1. Enhancing Teachers’ Capacity Through In-Service Education And Training: A Reflection On
Projects For Strengthening Mathematics And Science Education∗
Kisangi Albert†and Ateng’ Ogwel‡
Centre for Mathematics, Science and Technology Education in Africa
1 Introduction
The current reform efforts in mathematics and science education recognize the crucial role that teachers play
(Van Driel, Beijard and Verloop, 2001), and thus target them as curriculum innovators and implementers
through In-service Education and Training (INSET). There is a growing consensus that improving students’
learning depends on a teaching force with appropriate beliefs and attitudes towards teaching and learning;
and who possess content and pedagogical knowledge quite distinct from the usual instructional practice in
most classrooms (Even, 1999; Zaslavsky and Leikin, 2004). While initial teacher training nurtures these
characteristics, it is insufficient to prepare teachers for the greater challenges of everyday teaching, where,
time constraints and pressure from summative assessments overwhelm both newly qualified and experienced
teachers. Besides, in rare cases where there are innovative practices, these are individual initiatives rarely
supported by others due to lack of opportunities for sharing, efforts which consequently dampen with years
of service.
Whereas in-service teacher education complements initial teacher training, there is lack of adequate
and appropriate opportunities for most practising teachers to enhance their skills and align their practice to
the reform visions in education (Britt, Irwin and Ritchie, 2001; Ottevanger, Macfarlane and Clegg, 2005).
Moreover, professional development which focuses on practice alone without reflective lenses—in terms of
theoretical perspectives (Krainer, 1999; Even, 1999) runs the risk of reinforcing traditional instruction or
promoting practices misaligned with changing trends in education. In order to uphold a dynamic approach
to teachers’ professional development, this paper reflects on initiatives in some African countries that seek
to enhance teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and improve students understanding and motivation,
particularly in science and mathematics. The rationale for this reflection is to first, reiterate the continued
relevance of the existing projects and thus motivate other countries to initiate similar initiatives; and secondly,
to highlight possible areas for improving quality of classroom practices.
2 Strengthening of Mathematics and Science Education Initiatives
2.1 Background to the SMASE Projects in Africa
The Jomtien declaration on Education for All (EFA) in 1990 marked a shift of Japan’s focus from ‘hardware’
type of projects, for example the supply of school equipment and construction of school buildings, to soft
areas in basic education (Kuroda, 2005). Like most donor countries, her aid allocation to basic education
by the mid 1990s was generally low, probably due to inadequate visibility, little influence on the education
landscape, and not being foreign exchange intensive (Lockheed et al, 1994). In addition, at the General
Conference of The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in April 1996, Japan
expressed her interest in supporting education development in Africa (Kuroda, 2005). Moreover, during
∗
A Paper Presented During the 7th SMASSE-WECSA Annual Conference Held in Lusaka, Zambia
†
National Trainer, Biology Education
‡
National Trainer, Mathematics Education

2. the G8 Summit held in Kananaskis, Canada, in June 2002, Japan proposed the Basic Education for Growth
Initiative (BEGIN) with “the aim of effectively utilizing Japan’s educational experience in support of the
educational development of developing countries” (Japan International Cooperation Agency, 2004, p. 7).
BEGIN recognized the need for assistance for improving the quality of education and identified assistance
for science and mathematics education, teacher training, school administration and management as some of
the key areas.
While discussing Japan’s potential in mathematics and science education in Africa, Nagao (2004) enu-
merated Japan’s Official Development Assistance (ODA) in Education to include Japan’s widespread dif-
fusion of mathematics and science education for all; her long experience in planning and implementing
curriculum changes in mathematics and science under severe resource constraints; and the accumulated
knowledge and experience in material development and teaching methods, emphasizing observation and
experimentation. Besides, Japan has a history of in-service teacher training; experience of linking mathe-
matics and science education to industrial applicability and enhanced employability; and a unique approach
to reforming of instructional practices through lesson-study (Stigler and Hiebert, 1999).
