2. Contents
What is discourse?
Discourse markers: 'throw away' words
signalling next stage: change-of-state marker
3. What is discourse?
Discourse is a coherently-arranged, serious and
systematic treatment of a topic in spoken or
written language.
The definition of discourse is a discussion about a
topic either in writing or face to face. An example
of discourse is a professor meeting with a student
to discuss a book. Discourse is defined as to talk
about a subject. An example of discourse is two
politicians talking about current events.
4. Classes of Discourse
Four basic discourse modes are narration,
description, exposition and argument in English
composition and rhetoric (Bain, 1890).Jul 30,
2017
Discourse may be classified into descriptive,
narrative, expository, and argumentative.
5. Descriptive Discourse.
A descriptive discourse often takes two forms; it
can be in static form, or the form called process
description. ...
6. Narrative Discourse
A narrative discourse is that which in its
description, portrays causally related incidents;
here the occurred incidents are often arranged
one after another in an order of chronology.
The narrative discourse Opens in new window in
its typical form is often referred to as fiction; this is
because it both provides a highly detailed and
structured conception of anecdote Opens in new
window.
7. Expository Discourse
An expository discourse consists in giving
definitive explanation and clarification by means
of examples and illustrations, details, comparison
and contrast Opens in new window, definition,
and other rhetorical devices of like nature.
8. Argumentative Discourse
The argumentative discourse is used with the
sole purpose of persuading the audience (hearers
or readers) to either accept or reject opinions. As
a primary prerequisite, argumentative discourse
only takes effect where there is a contentious or
controversial topic.
9. Discourse markers
Discourse markers are words and phrases that
are used to manage and organize the structure of
discourse . They connect sentences without
changing the general meaning of what is being
said. Discourse markers are also known as
linking words, linking phrases or sentence
connectors.
10.
11. Discourse markers are words or phrases like anyway,
right, okay, as I say, to begin with. We use them to
connect, organise and manage what we say or write
or to express attitude:
[friends are talking]
A: So, I’ve decided I’m going to go to the bank and
ask for a car loan.
B: That sounds like a good idea.
C: Well, you need a car.
B: Right.
A: Anyway, I was wondering if either of you would
teach me how to drive.
12. The discourse markers in this extract have a
number of uses:
so marks the beginning of a new part of the
conversation.
well marks a change in the focus (from getting a
car loan to needing a car).
right marks a response (B is agreeing with C).
anyway marks a shift in topic (from buying a new
car to having driving lessons).
13. In speaking, the following discourse marks are in
common:
Anyway , like, right, you know, fine, now, so, I
mean, good, oh, well, as I say ,great, okay, mind
you, for a start
In writing, firstly, in addition, moreover, on the
other hand, secondly, in conclusion,on the one
hand, to begin with, thirdly, in sum
14. Discourse markers do not always have meanings
that you will find in your dictionary. However, they
do have certain functions, and some discourse
markers, such as well, can have a number of
functions.
Some discourse markers are used to start and to
end conversations. Some are used to start new
topics or to change topics.
15. Starting a conversation or talk
A:Right, let’s get started. We need to get the
suitcases into the car.
B:Okay. I’ll do that. Katie, will you help me?
[at the start of a radio interview]
Now, we have with us in the studio today
someone you will all know from television. John
Rice, welcome to the show.
16. Ending a conversation
[A mother (A) and daughter (B) on the telephone]
A:So we’ll see you Sunday, Liz.
B:Right, okay Mum.
A:Okay, see you then, love.
B:Bye, Mum. Thanks for calling.
A:Bye, Liz.
[At the end of a meeting]
A:Anyway, is that it? Has anyone got any questions?
B:No. I think we’re done.
A:Right, fine, thanks everyone for coming. We’ll circulate
the documents tomorrow and make some follow-up calls
about the project.
17. Changing or managing a topic
A:We went to town to buy wallpaper to match the
carpet.
B:Did you try Keanes? They have a sale.
A:We looked there, but Jim said he thought it was too
expensive and he didn’t like any of their designs.
B:What does he like?
A:He likes geometric shapes. He hates flowers.
Anyway, we eventually found some that we both liked
and when we went to pay for it, we realised that
neither of us had brought any money. (Anyway marks
a return to the main topic of buying wallpaper.)
18. Ordering what we say
And, in general, second, to sum up, and then, in the end,
secondly, what’s more, first (of all), last of all, so well,
firstly, next, lastly, a … b, for a start, on top of that, third(ly)
firstly and secondly are more formal than first and second.
A: I think Sheila might be having some financial problems
at the moment.
