Final Dissertation

Improvements in dismantling
and recycling of commercial
aircraft
A research project submitted to The University of
Manchester for the degree of MEng Aerospace
Engineering with Management by
Gamuchirai Hogwe
9247094
2016
The School of Mechanical, Aerospace and
Civil Engineering

1
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 4
1.1 Background.................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Scope............................................................................................................. 5
1.3 Rationale........................................................................................................ 6
1.4 Aims and objectives ....................................................................................... 6
1.5 Importance of aircraft dismantling and recycling............................................. 7
1.6 Methodology................................................................................................... 8
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................... 9
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Aircraft lifespan .............................................................................................10
2.3 Aircraft materials ...........................................................................................14
2.3.1 Carbon composites in aviation ................................................................16
2.4 Management in aircraft end-of-life.................................................................19
2.5 Comparison with other industries ..................................................................20
2.6 Ecological hierarchy ......................................................................................21
3. CURRENT HANDLING IN EOL PHASE .............................................................23
3.1 Decontamination ...........................................................................................24
3.2 Disassembly..................................................................................................25
3.3 Dismantling, recycling and component management.....................................25
3.3.1 Re-use of recycled aluminium alloys.......................................................26
3.3.2 Cabin interiors.........................................................................................27
4. CASE STUDIES .................................................................................................29
4.1 The AFRA initiative........................................................................................29
4.1.1 Aims and Objectives ...............................................................................30
4.1.2 Operations..............................................................................................30
4.1.3 Results....................................................................................................31
4.2 PAMELA .......................................................................................................32
4.2.1 Introduction.............................................................................................32
4.2.2 Aims and Objectives ...............................................................................32
4.2.3 Funding...................................................................................................33
4.2.4 Operations..............................................................................................33
4.2.5 Results....................................................................................................33
5. SORTING TECHNIQUES ...................................................................................34
5.1 Eddy current separation ................................................................................34
5.2 Magnetic sorting............................................................................................34
5.3 Air sorting......................................................................................................35
5.4 Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy........................................................35
5.5 Hoopes process ............................................................................................36
5.6 Low temperature electrolysis.........................................................................36
6. RECYCLING CARBON COMPOSITES ..............................................................36
7. DISCUSSION .....................................................................................................39
7.1 Challenges in dismantling and recycling........................................................39
7.2 Maximising value recovery ............................................................................41
7.3 Recommendations ........................................................................................41
7.4 Conclusion ....................................................................................................42
7.5 Future Work ..................................................................................................43
8. References .........................................................................................................44
Appendix ................................................................................................................47

2
List of figures
Figure 1 - Value of aircraft as a function of age
Figure 2 - U.S. Domestic air travel, 1980-2003
Figure 3 - Survival of fleets as a percentage of deliveries
Figure 4 - Summary of the alloys that constitute the 737
Figure 5 - Percentage of alloying elements in different aluminium alloys
Figure 6 - Materials used in the 737 body
Figure 7 - Market share of composite materials
Figure 8 - Carbon composite revenue in US$ million in Aerospace and
Defence by sub segment
Figure 9 - Materials used in the 787 body
Figure 10 - Ecological hierarchy adapted to EOL aircraft
Figure 11 - Composition of the recycled aluminium
Figure 12 - AFRA Founding members
Figure 13- The layered structure of the 787 composite
Table of Abbreviations and Acronyms
Meaning
EOL End-of-life
EU European Union
AFRA Aircraft Fleet Recycling Association
PAMELA Process for Advanced Management of End-of-Life Aircraft
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
CFRP Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastics
EASA European Aviation Safety Agency
ELV End-of-Life Vehicle
REACH Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of
Chemicals
RoHS Restriction of the use of Hazardous Substances
ARN Auto Recycling Netherlands
LIBS Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation

3
ABSTRACT
Increasing environmental concerns and hiking fuel prices mean that aircraft
owners are looking to own aircraft with lowest possible fuel consumption. As
such, aircraft design is constantly evolving, particularly materials used. This
change in materials further complicates the problem of how aircraft in the
end-of-life phase should be treated. A few dismantling and recycling
techniques exist at present but they are not optimal for environmental
conservation and value recovery. This project studies these existing methods
and suggests ways in which they can be improved. The problems in
aluminium recycling and the treatment of cabin interiors are addressed and
potential solutions for these problems suggested. The use of carbon
composites in aircraft manufacture will also be studied to develop sustainable
end-of-life management of the composites and the aircraft as a whole.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Mr Timothy Jones for his support throughout
the duration of the project. The author also wishes to thank family and friends
who provided their support during the writing of this report.