Within this background, the initiatives in Africa in which Japan plays a significant role, seek to strengthen
mathematics and science education, and enhance learners’ ability through improved teachers’ content mas-
tery and pedagogical skills. In addition, they seek to positively enhance both teachers and learners attitudes
towards mathematics and sciences. These initiatives include Strengthening of Mathematics and Science in
Secondary Education (SMASSE-Kenya; SMASSE-Niger, SMASSE-Malawi and the proposed SMASSE-
Rwanda); Strengthening of Mathematics and Science Education (SMASE-Nigeria); Secondary Science and
Mathematics Teachers Project (SESEMAT-Uganda) and Strengthening of Mathematics, Science and Tech-
nology Education (SMASTE-Zambia). In the next sections, we highlight some common features of these
projects with other initiatives and recommendations of continuing professional development.
2.2 General Characteristics of the Projects
The current initiatives that seek to enhance students’ ability in mathematics and science in some African
countries are unique professional development opportunities. First, unlike other programs which are specific
to particular disciplines, the SMASE initiatives simultaneously target mathematics and natural sciences for
secondary schools or general science in elementary schools. These projects are best suited for most African
countries and developing countries which face severe resource constraints, since they focus on strengthen-
ing education within the existing structures; emphasize the need for mobilization and prudent utilization
of local resources, and recognize the value for building consensus on educational issues. Secondly, they
involve generic pedagogical approaches which transcend all disciplines as well as subject-specific topics.
Third, unlike most professional development programs within faculty or university departments, for exam-
ple, Pedagogy and Subject-specific Methodology for Teachers (PFL) in Klagenfurt, Austria (Krainer, 1999);
Kidumatica in Ben Gurion and Manor in Weizmann, Israel (Even, 1999; Fried and Amit, 2005) and TEAMS
in University of Dar es Salaam (Ottevanger, Feiter, O-saki and Van de Akker, 2005), they are located outside
institutions of higher learning; are managed by qualified and experienced school teachers rather than univer-
sity lecturers; and aim at sustainable and institutionalized in-service education and continuing professional
development.
Despite these unique features, they have common principles with reform visions which advocate for
more student-centered instruction(e.g., National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1989; National Re-
search Council, 1996; Ottevanger, Macfarlane and Clegg, 2005) and involve elements of the constructivist
and situated perspectives in education. For instance, they invariably use ASEI-PDSI– a paradigm shift to-
wards student-centred learning that also emphasizes practical and contextual aspects of learning– a blend
constructivism in terms of inquiry learning and situated cognition perspective through emphasis on improvi-
sation of resources (SMASSE Project, 2004). Like in the National Science Education Standards (National
Research Council, 1996), it is believed that “ASEI movement enables the pupils to develop an inquiry mind,
develop the skill of making accurate observations, drawing conclusions, and holding discussions to enhance
learning and development of skills” (SMASSE Project, 2002, p. 70).
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3. 3 Design and Organization of the Projects
3.1 Overall Goals and Project Purposes
The SMASE projects have overall goals of upgrading students’ abilities in mathematics and sciences in sec-
ondary/ high school (SMASSE-Kenya, SMASSE-Niger, SESEMAT and SMASSE-MALAWI) and primary
schools (SMASE-Nigeria). The assumptions are that these goals are achievable through improved perfor-
mance in examinations, positive attitude and students’ participation during classroom instruction. On the
other hand, SMASTE has three overall goals towards sustainable school-based Continuing Professional De-
velopment (CPD) that recognizes teachers’ integrity; responsive lesson demonstrations in line with teachers’
needs and diffusion of effects of the Project from pilot region to other regions within Zambia.
