education

1. Latin America in the Nineteenth Century
1 A series of wars that took place between 1808 and 1826 brought independence to most former colonies of Spain and Portugal in
Latin America. After winning their independence, the new Latin American states began a long, uphill struggle to achieve economic
and political stability. They faced immense obstacles, for independence was not accompanied by economic and social changes that
could spur rapid progress. Large estates, generally operated using primitive methods and highly exploited labor, continued to dominate
economic life. Far from diminishing, the influence of the landed aristocracy (established upper social class) actually increased. This
was the result of the leading military role it had played in the wars of independence and the passing of Spanish authority.
2Economic life stagnated, for the anticipated large-scale influx of foreign capital did not materialize, and the European demand for
Latin American staples remained far below expectations. Free trade brought increased commercial activity to the coasts, but this
increase was offset by the near destruction of some local craft industries by cheap, factory-made European goods. The sluggish
pace of economic activity and the relative absence of interregional trade and true national markets encouraged local self-sufficiency,
isolation, political instability, and even chaos.
3As a result of these adverse factors, from about 1820 to about 1870 was for many Latin American countries an age of violence and of
alternate dictatorship and revolution. Its symbol was the caudillo (strongman), whose power was always based on force, no matter
what kind of constitution the country had. Usually, the caudillo ruled with the aid of a coalition of lesser caudillos, each supreme in his
region. Whatever their methods, the caudillos generally displayed some regard for republican (representative government) ideology
and institutions. Political parties, bearing such labels as "conservative" and "liberal," were active in most of the new states.
Conservatism drew most of its support from the great landowners and their urban allies. Liberalism typically attracted provincial
landowners, professional people, and other groups that had enjoyed little power in the past and were dissatisfied with the existing
order. As a rule, conservatives sought to retain many of the social arrangements of the colonial era and favored a highly centralized
government. Liberals usually advocated a federal form of government (in which power is distributed between a central government
and regional authorities), guarantees of individual rights, lay (nonreligious) control of education, and an end to special privileges for
the clergy and military. Neither party displayed much interest in the problems of the native peasantry and other lower-class groups.
4Beginning in about 1870, the accelerating tempo of the Industrial revolution in Europe stimulated more rapid change in the Latin
American economy and politics. European capital flowed into the area and was used to create the facilities needed to expand and
modernize production and trade. The pace and degree of economic progress of the various countries were very uneven and depended
largely on their geographic position and natural resources.
5Extreme one sidedness was a feature of the new economic order in which one or two products became the basis of each country's
prosperity, making these commodities highly vulnerable to fluctuations in world demand and price while other sectors of the economy
remained stagnant.
6 The late nineteenth-century expansion was accompanied by a steady growth of foreign control over the natural and human-made
resources of the region. Thus, by 1900 a new structure of dependency, or colonialism, had arisen, called neocolonialism, with Great
Britain and, later, the United States replacing Spain and Portugal as the dominant powers in the area.
7The new economic order demanded peace and continuity in government, and after 1870 political conditions in Latin America did, in
fact, grow more stable. Old party lines dissolved as conservatives adopted the dogma of science and progress, while liberals
abandoned their concern with constitutional methods and civil liberties (protections for individuals against unjust government
interference) in favor of an interest in material prosperity. The cycle of dictatorship and revolution continued in many lands, but the
revolutions became less frequent and less devastating.
8 These major trends in the political and economic history of Latin America in the period extending from about 1820 to 1900
were accompanied by other changes in the Latin American way of life and culture — notably, the development of a powerful
literature that often sought not only to mirror Latin American society but to change it.
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2. 1. The word “immense” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to:
A. growing
B. huge
C. troublesome
D. unexpected
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2. Paragraph 2 includes “the near destruction of some local craft industries by cheap, factory-made European goods” for what reason?
A. To identify a factor that contributed to the stagnation of Latin American economies
B. To indicate the reason why European goods were popular in Latin America
C. To show the result of political instability and local isolation
D. To argue that economic factors led to a lack of local self-sufficiency in Latin America
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3. According to paragraph 2, which best characterizes economic activity in Latin American countries following independence?