4
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
In the 2013-2032 Airbus global market forecast, it is estimated that 8939
passenger aircraft will retire and Boeing’s current market outlook for the
same period predicts this figure to be 14580.
Van Heerden & Curran (2010) define an end-of-life aircraft as one that is
considered old and (almost) obsolete. There is an increasing need to reclaim
these aircraft in ways which are environmentally responsible while retaining
some of their value. However commercial aircraft are changing with
increasing environmental concerns and fuel prices. By trying to identify and
understand these changes, this project aims to set out ways in which these
challenges can be overcome, thereby improving the overall end-of-life
management of an aircraft, particularly its dismantling and recycling.
At the first instance, it is not hard to conclude how percentage change in
material types and their composition will greatly affect the processing
techniques and infrastructure required to separate and recycle parts of
obsolete aircraft effectively. This essentially makes the processing of end of
life aircraft a dynamic problem. Knowing what changes and how it changes
gives a better understanding of the challenges faced in the end-of-life phase
of an aircraft and how best to accommodate the dynamic nature of this
problem. This will sometimes be referred to as the end-of-life problem in this
report.

5
1.2 Scope
The report endeavours to cover not only the technical specifics associated
with the recycling management of end-of-life aircraft, but to also consider a
strategic approach to value recovery from these aircraft. A study of existing
problems in the end-of-life management of aircraft will be carried out. This
will encompass current management of traditional aircraft material and how
this can be improved.
Furthermore, the scope of this project will also cover the materials of aircraft
models, study the difference between them and how this affects the end-of-
life phase of the aircraft. Two specific models will be used as examples in this
study, namely the Boeing 737 and the Boeing 787. The 737 represents the
older aircraft, made mostly of aluminium, which are currently coming out of
service. On the other hand, the 787 represents more modern, recent aircraft
containing a high percentage of carbon composites. The project studies the
changes in composition of commercial aircraft and the challenges these
changes create at the end of the aircraft’s life. The author hopes to give
solutions to the problems posed by the changing materials and suggest ways
in which dismantling and recycling can be improved.
The study will give little consideration to the recycling of material in aircraft
engines and focus more on the rest of the airframe. This is because of
increasing popularity of engine leasing in commercial aviation which means
engines are usually returned to the manufacturer at the aircraft’s end-of-life.
(Davies, 2015) As such, they will not usually constitute the end-of-life
problem for aircraft owners.

6
1.3 Rationale
The air transport industry continues to grow as population grows and the
economy evolves. An increase in international trade and tourism also
generates a market for long distance travel. Air traffic results for the year
2015 have shown a 6.5% increase in the demand for air transport from 2014.
(IATA, 2016) As such, the ecological footprint of the industry will continue to
increase. It is imperative that the aviation sector increases its efforts to
reduce its ecological footprint.
There is already a problem in the aviation industry concerning how end-of-life
aircraft should be treated and this problem is made even bigger by the
introduction of new materials into the process. In order to encourage efficient
dismantling and recycling of aircraft, the processes should be economically
attractive, in order to attract investors to this industry. (Siles, 2011)
The project choice and its scope are driven by the need for solutions to the
end-of-life problem which are beneficial to both the environment and to
economy. This information will not only be useful to manufacturers in their
future designs, but will also be useful to aircraft owners as they will be able to
extract as much value as possible from their end-of-life aircraft. Governments
can also use this information to decide what environmental legislations they
will put in place in the aviation industry.
1.4 Aims and objectives
This project aims to suggest ways in which the aircraft end-of-life problem
can be addressed. The aim is to achieve a system of end-of-life management
which is both environmentally friendly and economically viable.