In particular, the projects seek to strengthen quality of mathematics and science education (e.g., SMASSE-
Kenya); improve teachers’ attitude towards mathematics and sciences; enhance pedagogical content knowl-
edge in mathematics and sciences (SMASSE-Niger); and develop the ability of trainers to provide INSET
(SMASE-Nigeria). The SMASTE project further aims at improving classroom teaching learning activities
in the pilot region through lesson demonstrations. The progress towards these specific purposes are verified
through teachers’ practice of ASEI-PDSI (SMASE-Niger); positive attitude amongst students (SMASE-
Nigeria; SMASSE-Niger); students’ participation (SMASE-Nigeria; SMASSE-Niger); teachers’ improved
pedagogical content knowledge (SMASE-Nigeria); a list of indices based on modified Likert-scales includ-
ing lesson observation, participant attitude and mastery of ICT mode of instruction (SMASE-Nigeria); and
comparison of classroom practice and perception of students, teachers and principals with the pre-CPD sit-
uation (SMASTE). These goals reflect visions of reform in education which posit that students learn better
when teachers alter their beliefs and conceptions towards teaching and learning; increase opportunities for
students to take charge of their learning; establish groups for professional networking; and base instruction
on students’ understanding and conceptions (Britt, Irwin and Ritchie, 2001; Hoffstein, 2005; Krainer, 1999;
Stigler and Hiebert, 1999).
Similar goals have been addressed by other professional development initiatives, for example, the IN-
STANT Project (Namibia) which sought to guide the educational and curriculum reforms, and enhance teach-
ing methodologies among unqualified teachers (Ottevanger, Macfarlane and Clegg, 2005). It specifically set
to assist the Ministry of Basic Education and Culture to design and implement new science and mathematics
curriculum in secondary schools in response to the post- independence needs in Namibia. Although SMASE
initiatives do not seek to reform mathematics and science curricula, curricula reorganization are likely to
emerge from lesson planning to establish sequence of instruction. In addition, the Manor Project which
targeted in-service teacher educators, like national and regional trainers in SMASE projects, was based on
the overall vision of “Tomorrow 98” of improving science and mathematics teaching and learning in Israel.
Other visions included providing science (and mathematics) teachers with opportunities for continuous pro-
fessional development; facilitating collegiality and collaboration among teachers of specific disciplines; and
incorporating change process in professional development (Hoffstein, 2005). In particular, the Manor Pro-
gram aimed at developing an understanding of existing conceptions of teaching and learning mathematics,
development of leadership and mentoring skills in teacher education, and creation of professional reference
groups (Even, 1999).
Networking and reflective practice evident in the foregoing goals, alongside inculcation of principles of
action, reflection and autonomy were the focus in the PFL (Krainer, 1999). Krainer (1999) further outlines
benefits of networking to include professional exchange of knowledge, making innovative work accessible
and promoting a culture of communication on educational issues. Besides networking amongst teachers
during INSET and lesson demonstrations, there are potential gains in regional networks through sharing of
experiences and good practices. Similarly, Ottevanger, Feiter, O-saki and Van de Akker (2005) observed
that, one of the specific goals of the TEAMS project in Tanzania, a joint venture between University of Dar
es Salaam and three Dutch universities, was to enhance international exposure of staff through conferences
seminars and partnerships. That is, the concept of networking needs to be extended beyond teachers in a
particular country to regional networks, implying need for relevant and supporting policy structures.
3

4. 4 Project Inputs
4.1 Policy Issues
Reforms in education, including teacher education require informed policies that recognize the need for
change, appreciate possible challenges and set guidelines for effecting the changes in mathematics education
(see for example Advisory Committe on Mathematics Education, 2002, 2005). Within the present SMASE
initiatives, the significance of mathematics, science and technology in stimulating socio-economic develop-
ment is documented in most educational policies. The Kenya Education Sector Support Program (KESSP)
in Kenya, for example, recognizes the need for sustainable professional development within constrained re-
sources, and outlines other policy measures regarding funding of various education initiatives (Ministry of
Education, Science and Technology, 2005). Similarly, success of development initiatives depends on com-
mitment from the funding partners, adherence to memoranda of agreements and formulated policies, and
political will towards the values of the initiatives. The latter further depends on political stability–a major
challenge in some conflict-ridden African countries, and thus to the expansion SMASE initiatives. Such
stability would guarantee identification and upholding of educational values and a shift in funding priorities,
for instance from military and security issues to education and other critical service sectors of economy.
