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Growth complex
- 1. Growth Complex: How does it apply to Police Harold Sowards
- 2. Definition Relation to Police Depts. Requirements Standards/Disqualifiers Physical standards Numbers Conflict Theory
- 3. Issues 1. Police Shootings 2. Citizen Complaints
- 4. Factors Education Training Demographics Age Race Police Stress Growth
- 7. Improve Training Interactive Scenarios Hostage Situations Role Playing Training Firearm training under extreme pressure
- 8. Improve Education Hudgins’ take on this issue Impact on Discretion Sanderson’s take
- 9. Implement Better Policies New York Mandatory Reporting? Hiring quotas Standard encounters Body cameras
- 10. Solution and its Limits Give Solution Explain Limits
- 11. References Agnew, R. & Scheuerman (2015, May 29). Strain Theories. Oxford Bibliographies: Your best research starts here. Retrieved from: http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195396607/obo-9780195396607-0005.xml Bier, D. (2014, August 26). By the numbers: How many cops are there in the USA? Retrieved from: http://blog.skepticallibertarian.com/2014/08/26/by-the-numbers-how-many-cops-are-there-in-the-usa/ Brohe, A. (2007, March 1). The effect of court-ordered hiring quotas on the composition and quality of police. The American Economic Review, 97 (1) 318-353. Cato Institute (2010). 2010 Annual Report. National Police Misconduct Reporting Project. Retrieved from: https://www.policemisconduct.net/statistics/2010-annual-report/ Correll, J., Park, B., Judd, C., Wittenbrink, B., Sadler, M. & Keesee, T. (2007, June). Across the thin blue line: Police officers and racial bias in the decision to shoot. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92 (6) 1006-1023. DataUSA (2014). Police Officers. Retrieved from: https://datausa.io/profile/soc/333050/#top Decker, L. & Huckabee, R. (2002). Raising the age of education requirements for police officers: Will too many women and minority candidates be excluded? Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 25 (4), 789-802. doi/abs/10.1108/13639510210450695 Discoverpolcing.org. (2008). Basic requirements. Retrieved from: http://discoverpolicing.org/what_does_take/?fa=requirements Fyfe, J. (1979). Administrative interventions on police shooting discretion: An empirical examination. Journal of Criminal Justice, 7 (4) 309-323. Fyfe, J. (1981, December). Who shoots? A look at officer race and police shooting. Journal of Police Science & Administration, 9 (4) 367-382.
- 12. Fyfe, J. (1996). Training to Reduce Police-Civilian Violence. In William A. Geller & Hans Toch (eds.). Police Violence: Understanding and Controlling Police Abuse of Force (165-180). New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Fyfe, J. (2006, August 16). Police use of deadly force: Research and reform. Justice Quarterly, 5 (2), 165-205. doi/abs/10.1080/07418828800089691 Geller, W. & Karales, K. (1981). Split-second decisions-Shootings of and by the Chicago Police. Retrieved from: https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/abstractdb/AbstractDBDetails.aspx?id=77343 Gerstenberger, D., Beatty, K. & Weatherby, G. (2014, March). Factors influencing fatal officer-involved shootings. Journal of Law and Criminal Justice, 2 (1) 273-298. Godoy, G. (2007). Prepare for the police physical abilities test. Retrieved from: http://www.policetest.info/physical/ Greenwald, A., Oakes, M. & Hoffman, H. (2003, July). Targets of discrimination: Effects of race on responses to weapons holders. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39 (4) 399-405. Harris, D. (2010, April 27). Picture this: Body worn video devices (‘head cams’) as tools for ensuring Fourth Amendment compliance by police. Texas Tech Law Review, 43 357. U. of Pittsburgh Legal Studies Research Paper No. 2010-13. Hudgins, J. (2014, September 30). Require college degrees for police [commentary]. The Baltimore Sun. Retrieved from: http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2014-09-30/news/bs-ed-police-degrees-20140930_1_college-education- educated-police-force-police-officers
- 13. James, L., James, S. & Vila, B. (2016, January 14). The reverse racism effect: Are cops more hesitant to shoot black than white suspects? Criminology & Public Policy, 15 (2). doi/10.1111/1745-9133.12187/pdf Jennings, W., Fridell, L. & Lynch, M. (2014). Cops and cameras: Officer perceptions of the use of body-worn cameras in law enforcement. Journal of Criminal Justice, 42 (6) 549-556. Kahn, K. & Martin, K. (2016, January 5). Policing and race: Disparate treatment, perceptions and policy responses. Social Issues and Policy Review, 10 (1) 82-121. doi/10.1111/sipr.12019/full Leonard, R. & Allison, L. (2010, November 26). Critical incident stress debriefing and its effects on coping strategies and anger in a sample of Australian police officers involved in shooting incidents. Work & Stress: An International Journal of Work, Health & Organisations, 13 (2), 144-162. doi/abs/10.1080/026783799296110 Maguire, M. & Okada, D. (2014). SAGE Publications. Critical Issues in Criminal Justice: Thoughts, Policies and Practices. Marion, N. (1998). Police academy training: Are we teaching recruits what they need to know? Policing: An International Journal of Policing Strategies & Management, 21 (1) 54-79. doi/abs/10.1108/13639519810206600 Maskaly, J. & Donner, C. (2015, June). A theoretical integration of Social Learning Theory with Terror Management Theory: Towards an explanation of police shootings of unarmed suspects. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 40 (2) 205-224. McElvain, J. & Kposowa, A. (2008, April 1). Police officer characteristics and the likelihood of using deadly force. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35 (4). doi/abs/10.1177/0093854807313995
- 14. Miller, L. & Braswell, M. (1992). Police perceptions of ethical decision-making: The ideal vs. the real. American Journal of the Police, 11 (4). Oudejans, R. (2008 June 25). Reality-based practice under pressure improves handgun shooting performance of police officers. Ergonomics, 51 (3) 261-273. doi/abs/10.1080/00140130701577435 Reilly, R. (2015, October 9). Here’s what happens when you complain to cops about cops” The internal affairs division usually decides the officer did nothing wrong. The Huffington Post. Retrieved from: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/internal-affairs-police-misconduct_us_5613ea2fe4b022a4ce5f87ce Rivard, J., Dietz, P., Martell, D. Widawski, M. (2002, September). Acute dissociative responses in law enforcement officers involved in critical shooting incidents: The clinical and forensic implications. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 47 (5) 1-8. Rydberg, J. & Terrill, W. (2010, January 3). The effect of higher education on police behavior. Police Quarterly, 13 (1). doi/abs/10.1177/1098611109357325 Sanderson, B. (1976). Police officers-the relationship of college education to job performance. National Criminal Justice Reference Service. Retrieved from: https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=67199 Shane, J. (2016, August 4). Improving police use of force: A policy essay on national data collection. Criminal Justice Policy Review. Retrieved from: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0887403416662504 Thompson, B. & Lee, J. (2004, July 5). Who cares if police become violent? Explaining approval of police use of force using a national sample. Sociological Inquiry, 74 (3) 381-410. doi/10.1111/j.1475-682X.2004.00097.x/full
- 15. Vickers, J. & Lewinski, W. (2012, February). Performing under pressure: Gaze control, decision making and shooting performance of elite and rookie officers. Human Movement Science, 31 (1) 101-117. Waters, J. A., & Ussery, W. (2007). Police stress: History, contributing factors, symptoms, and interventions. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 30(2), 169–188. doi/abs/10.1108/13639510710753199?journalCode=pijpsm White, M. (2006, September 1). Hitting the target (or not): Comparing characteristics of fatal, injurious, and noninjurious police shootings. Police Quarterly, 9 (3). doi/abs/10.1177/1098611105277199 Williams, H., Bowman, S. & Jung, J. (2016, May 28). The limitations of government databases analyzing fatal officer-involved shootings in the United States. Criminal Justice Policy Review. Retrieved from: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0887403416650927
Editor's Notes
- Growth complex is the idea that businesses and entities act in their own best interests to survive 1a. Funding, hiring of officers, firing of officers, Public image Thus the lower their standards of hiring officers, the higher likely hood of hiring officers to compete with criminals which helps increase the rates they receive funding as results are produced 2a. US citizenship, minimum age between 18 and 21, minimum high school diploma or a GED, a valid driver’s license and passing a fitness requirement that varies per agency. The only disqualifications: felony conviction, misdemeanors with domestic or sexual abuse, illegal drug usage, DWI/DUI convictions and a poor credit history 2b. 16.30-21 minute 1.5-mile run depending on department, an obstacle course, a percentage of your body weight during a bench press, 18-34 sit-ups in a minute depending on department, 20 pushups in a minute and sit/reach extensions 3. 17,895 law enforcement agencies existed in 2008, with 1.13 million full-time workers of which 765,000 were sworn in, and 100,000 part-time employees of which 44,000 were sworn in 4. conflict theory deals with inequality in the system by those who have the most power. Police departments are a business, and therefore if they does not have enough funding to hire new officers, get new equipment, etc. they are placed at a disadvantage when compared to departments who have the funding to do those things, as well as being at a disadvantage when facing crime, as they start lacking the resources to combat them