7
The objectives of this project are:
 Studying the challenges that industry currently faces with respect to
aircraft dismantling and recycling
 Suggesting ways in which these challenges can be overcome in order
to improve the entire process
 Addressing the use of composites in aircraft and suggest ways in
which these composites can be recycled at the end of an aircraft’s life
 Investigating tooling, technology, personal and environmental
protection involved in the overall process of dismantling and recycling
and suggesting ways in which they can be improved.
 Finding ways in which value can be recovered from aircraft cabin
interiors
1.5 Importance of aircraft dismantling and recycling
Leaving planes parked in boneyards (aircraft graveyards) is not only an
environmental risk but also risks unregulated dismantling of aircraft and
illegal resale of parts on the black market. Parts without proper tracking and
certification are very dangerous, especially in a sector like aviation where
safety concerns are very significant. This shows the importance of recycling
aircraft through legitimate channels.
Aircraft owners should consider the cost of storing aircraft in boneyards.
Depending on aircraft size, monthly fees for parking aircraft can range
between $2500-$3000 (£1731-£2000). (de Brito, et al., 2007) These are
expenses that can be avoided if the aircraft is recycled.

8
From governments’ perspective, it is beneficial to develop technologies in
dismantling and recycling of aircraft, as this will open an industry that will
provide sustainable job opportunities. Furthermore, recycling of aircraft will
reduce the adverse impact that the aviation industry has on the environment.
1.6 Methodology
This section describes the methods that the author employed during the
course of this project.
This project is management based; hence the entire project is based on
literature review and an intensive study of the commercial aircraft industry. It
is worth noting that limited work has been done in the field of aircraft
dismantling and recycling, hence academic literature on the topic is quite
limited. This provided a challenge in finding sufficient accurate data to aid
with an analysis. A lot of the information has been collected from news,
technical reports, dissertations, company websites and journals. During the
completion of the literature review, the author has collected a lot of
information relevant to aircraft dismantling and recycling. Research into
aircraft manufacturers, their websites and their market projections has also
been helpful to the author. It is hoped that from this text the author will be
achieve a better understanding of all relevant concepts.
The author has selected Boeing aircraft to be the focus of the study because
the manufacturer has been in operation for a much longer time than its top
competitor, Airbus. This provides the author with a broader timeline through
which to study the evolution of aircraft materials and their recycling methods.
Consequently, the two types of Boeing aircraft are chosen on the basis of

9
when they were first manufactured. The difference in time between these two
dates (1968 for the 737 and 2009 for the 787) allows for a significant change
in manufacturing principles, hence facilitating an in-depth study of the
changing compositions of materials.
Furthermore, the use of case studies was used in order to give the author a
better understanding of the end-of-life management of aircraft. The case
studies carried out are of the AFRA initiative and the PAMELA-LIFE project.
The case studies give an outlook on current practices, which in turn will help
the author to make any improvement suggestions.
Since data used for this report is secondary, it is useful to mention that a
certain level of bias may be contained in some sources reviewed by the
author. This stems from the theoretical nature of the topic; there aren’t many
experiments that back up the facts and a considerable amount of them are
from other authors’ opinions. In order to reduce this bias, the author has read
several sources on each concept, to get as many perspectives as possible
on each one.
Information from this study will be used to suggest ways in which the end of
life phase of aircraft can be improved.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
For decades, defunct aircraft have been parked in aircraft graveyards
(boneyards) despite the increasing demand for recycled aluminium, among
other materials. Most boneyards are located in the desert, where the dry heat

10
facilitates minimal rusting of the aircraft. In August 2009, 17.8% of aircraft
(4691 to be exact) were listed as parked globally. (Van Heerden & Curran,
2010) Parked aircraft may go back to active service, but most of them are
already in end of life status and they will never fly again.
In the aviation industry, pressure to involve in environmental efforts mainly
stems from competitive forces and customer pressure. As landfills close and
population continues to grow, waste management is becoming more and
more crucial. (Pohlen & Farris, 1992)
2.2 Aircraft lifespan
The two main causes of aircraft retirement are mechanical obsolescence and
economic obsolescence. Market conditions as well as the condition of the
aircraft itself determine whether an aircraft will remain in service. With time,
aircraft value depreciates as the cost of maintenance and repair increases.
The older the aircraft is, the more often it will require unscheduled
maintenance, and thus maintenance cost increases. For example,
maintenance of an aircraft in operation for 30 years will cost at least double
what it cost when the aircraft was 5 years old. (de Brito, et al., 2007) The
variable costs (include fuel, airframe maintenance, engine restoration etc.)
associated with maintaining a Boeing 737-200 are estimated at $8917
(£5929.84) per month. On the other hand, the maintenance costs of a newer
variation of the 737, the 737-600 are estimated at $6631 (£4409.20). (Anon.,
2015) This difference in cost can justify why an aircraft operator would want
to take the older aircraft out of service. This would fall under the aircraft’s
economic lifespan. The economic life of a plane depends on factors such as

