific name F C Notes / prices
Ramania Bouea macrophylla - C IDR1,000 – 2,000/kg. Possibly introduced
Pani-pani Bouea oppositifolia -
Pitanak Dracontomelum costatum 1 C Lowlands (Figure 9)
Sengkuang Dracontomelum dao 1 C Mainly riversides
Kasturi Mangifera casturi - C Native but only found cultivated
Hambawang Mangifera foetida - C Fruit has strong, distinct odour
Asam payang Mangifera pajang - C Fruits usually pickled
Asam pulasan Mangifera torquenda -
Asam Other Mangifera species 1
Solenocarpus philippinensis -
Spondias cytherea -
Alphonsea species 1 Small rare tree
Willughbeia species - Liana, with white latex
Lahung Durio dulcis 2 (Figure 10)
Durian merah Durio graveolens 1
Pampakin Durio kutejensis - C Commonly planted in Tabalong
Durian enggang Durio lanceolatus 2
Kerantungan Durio oxleyanus -
Durian Durio zibethinus - C
Kenari Canarium denticulatum -
Kembayau Dacryodes species 11 Fruits best softened in boiling water (Figure 11)
Kedondong Santiria species 4 Fruits best softened in boiling water
Bhesa paniculata -
Licania splendens 3
Wungan Maranthes corymbosa - Rare timber tree
Kayu arang Diospyros macrophylla - Other Diospyros species common in Tabalong
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Local name Scientific name F C Notes / prices
Lipasu Baccaurea lanceolata - Sour fruits used as “sambal”
Baccaurea stipulata -
Bridelia glauca 2
Tapos, Wayan Elateriospermum tapos 22 Seeds edible if roasted; wood is favoured for
firewood
Ryparosa hirsuta -
Manggis hutan Garcinia nervosa - Most Garcinia species have inedible fruits
Kangkala Litsea garciae - C IDR500/kg. Fruits are best cooked (Figure 12)
Keranji Dialium species 14 About IDR2,000/kg. Commercial timber tree
Petai Parkia speciosa - C Normally eaten with rice
Bintawa Artocarpus anisophyllus 4
Artocarpus dadah
Terap Artocarpus elasticus 2 C (Figure 13)
Cempedak Artocarpus integer C
Lempoto Artocarpus lanceifolius 13
Tampang Artocarpus nitidus 1
Artocarpus odoratissimus
Artocarpus species 20 Large trees have commercial timber
Penjalin Xanthophyllum species 9
Buku-buku Dimocarpus longan - IDR30,000/kg (Figure 14)
Rambutan Nephelium lappaceum 2 C
Maritam Nephelium ramboutan-ake (Figure 15)
Rambutan hutan Nephelium uncinatum 1
Rambutan hutan Nephelium species 3
Matoa Pometia pinnata 3 Commercial timber tree
Hapuak Microcos cinnamomifolia 5 Small tree
Source of records : SCKPFP “forest, soil and ecology survey” plots and transects; identifications made by Dr
Kade Sidiyasa and Zainal Ariffin of Wanariset Samboja herbarium; identifications made by Dr. Paul Kessler;
field notes of J. Payne. There are other “local” fruit tree species in villages in upper Tabalong; only those known
to occur wild in the production forest are listed here.
F = number of mature trees recorded in 6.63 ha of SCKPFP plots and transects.
C = cultivated in Kalimantan (others are not reported to be cultivated)
All species are trees except where noted otherwise.
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Figure 15. Maritam (Nephelium ramboutan-ake)
Current utilisation in upper Tabalong
Who harvests? Fruits from planted trees are usually harvested by the owner or his
descendents. Otherwise, anyone harvests forest fruits on an opportunistic basis.
Harvesting methods Varies; fruits may be picked from the tree (requiring
climbing skills) or harvested from the ground. Sometimes, entire trees are felled
just to obtain the fruit.
Estimate of current annual harvest amounts Unknown.
Prices See Table 5 for local prices in upper Tabalong (all quoted by Werner,
2001). (Local fruits sold in Tanjung are often from rural gardens, not from natural
production forest.)