4.2 Inputs from Implementing Countries
A common characteristic in the project designs is the clear definition of inputs by the SMASE-WECSA mem-
ber countries and the Japanese government through JICA. The “recipient” countries provide office space;
meet recurrent budget for INSET, and assign counterpart and administrative staff to the projects. The ratio-
nale is to enhance rather than replace existing educational structures, therefore the appearance of strengthen
in the SMASE initiatives.
The counterpart personnel are qualified and experienced teachers and education officials deployed as
trainers and coordinators. The merit is that assignment of staff whose salaries do not raise recurrent costs
enhances ownership and sustainability of in-service education and training. In SMASE-Nigeria for exam-
ple, the National and State Trainers are deployed on part-time basis, while Quality Assurance and Stan-
dards Officers and District Trainers (SMASSE-Kenya), like Cluster Trainers (SMASTE-Zambia) perform
project activities alongside their regular duties. Furthermore, in order ground professional development in
classrooms, assignment of experienced teachers ensures familiarity with targeted educational contexts and
growth through peer mentoring, unlike if the programs were facilitated by university staff. This, however,
does not contradict teacher education programs at the universities, as the criteria for selection is professional
qualification of at least a first degree in relevant field of education.
These staff characteristics are similar to those in the Manor Project for example, as well as others within
the broader Tomorrow 98 programmes in Israel, where participants were experienced and reputable teachers
(Fried and Amit, 2005; Zaslavsky and Leikin, 2004), whose qualifications ranged from first university de-
grees in mathematics or mathematics related disciplines, master’s holders and a Ph.D holder (Even, 1999).
Other criteria for selection included experience in teaching mathematics in Grade 9 and above; agreement to
conduct in-service training weekly; reputation as a successful teacher and reasonable spread of participants
across the country.
The characteristics of staff at the national and regional in-service centers within SMASE projects also
create opportunities for professional growth through peer mentoring, (also Advisory Committe on Mathemat-
ics Education, 2002; Britt, Irwin and Ritchie, 2001); enhances their confidence in facilitation of workshops
and motivate them to be part of change agents in mathematics and science education (cf Even, 1999; Za-
slavsky and Leikin, 2004). Such opportunities for on-the-job development run parallel to structured capacity
development, an element of input from the Japanese Government.
4.3 Inputs from the Japanese Government
The Government of Japan, through Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), provides equipment to
facilitate effectiveness and efficiency in the delivery quality INSET, and assign short-term and long-term
experts in the projects to provide technical assistance and linkage between JICA and the implementing coun-
4

5. tries. In addition, they provide opportunities for counterpart training in Japan and Third-Country Training in
Philippines, Malaysia and Kenya in order to enhance the capability and capacity of the trainers in providing
quality INSET. The rationale for Third-Country Training programmes in the Philippines, Malaysia or Kenya
is to bring together people with common history, challenges and similar resource endowments to share ex-
periences and challenges, in order to ultimately develop home-grown solutions to the problems in education
in their respective countries—an element of ownership. Although distinct from the SMASE initiatives, the
TEAMS project in Tanzania– a joint partnership between the Dutch government and University of Dar-es-
Salaam similarly developed the capacity of staff through sponsorship of masters and doctoral studies as a
means of developing quality teacher education programmes (Ottevanger, Feiter, O-saki and Van de Akker,
2005).
The opportunities for capacity development of project staff and provision of equipments are signifi-
cant in enhancing efficiency and effectiveness of the programmes, and minimize assignment of Japanese
experts in the projects. This ultimately ensures that professional development of teachers becomes institu-
tionalized, continuous and sustainable. However, possible challenges to capacity development include lack
of assignment of the staff on relevant tasks—therefore reduced efficiency; little regard for internal capac-
ity development through opportunities for sharing such knowledge with colleagues and teachers; and high
rate staff-turn over. There is need, therefore, for the hosting countries to complement the opportunities for
staff development provided by the donor partner, improve conditions of service and develop policies that
recognize the developed capacities. Moreover, in order to minimize high rate of staff turn-over, there is
need for policy frameworks on deployment, and more significantly, due recognition of higher educational
qualifications in the teaching service outside the universities.