11
the operator’s business model, fleet planning, local economic factors and
acquisition timing. (Jiang, 2013) Figure 1 below shows the typical
depreciation in value of an airframe with time. The index on the vertical axis
represents aircraft value.
Figure 1: Value of aircraft as a function of age (Towle, 2007)
In addition to this, reduced fuel consumption and customer satisfaction are
other factors that determine that aircraft should go out of operation. (Mascle,
et al., 2013) Several factors may affect air travel, such as economic
recessions, terrorist attacks and increases in oil prices. All these things can
reduce the volume of air travellers, hence shrinking airlines’ market. When
business goes down for an airline, it may not be profitable to keep its entire
fleet in operation; hence some aircraft are forced to retire early. Figure 2
below shows trends in U.S air travel from January 1990 to December 2003.
(The graph has been rotated to aid visibility) The y-axis shows the domestic
revenue passenger miles in the U.S with time in years on the x-axis. The red
line indicates a 12-Month moving average.

12
Figure 2: U.S. Domestic air travel, 1980-2003 (Ito & Lee, 2005)
As can be seen from the graph, there was a drop in air travel following the
1981 Air Traffic Controller’s Strike, the 1991 Gulf War and an even larger
drop following the September 11 terrorist attacks. 298 aircraft were parked in

13
the U.S during the period until December 2002, with US Airways parking
eight Boeing 737s and American Airlines parking five Boeing 767 in
November 2002. (Kumar, et al., n.d.)
It is difficult to quantify the lifespan of an aircraft because it depends on a lot
of different factors, but Boeing has found it to average more than 15 years in
most planes. (Jiang, 2013) Average survival curves for major single-aisle
passenger aircraft is illustrated in Figure 3 below. Average fleet age is
represented in the x-axis while the y-axis shows surviving fleet as a
percentage of total deliveries.
Figure 3: Survival of fleets as a percentage of deliveries (Jiang, 2013)
It can be seen from the graph that the lifespan of aircraft is quite variable. It
can be noted that the survival curves for the 707 follows a slightly different
trend from the later models. it can be deduced from this difference that
technological advances have impacted aircraft’s economic life.
Structure is an important factor that determines the lifetime of an aircraft.
Pressurisation cycles in particular affect the aircraft’s lifespan. During each

14
flight aircraft is pressurized and hence experiences fatigue. Inspection during
service life can detect defects that develop in the airframe.
2.3 Aircraft materials
The aviation industry contributes 2% to global man-made carbon emissions.
(ICAO, 2013) As such, manufacturers are constantly under pressure to
evolve their designs in order to increase aircraft’s fuel efficiency. Changing
the material composition is one of the main design methods that the
manufacturers are employing.
Aircraft manufacture makes use of materials ranging from low cost interior
materials to high performance alloys and composites. Aluminium alloys are
most commonly used in aircraft manufacture. They are typically produced in
the form of high-strength, low-density sheets by wrought processes. In
general, alloys used in aircraft fall into two categories, the 2XXX series and
the 7XXX series. Stainless steels, nickel, copper and titanium are also major
components used in aircraft manufacture. More often than not, aircraft alloys
contain grain-refining elements like Chromium, Zirconium and Vanadium in
small quantities of approximately 0.1% (or less). (Das & Kaufman, 2007) In
the older models, aluminium is the major material while composites are
becoming more prevalent in the newer models. (Mascle, et al., 2013)
The Boeing 737 was first produced in 1966. As of March 2016, a total of
8845 deliveries of 737’s had been made. (Brady, 2016a) Boeing has
delivered several variations of the 737. The 737-200 entered service in April
1968. Production of this particular variation has stopped but 1114 were built.
The aircraft is made mostly of aluminium alloys. Different areas of the aircraft