- there are 51.8 incidents a year of officers involved in shooting fatalities. 40% of those shot are unarmed at the time of the encounter. 2. there was 26,000 complaints against officers for using use of force in 2002, of these 8% were deemed to be credible complaints, 34% were not sustained, 25% were unfounded and 23% were exonerated, and this related only to New York City 4861 reports of misconduct seems reasonable, with 23.8% of these complaints being about excessive use of force
- with a college degree police officers perform in the upper 25% of all categories in the police academy 46% of the time compared to 24% of those without college education that the vast majority of the cops that are terminated, had no upper education and those with more college were frequent in promotions and opportunities for advancement college educated officers are less likely to be involved in shootings than those who are non-educated. 83% of police departments only require high school diplomas, 8% require some college and only 1% requires a college degree. This is a problem. Officers with college degrees use of force percentage is at 58% while officers with no college degree use of force percentage is at 68% 2. Officers outperformed civilians when it comes to overall speed and accuracy in terms of shootings, but training does not affect the speed in which officer stereotypes how incongruent targets are processed, but they do affect the end decision of whether they shoot or not Police who received Critical Incident Stress Debriefing begin to show reductions in anger levels and greater use of adaptive coping strategies 3. Age is another factor that affects police departments as they deal with retirement, insurance and other issues that affect people of different age groups, thus affecting the hiring process and the budget for that precinct. However, it also plays a part in officer misconduct. the risk of an officer shooting drops as an officer ages. The average age for police officers in the United States is 39.6 Elite officers shoot more accurately and made fewer decision errors Rookies are more prone to fire and focus on their own weapon, while the elites have longer eye duration on the assailant’s weapon prior to firing. B. whites make up 78% of the work force, while blacks make up 12% of this work force. citizens set shooting criterion lower for blacks, however police don’t set this criterion so low there is implicit bias against suspects, officers were slower to shoot black armed suspects than armed white suspects and they were less likely to shoot unarmed black suspects than unarmed white suspects. However, the higher the percentage of non-whites in a community, the higher the rates of police use of deadly force 60% of blacks were shot when carrying handguns, compared to 35% of whites. Blacks were however, 12% of the population, but committed 43% of the felony killings of officers the wariness increased about using deadly force against black suspects, because officers were afraid of how it was going to be perceived and the associated consequences with the action in deadly scenarios, 57% were white, while 56% were black and officers took on average 200 ms longer to shoot armed blacks than armed whites. 96% of the participants in their study associated blacks with images of weapons, and most officers showed levels of implicit bias of taking longer to shoot armed blacks and being less likely to shoot unarmed blacks. This implicit bias doesn’t result in racially motivated decisions to shoot, but instead showed a counter-bias, reverse racism effect. black and white officers were likely to shot equally. However, the data given on the racial breakdown on the victims is the following: 20% shot were white, 70% were black, and 10% were Hispanics the minority overrepresentation among police shooters is closely related to racial patterns of assignment, socialization and residence, but this is only a spurious relationship. 4. police start their careers in excellent physical health, but retire early and are likely to die from job related stress. Some other results of this stress can be: digestive disorders, cardiovascular diseases, alcoholism, domestic violence, PTSD, depression and suicide. “The development of other jobs (boxers, soldiers, etc.) prove that maintaining one’s temper under stressful and confrontational conditions is a skill that can be taught (Fyfe, 1991).” suspect behavior/posture/demeanor are all important as is the presence of a weapon and the suspect’s race, while others to consider are: use of foul language, proximity to participant, clothing style, physical size, speed and subtlety of movement and location lighting conditions and gun type. 90% of officers reported experiencing a dissociative response during the incident, 30% fell under DSM IV (criterion B) and 19% of officers show memory impairment for details of the incident. officers who have a previous history of shooting, are 51% more likely to shoot again. 58% of officers that get shot are shot by civilians and 38% of them are shot by themselves/colleagues.