4.4 Project Activities
Broadly, the activities of the SMASE projects include baseline surveys and needs assessments; establishment
of systems of In-service Education and Training; and development of necessary materials for training and
curriculum for capacity development of trainers. They also include implementation of the programs and
establishment of support systems and sensitization of stakeholders. An overarching activity is monitoring
and evaluation, both for the quality of INSET and impact of various training and workshops geared towards
the overall goals of the projects.
Baseline surveys are meant to establish existing situation and isolate factors and issues which may
be addressed within existing resource constraints and project time-frames. In addition, they are meant to
respond to the weaknesses of top-down formulation of professional development programmes and enhance
the initiatives’ core values of relevance, ownership and sustainability. Alternatively, needs assessment in
other professional development programs, Manor for example, are based on views on learning reflected in
literature (Britt, Irwin and Ritchie, 2001; Even, 1999). Although, both approaches to needs assessment have
merits, there is need for the SMASE initiatives to occasionally base the programs on current research and,
thus, localize educational issues in line with global trends.
As Even (1999) also argues, opportunities to reflect on activities in literature are significant in linking
theory to practice with two overarching benefits—expanding theoretical knowledge and learning about real
students in a situation relevant to teachers’ practices. In addition, existing research may also illuminate
students’ learning difficulties in mathematics and science, and highlight probable approaches relevant to
sustainable professional development. Furthermore, there is need to reflect on ASEI-PDSI whose emphasis
on ‘hands-on’ activities corresponds to the Standards in the past decades (National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics, 1989; National Research Council, 1996) which, however, appear to be under review with the
introduction of Curriculum Focal Points in the US (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2006).
This would further develop conception of bridge in ASEI-PDSI and enhance higher order thinking skills
(HOTS) besides addressing the missing transition to tertiary education.
To establish systems of INSET at national or regional levels, the SMASE projects develop and imple-
ment criteria for recruitment of trainers in the respective levels; develop curricula, objectives, and materials
necessary for quality INSET, and implement the programs. The need for national and regional infrastruc-
ture for professional development was one of the recommendations in the UK, including the necessity for
adequate funding and support (Advisory Committe on Mathematics Education, 2002). Other similar activ-
5

6. ities include adequate preparation, adequate resources and development of specific materials for planning
learning experiences (Advisory Committe on Mathematics Education, 2002; Even, 1999; Hoffstein, 2005),
besides creation of professional reference groups.
In SMASTE (Zambia)– a school-based continuous professional development similar to the Japanese
lesson study, initial activities include review of existing situation of SPRINT-CPD, development of strategies
for scaling up from the pilot to other regions, and identification of degree and time-frame for expansion
from the Central Province to other regions. Similarly, development and utilization of materials necessary for
lesson demonstrations, obtaining feedback from experiences of lesson demonstrations and improvement of
subsequent lessons are other critical activities for the success of the project. Like the other SMASE projects,
identification of counterparts for capacity development and development of training curricula are projected
activities for enhancing quality of the SMASTE project programmes. Moreover, monitoring and evaluation
of teachers’ practices during lesson demonstrations is crucial in sustaining gains from the project and gauging
its impact.
Implementation of the programs is intended to directly link the inputs and projected goals, and is based
on isolated issues from the needs assessments and baseline surveys. Consequently, there are thematic cycles
with sessions aimed at addressing attitude change, lesson planning and hands-on activities, actualization and
impact in the classrooms (e.g. SMASSE, 2002). As already argued, possible improvements of the programs,
especially within institutionalized professional development need to be based on evidence from research,
incorporate more subject-specific pedagogical and content issues and enhance students’ potential for further
education. The merits of such approach were observed in Kidumatica, where an activity based on Bruner’s
concept of spiral curriculum was used to demonstrate coherence and progression (also Schmidt, Wang and
McKnight, 2005) in mathematics from middle school to high school content (Fried and Amit, 2005).
In an attempt to incorporate other stakeholders in the solution of problems in mathematics and science
education in the respective countries, there are management workshops for principals and other education
officials. Other means of popularizing the projects are through sensitization and publication of newsletters.