A. Development of strong national markets that interfered with interregional trade
B. Slow economic activity caused by failure to produce staple goods in Latin America
C. Limited trade in Latin American goods due to low demand, international competition, and a lack of market opportunities
D. Concentrated production of cheap products to be exported out of Latin America
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4. According to paragraph 3, most caudillos in Latin American countries:
A. refused to share political power with other individuals
B. permitted some forms of republican ideology and institutions to exist
C. prevented the formation of political parties representing different social groups
D. established a federal form of government that guaranteed individual rights
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5. According to paragraph 4, which of the following happened around 1870?
A. Industrial development in Latin America began to have a major impact on the economies of Europe.
B. Latin American countries began to acquire the modern facilities that would allow them to produce more goods.
C. Political and economic changes began to occur at a very rapid pace everywhere throughout Latin America.
D. Latin American countries began to take advantage of their previously untouched enormous natural resources.
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6. Paragraph 6 suggests that in the late nineteenth century, Great Britain:
A. forced Latin American states to become dependent on its economic and military power
B. sent British people to attempt to found new colonies in Latin America
C. gained more and more control over resources in Latin America
D. replaced the trade it had been conducting with Spain and Portugal with trade with the United States.
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7. In paragraph 7 “dissolved” is nearest in meaning to:
A. became clearer
B. fell apart
C. reversed
D. survived
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8. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted in paragraph 8?
8 These major trends in the political and economic history of Latin America in the period extending from about 1820 to 1900
were accompanied by other changes in the Latin American way of life and culture — notably, the development of a powerful
literature that often sought not only to mirror Latin American society but to change it.
A. Changes in the Latin American way of life and culture, including developments in literature, caused additional major changes in
political and economic history during this period.
B. Trends in political and economic history caused changes in Latin American literature, which refocused inward on local culture.
C. These trends in political and economic history extended for a long period and had a powerful effect on Latin American culture,
particularly on its literature.
D. Other cultural changes occurred during the same period, such as the notable development of a powerful literature that both reflected
Latin American society and tried to change it.
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3. 9. Look at [ABCD] to indicate the best fit for the sentence below to be added to paragraph 1.
Instead, old forms of economic exploitation remained unchanged.
After winning their independence, the new Latin American states began a long, uphill struggle to achieve economic and political
stability. [A]They faced immense obstacles, for independence was not accompanied by economic and social changes that could spur
rapid progress. [B]Large estates, generally operated using primitive methods and highly exploited labor, continued to dominate
economic life. [C]Far from diminishing, the influence of the landed aristocracy (established upper social class) actually increased.
[D]This was the result of the leading military role it had played in the wars of independence and the passing of Spanish authority.
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10. DIRECTIONS: An introductory sentence for a passage summary is below. Complete the summary by selecting 3 choices
to express the most important ideas in Latin America in the Nineteenth Century. THE QUESTION IS WORTH 2 POINTS.
After winning their independence, the new Latin American states still faced many difficulties.
A. Wars for independence that took place between 1808 and 1826 diminished the economic stability of Latin America due to the cost
of maintaining a military force to struggle against Spanish authority.
B. Destruction of local factories during revolutions led to a demand for European goods, but these goods were too expensive for
people to purchase in many regions of Latin America.
C. Until about 1870, dictatorships alternated with revolutions to produce little economic or social progress, but after 1870 an influx of
European capital helped modernize production and increased trade.
D. In the years that followed independence, lack of progress in social structures and methods of production in Latin America led to
economic and political instability.
E. In the late nineteenth century, the success of the Industrial revolution stimulated Latin Americans to invest local capital in a shift
toward European economic models.
F. The region’s economies progressed, although unevenly, political stability increased, and literature advanced, but Britain and then
the United States became increasingly dominant powers in the area.
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ANSWERS: 1.B 2.A 3.C 4.B 5.B 6.C 7.B 8.D 9.B 10.CDF