B: don’t think so, Caroline. For a start, she has all the
money that her aunt gave her. What’s more, she has a
good job and she seems to have a good lifestyle.
Firstly, we are going to look at how to write an essay.
Secondly we are going to look at what makes a good
essay and what makes a bad one. Lastly, we’re going to
do some writing activities.
19. We can use the letters of the alphabet (a, b and
c), to list reasons or arguments for something:
There are two reasons why I think it’s a bad idea,
a because it’ll cost too much money, and b
because it’ll take such a long time.
20. Discourse markers that monitor what we say
As we talk, we monitor (or listen to) what we are
saying and how our listener is responding to what
they hear. We often rephrase or change what we say
depending on how our listener is responding. We use
words and phrases such as well, I mean, in other
words, the thing is, you know, you know what I mean,
you see, what I mean is.
Saying something in another way
Sometimes, as we talk, we add phrases to show our
listener that we are going to rephrase, repeat or
change what we are saying. These discourse markers
help to make what we say clearer for the listener:
21. I just had to leave early. What I mean is I hated
the show. It just wasn’t funny.
You exercise regularly, you have a good diet and
you don’t have too much stress. In other words, I
think you have nothing to worry about. Your
health seems very good.
I think I’ve found a house I’d like to buy. Well it’s
an apartment actually. It’s ideal for me.
22. Shared knowledge
When we talk, we think about how much knowledge we
share with our listener. We often mark what we think is
old, shared or expected knowledge with you know and
we mark new knowledge that we see as not shared with
the listener with phrases like see, yo You know, hiring a
car was a great idea. (The speaker and the listener know
about hiring the car.)
A:Why don’t you come and stay with me when you’re in
Lisbon?
B:It’d be difficult. I have to be back in Dublin by
Friday. You see, my sister is getting married on Saturday
so I won’t have time to visit. (B assumes that A doesn’t
know about her sister’s wedding. This is new information)
u see, the thing is:
23. Discourse markers as responses
As we listen to someone speaking, we usually show our
response to what we hear either by gesture (head nod) or
by a short response (Mm, yeah, really, that’s a shame).
This shows that we are listening to and interested in what
is being said. We call these short responses ‘response
tokens’.
Common response tokens include:
absolutely fine okay wow
(all) right good quite (more formal) yeah
certainly great really yes
definitely I see sure
exactly no wonderful
24. We use response tokens for a number of functions:
To show interest and to show that we want the speaker to continue
A:So he opened the door.
B:Yeah.
A:And he went in very quietly without waking her.
B:Right.
A:He opened her bag and…
To show surprise
A:We’ve decided to go to Africa for a month next year.
B:Oh really!
To show sympathy
A:He can’t play soccer for at least six months. He’s broken his leg.
B:That’s terrible.
25. Discourse markers showing attitude
actually frankly I think (I’m) sorry
admittedly hopefully literally surprisingly
amazingly honestly naturally thankfully
basically ideally no doubt to be honest
certainly if you ask me obviously to tell you the truth
clearly I’m afraid of course understandably
confidentially I must admit predictably undoubtedly
definitely I must say really unfortunately
essentially in fact sadly
fortunately indeed seriously
26. If you ask me, Neil is making a big mistake
leaving his job to go travelling with his friends.
We will obviously have to pay for the damage
done to the window.
The whole problem has been caused, I think, by
having too many cars on the road at busy times.
Sadly, Hilda has decided not to come with us.
27. Discourse markers: sounding less
direct
apparently kind of perhaps roughly
arguably like presumably sort of/ kind of*
I think maybe probably surely
just
28. Compare
There’s a new restaurant in
town. We
should probably try it next
weekend.
The statement is hedged or softened so as not to
sound too strong or forceful.
There’s a new restaurant in
town. We should try it next
weekend.
The statement is not hedged and it sounds more
direct and forceful.
29. Discourse markers: um and erm
We can use um to introduce a new topic carefully:
Um, could I ask you a personal question?
Um, there’s something else we need to talk
about.
We can use erm when we pause before saying
something, especially when we are not sure
about what to say:
He’s… erm he’s not very pleased with your work,
I’m afraid.
Her last book was called… erm what was it? I
can’t remember the name.
30. Discourse markers: interjections (Oh!
Gosh!)
An interjection is a single-word exclamation such
as hooray, oops, ouch which shows a positive or
negative emotional response:
A:The meeting’s been cancelled.
B:Yippee!
A:I’ve just dropped the box of eggs.
B:Oh no!
A:I don’t think this dessert looks very fresh.
B:Yuck!
31. What is back channeling in listening?
Back channelling is the feedback which a listener
gives to a speaker to show that (s)he is following,
or understands what the speaker is saying