Moreover, monitoring and evaluation is critical in verifying whether the inputs and activities are aligned to
the outputs of quality INSET and impact in the classrooms. That is, feedback, genuine for that matter, are
intended to provide evidence on areas that require improvement.
4.5 Project Outputs
One of the long term outputs is to establish systems of regular and institutionalized INSET in recognition of
the need for continuity from projects to programmes. It is worth noting that the inputs from staff deployment,
capacity building and operations within existing systems, for example SMASTE, correlate directly with this
outcome. The establishment of CEMASTEA in Kenya confirms the importance of cooperation between
the funding partners in realizing the goal of institutionalizing INSET. Similar recommendations for con-
tinuing professional development in the UK included establishment of a National Center for Excellence in
Mathematics (NCETM) to coordinate various professional development programs in mathematics (Advisory
Committe on Mathematics Education, 2002, 2005).
The system of institutionalized INSET is not limited to institutional structures, but includes enabling
mathematics and science teachers to develop positive attitude towards teaching and learning; improve their
pedagogical skills, and upgrade content mastery in the respective disciplines. Unlike the existing situation in
most classrooms, there is a growing belief that innovative practices are those which promote inquiry-based
learning where students take responsibility for their learning, and acquire problem-solving skills necessary in
and out school (see National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1989; National Research Council, 1996).
Thus, the student-centered pedagogy promoted in the SMASE projects, including utilization of low-cost and
improvized resources are critical means of addressing the overall goals of the projects
Correspondingly, the Manor Project realized personal, professional and social development of the par-
ticipants. According to Even (1999), elements of personal development included credits, expectation to be
part of leadership to improve mathematics education, desire for continuous learning and willingness to accept
challenging leadership. On the other hand, learning how to plan, conduct and evaluate change initiatives;
working with teachers; and an understanding that change in school mathematics is a slow and complicated
process were forms of professional development. Moreover, social development included teamwork, col-
6

7. legiality and collaborative work; learning to work with other people in the educational system; need for
ownership, planning, decision making and assignment of roles and sharing of responsibilities.
In order to further improve teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge, there are opportunities for teach-
ers to act and reflect on their teaching through lesson actualization (SMASSE-Kenya) or lesson demonstra-
tions (SMASTE). As indicated earlier, professional development require that teachers share their experi-
ences within authentic classroom practices, as reflective practitioners through peer mentoring, autonomy and
networking (Krainer, 1999). The concept of action research that underlies the SMASE projects further re-
quires a complementary conception of theory and practice, where practitioners “build upon and interpret their
experience-based knowledge using research-based knowledge; and examine theoretical knowledge acquired
from literature and discuss research in the light of practical knowledge” (Even, 1999, p. 12). Such ap-
proach has been used in the Department of Mathematics Education in Hiroshima University, through weekly
seminars– shou-zemi– that brings together graduate students, university researchers and practicing teachers
to reflect on literature in mathematics education.
Research further indicates that meaningful changes in classroom practices are evolutionary, for example
the Japanese lesson study (Shulman, 2006; Stigler and Hiebert, 1999). In an address to the Maths and
Science Partnership (MSP) Workshop, Lee Shulman whose seminal work on teachers’ knowledge informed
conception of pedagogy beyond mastery of content, observed a need for
[P]edagogy for teacher education that combines the best features, on the one hand, of case method– where
you’re dealing with the rich, growing archive of existing cases. And on the other end, our best ideas from
lesson study, where you’re now setting teaching and learning objectives, jointly designing instruction to
accomplish those goals, actively engaging in teaching to try out the design, seeing how it works, and
bringing that back to the seminar or workshop in which you’re working on learning to teach. (Shulman,
2006)
Another output is the establishment of supporting systems for INSET at different levels through the in-
volvement of stakeholders in education. This uniquely sets SMASSE-like activities from others that view
education to only involve teachers and students. Similar efforts, for example in the UK through feasibility
study on the establishment of National Centre for Excellence in Teaching of Mathematics (NCETM), rec-
ognize the importance of sensitizing other players on the rationale of continuous professional development
(Advisory Committee on Mathematics Education, 2005).