Sustainability of harvesting & species survival Depends mainly on retention and
management of good quality forest.
Current legislation, regulation and taxation
Wild durian (Durio zibethinus) trees less than 60 cm dbh may not be felled (under
SK Mentan N0. 54/Kpts/Um/2/1972. Despite contrary beliefs, no other fruit trees
enjoy legal protection.
Some key management issues
The main value of wild fruit trees is as a source of material (seeds and bud-grafting
material) for cultivation.
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2.1.7 Song birds
English name : Song birds (several species; see Table 6)
Local name : Burung berkicau (several species; see Table 6)
Scientific names : Various (see Table 6)
Description
The producing animals & their habitat Wild birds; all require some tree cover
for breeding and survival, but the species differ in exact ecological requirements.
None depend on high quality forest.
The product exploited Live birds.
Regional distribution Varies with species, but most are widespread in South-east
Asia.
Use of the product The birds are kept for their singing ability.
Table 6. The most popular song birds species native to upper Tabalong
Local
name
Indonesian English Scientific Notes
Punglor
kembang
Anis
kembang
Chestnut-capped
thrush
Zoothera interpres Most popular &
expensive species
Murai batu Kucica
hutan
White-rumped shama Copsychus malabaricus
Cucak
hijau
Cica-daun Greater Green
Leafbird
Chloropsis sonnerati
Cucak
hijau
Cica-daun Blue-winged
Leafbird
Chloropsis cochinchinensis
Cucak
rawa
Cucak rawa Straw-headed bulbul Pycnonotus zeylanicus Locally extinct
Source : Nunuk & Payne, 2001
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Figure 16. Immature Chestnut - capped Thrush (Zoothera
interpres)
Availability in upper Tabalong
Local distribution Chestnut-capped Thrush (Figure 16) is confined mainly to
areas with a stream and dense tree cover, both in tall forest and old secondary
growth. White-rumped Shama prefers dense secondary or riverine growth with
abundant lianas. Leafbirds live in the canopy of middle level trees. Straw-headed
Bulbul, normally in open forest near to larger rivers, appears to be locally extinct in
upper Tabalong.
Abundance and production potential Unknown.
Constraints to harvesting Few people have the interest and skill to specialize in
catching wild birds.
Current utilisation in upper Tabalong
Who harvests? Three groups are know to operate in the PT AYI area : (a) Dayaks
from Dusun Missim, (b) Dayaks from Saing Pipa (near Bahalang), and (c) Banjar
from Muara Uya. All appear to be farmers native to the Tabalong district, who
have rubber small-holdings. Teenagers and children may assist the catchers (Nunuk
& Payne, 2001).
Harvesting methods Camps are based on availability of water supply, normally on
a roadside, near to streams. Specific locations for trapping are sought by walking
along streams until the call of the target bird species is heard. Bird droppings are
sought as a sign of intense bird activity or a nest. If there are young birds in a nest,
efforts will be made to climb and take the young birds directly. If a nest with eggs
is found, the team will visit the site periodically until the young birds have hatched.
All groups use pulut (a sticky substance normally consisting of latex from
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Artocarpus trees) as the main means to catch birds, with additional birds caught by
snare traps. For all capture methods there are risks of injury and death of the birds,
but injured birds fetch lower prices, so there is a strong incentive to minimise
damage to and death of birds caught.
Estimate of current annual harvest amounts Unknown.
Prices Chestnut-capped Thrush: IDR15,000 – 175,000 per bird according to age
and condition (price paid to harvester); IDR200,000 - 1,500,000 per bird (paid by
urban bird-collectors).White-rumped Shama: IDR15,000 – 25,000 per bird
according to age and condition (price paid to harvester); IDR150,000 - 1,750,000
per bird (paid by urban bird-collectors). Leafbirds: IDR15,000 – 45,000 per bird
according to age and condition (price paid to harvester). Straw-headed Bulbul:
over IDR1 million (paid by urban bird-collectors) (Nunuk & Payne, 2001).
