3. Presented To:
Mam Sana Saleem
Presented By:
Hina Pervez
Reg# 2013-ag-4830
Maimoona Azhar
Reg# 2013-ag-4848
Arooj Fatima
Reg#2013-ag-4842
Saliha Iftikhar
Reg#2013-ag-4818
Azka Riaz
Reg#2013-ag-4878
4. Theory of Deduction
To explain the relationship between the premises and conclusion of valid argument
and provide techniques for the appraisal of deductive arguments. Hence we will be
distinguishing between valid and invalid argument
5. Categorical Proposition
Any proposition that can be interpreted as asserting a relation of inclusion or
exclusion, complete or partial, between two classes
Class:- A class is defined as a collection of all objects which have some specified
characteristics in common
6. Four Standards of Categorical Proposition
Universal Affirmative
A : All S is P
Universal Negative
E : All S is not P
Particular Affirmative
I : Some S is P
Particular Negative
O : Some S is not P
7. Analysis of the Categorical Proposition
Quantity:- The quantity of a categorical proposition is determined by whether or
not it refers to all members of its subject class ( universal, particular). The
“How many?” is asking for quantify.
Indicators of “how much” are called quantity indicators (quantifiers) and
specifically are “all”, “no”, and “some”.
Quality:- The quality of a categorical proposition is determined by
whether the asserted class relation is one exclusion or inclusion
(affirmative or negative)
Indicators of affirmative and negative are quality indicators (qualifiers) and
specifically are “are”, “are not”, “is”, “is not” and “no”.
8. NAME STATEMENT QUANTITY QUALITY
A All S are P Universal Affirmative
E No S are P Universal Negative
I Some S are P Particular Affirmative
O Some S are not P Particular Negative
9. NAME STATEMENT SUBJECT PREDICATE
A All S are P Distributed Undistributed
E No S are P Distributed Distributed
I Some S are P Undistributed Undistributed
O Some S are not P Undistributed Distributed
10. Distribution of A Term
A distributed term is a term of a categorical proposition that is used with
reference to every member of a class.
If the term is not being used to refer to each and every member of the class, it is
said to be undistributed term.
11. Distribution Status of Subject and
Predicate
The Quantity of a standard form categorical proposition determines the
distribution of the subject
If Quantity is universal, the subject is distributed
If quantity is particular, the subject is undistributed
The Quality of a standard form categorical proposition determines the distribution
status of the predicate
If Quality is affirmative, the predicate is undistributed
If Quality is negative, the predicate is distributed