Furthermore, monitoring and evaluation reports on the impact and progress of the projects are neces-
sary outcomes for the funding partners and improvement of the activities. The expansion to national phase
and incorporation of primary teachers training college tutors in SMASSE-Kenya better exemplifies the dy-
namism of the project designs and activities. In order to strengthen the process of generating feedback, it
would be necessary for the SMASE projects to diversify from the current questionnaires structured to capture
teachers’ self reports on a five-point Likert scale to more descriptive responses. Besides institutionalization
of in-service teacher education and training (e.g., CEMASTEA) imply increased public concerns with the
activities. Thus, there is also need to extend current reporting of project activities to include research publi-
cations.
There are implications in terms of enhancing staff capabilities in research skills and increasing oppor-
tunities for teachers to share innovative practices with the international community, and broaden the scope
of consumption of SMASE activities hitherto limited to internal reports. Such case studies of lesson demon-
strations would certainly promote teacher responsibility as part of professionalism, and enhance their psychic
rewards (Lortie, 1975).
5 Conclusions
Most African nations certainly experience shortage of qualified teachers, and thus require better infrastruc-
ture of initial teacher training. However, the potential of improving teacher education lies in enhancing the
quality of trained teachers through professional development, within authentic learning environments for
teachers—the classrooms. Besides, improving access and equity in basic education remains an urgent con-
cern for most countries, but improving the quality of students learning’ in mathematics and sciences may
sufficiently address socio-economic and technological development. In particular, there is need for harness-
7

8. ing the synergies in education development, where policy issues are addressed at ministerial levels, while
quality of classroom practices are improved, for example, through the SMASE initiatives.
The reflection on the design of projects within the SMASE-WECSA reveals that these projects are rele-
vant and consistent with global trends in education; and are designed to address ownership and sustainability
of teachers’ professional development. In addition, there is correspondence between inputs and outputs, and
complementary contributions by the funding partners, and similarities with programs elsewhere. While the
hosting countries provide staff, the Japanese government develops their capacity and provides equipments
which enhance their efficiency. The initiatives also empower the implementing countries to determine their
core priorities in education; minimize donor dependency through establishment of systems of professional
development, mobilization and prudent utilization of resource. Moreover, the bottom-up approach of needs
assessment, the involvement of critical stakeholders and recognition of existing education structures ensure
local relevance and motivate responsibility among the African states. Furthermore, the opportunities for
growth of the trainers through continuous mentoring (see also Even, 1999; Zaslavsky and Leikin, 2004), ex-
change of experiences and the improvement of teachers pedagogical content knowledge is a common output
of the projects.
Whereas the designs of the projects capture aspects ownership and sustainability through assignment of
staff in regular workforce, there is need for policy guidelines on structural systems on personnel to minimize
rates of staff turn-over. In addition, critical challenges facing these initiatives include incessant political strife
and lack of clear policy guidelines, commitment and adherence to established policies on project implemen-
tation. Without doubt, most African nations are under massive resource constraints, but the approach of
strengthening education in the SMASE initiatives have more implications on attitude, responsibility and ac-
countability than on resources– therefore professionalism in every sector of the society. That is, it is through
sustained efforts, and positive attitude, mobilization and optimal allocation of resources among competing
activities in the educational sector that the long term goal of enhancing students’ abilities can be realized.
Furthermore, collaboration and networking in education is fast gaining currency as educators in dif-
ferent countries seek to share experiences, challenges and solutions, for example, BAsic COmponent of
Mathetics Education for Teachers (BACOMET) (Christiansen, Howson and Otte, 1986). There are vast op-
portunities for the African region for learning from each other, as most countries face common challenges of
limited resources and enormous problems in education. Accordingly, the success of the current initiatives in
Africa in carving a niche in the international arena depends on how the member countries utilize the emer-
gent opportunities through classroom demonstrations and actualization of innovative practices. A probable
avenue is through building networks of collaboration, enhancing classroom-based research in which excel-
lent and innovative experiences are accumulated, analyzed, documented and shared within the region and the
international community. That is, the SMASE initiatives must sustain the current high profile, and maximize
the relative advantage they have in classroom-based professional development.
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