Sustainability of harvesting & species survival The Missim bird harvesting
group (led by Rarianto) report a noticeable decline in bird numbers between km 54
and km 81, but this is perhaps not surprising in view of this group’s intensive
activity in this zone during year 2000. The two other bird harvesting groups
interviewed by Nunuk Kasyanto in early 2001 did not claim any decline in
numbers of Chestnut-capped Thrush, White-rumped Shama or Leafbirds.
Presumably the habitat requirements of these species are sufficiently broad that
adequate young birds reach maturity in areas away from the roads and migrate into
the areas already harvested. However, Straw-headed Bulbul may have become
extinct locally due to excessive harvesting of these birds in their limited habitat
type near larger rivers. There are no obvious adverse environmental impacts
resulting from song bird harvesting.
Current legislation, regulation and taxation
None of the bird species currently harvested from upper Tabalong are protected by
law. According to the PT. AYI forest utilisation right (Ministry of Forestry and
Estate Crops decree No. 840/Kpts-II/1999) the company shall not hunt or allow
illegal hunting of any wild animal within its working area.
Some key management issues
In terms of the extra income gained by rural farmers and the pleasure gained by
buyers, the harvesting of song birds is relatively benign. Apart from Straw-headed
Bulbul, current harvesting levels appear to be sustainable, although this is not
certain.
The issues of cruelty to birds during capture and whether keeping wild-caught birds
in small cages is ethical is not generally considered a significant concern in South
Kalimantan.
There are health concerns; birds can infect humans with viral diseases.
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2.1.8 Pangolin scales
English names : Pangolin or Scaly Anteater
Local names : Tenggiling (Bahasa Indonesia); Ayem (Lawangan)
Scientific name : Manis javanica
Figure 17. Pangolin (Manis
javanica) caught in upper
Missim river by ulin wood
harvesters
Description
The producing animal & its habitat A toothless, ant- and termite-eating mammal
that is covered in scales rather than hair.
The product exploited Scales.
Regional distribution South-east Asia.
Use of the product Chinese medicine, for promoting flow of blood, reducing
swelling, and stimulating lactation.
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Availability in upper Tabalong
Local distribution Throughout forests and (sometimes) orchards and rural
gardens.
Abundance and production potential Unknown.
Constraints to harvesting Few people have the interest and skill to specialize in
catching pangolins.
Current utilisation in upper Tabalong
Who harvests? Basir (2000) reports one specialist Dayak hunter from Desa
Panaan. Some pangolins are caught by people seeking other forest products (Figure
17).
Harvesting methods The specialist hunter uses dogs and spear to seek pangolins at
night (Basir, 2000).
Estimate of current annual harvest amounts Unknown overall. Basir (2000)
reports that the specialist hunter from Panaan obtains about 70 pangolins per year
from upper Tabalong. It is unlikely that any other hunter even approaches this rate
of capture.
Prices Basir (2000) reports IDR110,000/kg paid by local traders to harvesters in
1999 and IDR140,000 in Banjarmasin. Payne (1999) reports IDR150,000/kg. One
pangolin is said to yield about 0.5 kg scales (Basir, 2000).
Sustainability of harvesting & species survival Unknown.
Current legislation, regulation and taxation
Protected under Regulations on the Flora and Fauna Preservation (No. 7/1999),
with further rules under Exploitation of Flora and Fauna (8/1999), but neither the
meaning of “protected” nor the agency responsible for implementing the
regulations are specified. According to the PT. AYI forest utilisation right
(Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops decree No. 840/Kpts-II/1999) the company
shall not hunt or allow illegal hunting of any wild animal within its working area.
Some key management issues
This is not a significant NTFP in terms of number of people involved and income
gained.
Hunting of pangolins should in principle be discouraged because hunting could
potentially endanger local populations, and because this species is on Appendix 2
of CITES.