- 5. the job growth is expected to be 5% over these 10 years there has been court ordered hiring quotas in a lot of states, which has led to a 14% increase in African Americans being hired
- longer more interactive scenarios in a deadly force judgement and decision making simulator seems reasonable to help the officers in situations where they are faced with the option to shoot or not 2. avoid the split-second syndrome and to do this training needs to be designed to avert the violence in both hostage and barricade situations. This requires a diagnosis of crises that identify recurrent patterns and success requires communication and coordination amongst authors. Thus, safety is required as an element of the training, and this has been neglected previously 3. a five-day role playing training program (where officers participate in various suspect/officer scenarios and take turns playing each role) has resulted in 30-50% reductions in injuries to officers as well as the use of force used and citizen complaints. 4. these kinds of training helps acclimatize shooting performance of ordinary police officers to those situations with elevated pressure that may occur at work. Performance according to Oudejans didn’t diminish This is why improving training for officers are a must as it lowers: complaints, use of force allegations, officer injuries and improves: officer performance under pressure and the safety of everyone involved.
- 1. Hudgins argues that higher education: brings better behavioral and performance characteristics of officers, fewer on job injuries/assaults, fewer disciplinary actions from use of force, a greater acceptance of minorities, and a decrease in the dogmatism, authoritarianism, rigidity and conservatism associated with police officers. 2. show that higher education doesn’t influence the probability of arrests or searches in police and suspect encounters, however college education does significantly reduce the likelihood of force occurring, as more discretion is acquired 3. officers with a four-year college degree receive fewer complaints than those who just have a two-year college degree. A college degree according to Sanderson also relates to the number of sick days an officer uses, which is beneficial to the department and to the safety of the individuals it presides over. Thus, improving college education amongst police officers, would be a good idea because it saves money in terms of sick days, on-the-job injuries, complaint casework and allows a smarter officer who is more tolerant of others and can critically think their way through a situation and uses discretion to know when to act and when not to act.
- New York added administrative shooting guidelines and shooting incident review procedures that are higher than former justifications. This caused great decreases in “fleeing felon” shootings, warning shots, injuries and deaths California and Texas are the only two states who require mandatory reporting. city crime rats appear unaffected by hiring quotas. Therefore, these quotas should either match the population changes and hire officers to match the rise/fall in ethnicities, or just be eliminated altogether, especially if they aren’t affecting crime rates. the most typical encounters leading to officer involved shootings are: domestic disturbances, vehicle stops, robberies in progress and investigations of suspicious persons/circumstances. Therefore, policies that affect how officers go about dealing with these encounters and guidelines for these interactions may be necessary to help protect both the officer and the suspect. body cameras give the public assurance that police officers obey the law has well as enforcing it, which brings about accountability. Body cameras record evidence in real time, with high levels of accuracy, they quickly make and keep records with create rapid resolutions for the court systems with guilty pleas, which allows the officers to have more time on the streets, it reduces public order offenses, helps in domestic violence cases and details reports for discharged firearms (Harris). Those are all a good use to spend money on instead of hiring more officers for areas where they are not needed. All of these policies show that the existing policies could use some work, thus new guidelines could go a long way to better improve the officer’s job at providing safety for the public.
- The best solution is improving the training and education of officers. It saves money for the police department and thus the public taxpayers as well and provides the agency with a more tolerant police officer who will help present a better image to the public than one who is dogmatic and intolerant. It also lowers the risk of injuries and the number of complaints, while improving the officer’s performance under pressure. The problem with this however, according to Decker and Huckabee (2002), is that raising the education levels may affect women and minorities getting hired. It will also lower the application pool of potential new hirers as well as possibly requiring a raise in the pay level associated with the entry level position to match their education. Also, it may cause a stigmatism amongst the officers that were already hired before this education/training is required and the newly hired officers, about which one is better and may decrease cooperation and communication which could cause problems for public safety.