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2.1.9 Kapulaga (“Cardamom”)
English name : “Cardamom” (Since this product resembles cardamom
but is not cardamom, the preferred name in English would be kapulaga)
Local name : Kapulaga
Scientific name : Amomum compactum (family Zingiberaceae)
Description
The producing plant & its habitat The original cardamom is Elettaria
cardamomum (family Zingiberaceae), a native of mountains in southern India,
which would not grow well, if at all, in the lowlands of Kalimantan. The kapulaga
of upper Tabalong is Amomum compactum (Figure 18; although Alpinia species
may also be referred to locally as kapulaga). It is better to refer to this product as
kapulaga, rather than cardamom.
The product exploited Fruits and also rhizome (Figures 19 & 20).
Regional distribution A. compactum occurs from southern China to Java.
Uses of the product In local jamu tonic medicines, also as a spice.
Availability in upper Tabalong
Local distribution Mainly secondary growth on village fringes and gardens.
Abundance and production potential Unknown
Constraints to harvesting None significant, but fruits are said to be available only
July-December.
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Figure 18. Amomum compactum growing in its natural habitat of fertile, moist
lowland soils.
Figure 19. Kapulaga fruits harvested and dried for sale
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Figure 20. Rhizomes and flowers of Amomum compactum
Current utilisation in upper Tabalong
Who harvests? Village residents of Salikong, mainly women; said to be about 211
(sic) people involved in 1999 (Basir, 2000).
Harvesting methods Fruits are picked, about 0.2 kg/day (Basir, 2000) and sold
fresh or dried (3 days needed for drying).
Estimate of current annual harvest amounts 21,000 kg harvested in Salikong
area in 1999; also small quantities in Dambung Raya (Basir, 2000).
Prices IDR16,500/kg dried (or IDR7,000/kg fresh) in Salikong in 1999;
IDR35,000 in Muara Uya; IDR60,000 in Banjarmasin (Basir, 2000). From
IDR8,000 – 60,000/kg dried, for several villages in upper Tabalong (Werner, 2001)
Sustainability of harvesting & species survival The combination of price,
relative abundance of this plant in damp secondary forest and the fact that
harvesting of fruits is non-destructive suggest that kapulaga harvesting from the
wild is sustainable, but that cultivation in village gardens is a more viable option
(Werner, 2001).
2.1.10 Kedaung
English name : (None)
Local name : Kedaung (also Kupang)
Scientific name : Parkia timoriana (synonyms are Parkia javanica and
Parkia roxburghii (family Leguminosae)
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Figure 21. Kedaung (Parkia timoriana)
Description
The producing plant & its habitat A tree, mainly in lowlands.
The product exploited Seeds (Figure 21).
Regional distribution North-east India, South-east Asia, Indonesia.
Availability in upper Tabalong
Local distribution Mainly at lower elevations, especially river valleys.
Abundance and production potential Unknown. The only data reported is where
two people spent five days in 1999 collecting 80 kg of fruits from four trees near to
Salikong (Basir, 2000).
Constraints to harvesting None significant, except that fruiting is seasonal.
Current utilisation in upper Tabalong
Who harvests? Village residents, especially Salikong
Harvesting methods Fruits are obtained by picking up from the ground, knocking
them down with sticks or climbing the tree.
Estimate of current annual harvest amounts Unknown.
Prices IDR400 – 2,000/kg; 4,000/kg (Basir, 2000).
Sustainability of harvesting & species survival Although most seeds are
probably harvested from accessible trees near villages, there are wild trees
elsewhere, from which seeds may be distributed by monkeys, squirrels, hornbills
and other wildlife. The species has been tried in HTI, where growth rate and form
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appear to be generally rather poor. Cultivation on fertile soils in village gardens is a
viable option.
2.1.11 Medicinal plants
English name : Medicinal plants
Local name : Tumbuhan obat
Scientific names : Many (see below; Table 7 shows some prominent
species of upper Tabalong arranged by local name)
Description
The producing plants & their habitat Over 50 wild plant species recorded in 17
NTFP inventory plots (Alfan & Payne, 2001) and elsewhere in upper Tabalong
(Uway, 2001) are used locally for a variety of medicinal purposes. Some of the
more interesting examples are summarized in Table 7.
The product exploited Medicinal plants represent a homogeneous group of
NTFPs only in the sense that these are plant products used for medicinal (in some
cases cosmetic or flavouring) purposes. In other respects, this is not a
homogeneous grouping. Medicinal plants include trees, bushes, lianas, epiphytes,
shrubs and herbs. Some medicinal plant species used in upper Tabalong are native
to South Kalimantan while some are introduced from elsewhere. Some occur in
closed canopy forests (such as Luvunga, which occurs in old secondary forest;
Figure 22), while some are pioneer plants that require open conditions (such as
Rubus and Melastoma; Figure 23). It appears that some medicinal plant species
contain chemical substances that have a physiological effect on the human body,
Table 7 Some wild medicinal plants of upper Tabalong
Local names Scientific name(s) F Habitat Use and other notes
Akar kuning Fibraurea
chloroleuca,
Coscinium
fenestratum &
possibly other species
L Forests To cure diseases of the liver. Highly
regarded in South Kalimantan ;
believed to be as effective as
“modern” medicines, yet cheaper
Asam tanduy or
Binjai
Mangifera caesia T Forest. Also
planted
Root boiled to treat diabetes
Bangban Donax canaeformis H Secondary
growth
Juice from stem used to treat reddish
eye infections
Bekakang,
Karamunting,
Piduduk
Melastoma
malabathricum
H Secondary
growth
Decoction of bark used for fevers and
hypertension
Empap, Rubus moluccanus C Roadsides in Decoction of leaves used to treat
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Local names Scientific name(s) F Habitat Use and other notes
Bambap forest dysentery
Halaban Vitex pinnata T Open areas Leaves used to prevent and cure
malaria; bark used to treat toothache
Ikik Costus globosus,
Costus speciosus
H Damp areas in
forest
Alkaloid in stem used by women for
birth control
Ko’e Trichosanthes
beccariana
L Forest edge Liquid from stem used to treat liver
and kidney disease in children
Laurpulu Piper species C Lowland
secondary
forests
Pounded leaves reduce itchiness
caused by hairy caterpillars
Mahang Macaranga species T Abundant in
secondary and
logged forests
To cure diarrhea. Inner bark is
washed, chopped and boiled in water.
When cool, the water is drunk daily
for two or three days
Mali-mali Leea indica S Forests, often
in damp,
rocky areas
To speed healing of body injuries.
Leaves are pounded and applied to
injuries as a poultice
Pasak bumi Eurycoma longifolia S Well-drained
shady sites
Relief of painful waist / lower back;
aphrodisiac; anti-malarial. Root is
washed, chopped and boiled in water.
When cool, the water is drunk.
Seluang balum Luvunga
eleutheranda and
Luvunga motleyi
L Tall forests,
often on
lower hills
and valleys
Aphrodisiac. Pieces of roots are
cleaned, boiled in water, and the
water consumed immediately.
Seemingly unknown or lesser known
outside South Kalimantan.
Salakiki Lepisanthes amoena T Forests Pounded leaves used to treat acne and
blackheads
Tabat barito Ficus deltoidea E Forests A tonic for women. Leaves are
pounded together with jambu
(Psidium guajava) leaves, to make
pellets which are dried and eaten
Tengkijet Connarus odoratus L Primary forest Juice of pounded root used to treat
painful swellings, bruises
Source : Uway (2001)
F = plant form : C non-woody climber E epiphyte, H herb, L liana, S small tree, T tree
while others seem unlikely to have any scientific basis and the supposed medicinal
effects are connected with traditional belief. Both sorts, however, are regarded
locally as “medicine”. Some medicinal plants seem to be well-known to many
rural people, while others are known only to a few interested individuals. As with
trees, confusion may be generated as a result of one name being used for more than
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one biological species, and through different people having different ability to
recognize and name the plants. For the purpose of this report, only woody plants
occurring naturally in the PT AYI forest area are considered
Regional distribution Various.
Use(s) of the product Various (see Table 7).
Figure 22. Luvunga
species