15
use different types of alloys depending on the material characteristics
required. For example, landing gear beams would require a very tough alloy
with a very high tensile strength. Below is a table (Figure 4) which
summarises the aluminium alloys that make up the 737-200.
Component Aluminium Alloy
Fuselage skin, slats, flaps 2024
Frames, stringers, keel and door beams, wing ribs 7075
Bulkheads, window frames, landing gear beam 7079
Wing upper skin, spars and beams 7178
Landing gear beam 7175
Wing lower skin 7055
Figure 4: Summary of the alloys that constitute the 737 (Brady, 2016b)
The different alloys listed in Figure 4 above each have different compositions,
which are shown below in Figure 5.
Elements
Alloy
Zn Mg Cu Mn Cr Fe Si
2024 - 1.5 4.4 0.6 - 0.5* 0.5*
7055 8.0 2.05 2.3 - - 0.15* 0.1*
7075 5.6 2.5 1.6 - 0.23 0.4* 0.4*
7079 4.3 3.2 0.6 0.2 0.15 0.4* 0.4*
7178 6.8 2.8 2.0 - 0.23 0.5* 0.4*
7175 5.6 2.5 1.6 0.1 0.2 0.2* 0.15*
Figure 5: Percentage of alloying elements in different aluminium alloys
(Starke & Staley, 1996)
There are components that are not made out of aluminium alloys. The
radome, tail cone, centre and outboard flap track fairings are made of
fiberglass. The engine fan cowls, inboard track fairing, nose gear and doors
are Kevlar. Graphite is used to make the rudder, elevators, ailerons, and

16
spoilers, thrust reverser cowls and the dorsal of vertical stab. Figure 6 below
gives a summary of the percentages of the materials in the 737.
Figure 6: Materials used in the 737 body (adapted from Lee, et al., 2010)
2.3.1 Carbon composites in aviation
The use of composites allows the physical properties to be tailored to
different applications by combining characteristics of the different constituent
materials. The aerospace industry is one of the largest markets for
composites, with 20% of composite applications being in this sector. (Yang,
et al., 2012) Figure 7 below shows a breakdown of composite materials in the
European market.

17
Figure 7: Market share of composite materials (Yang, et al., 2012)
Furthermore, commercial aircraft provide the largest market for composites
within the aerospace industry. 60% of the revenue generated in aerospace
from composites is in the commercial aircraft segment, as illustrated in Figure
8 below.
Figure 8: Carbon composite revenue in US$ million in Aerospace and
Defence by sub segment (Holmes, 2014)
The use of composite materials in aerospace is only expected to increase,
since they may allow a weight reduction of 40-60% in the aircraft. (Ye, et al.,

18
2005) Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastics (CFRP) are the predominant types
used in aerospace applications.
Despite the benefits that come with the use of composites, industry’s ability
to recycle carbon fibre materials is still very constrained. However, with all
the composite use in aerospace, aircraft owners cannot continue to send
their waste composites to landfill as this is a serious environmental hazard.
Another downside to the use of carbon fibre in reinforcement is it costs an
estimated ten times more than using glass fibre instead. (Gosau, et al., 2006)
The cost of manufacturing virgin carbon fibre is between £10 and £20 ($15-
$30 per pound of material and the energy consumption is between 25 and
75kWH. (Yang, et al., 2012).
50% of the 787’s airframe and primary structure is made out of advanced
composites, and this percentage is greater than that in any previous Boeing
commercial airplane. (Boeing, 2015) This move to a more composite
structure was not only meant to reduce weight, but was also expected to
reduce both scheduled and non-routine maintenance burden on airlines. The
decrease in scheduled maintenance stems from the fact that composites
have less risk of corrosion and fatigue in comparison with metal. Aluminium
makes up 20% of the airframe. Figure 9 below gives a pictorial
representation of materials used in the construction of the 787

19
Figure 9: Materials used in the 787 body (modernairliners.com, 2015)
Boeing uses polymer-matrix composites in the 787, mainly an epoxy-matrix
which integrates carbon fibres. (Lu & Wang, 2010) The material employs a
thermoplastic toughener in an interlayer between the epoxy layers, giving it a
thick laminate structure. (McConnell, 2010)
2.4 Management in aircraft end-of-life
There are several bodies and individuals who are involved in and affected by
the end-of-life management of aircraft. Aircraft manufacturers are major
stakeholders as their designs have a direct effect on the complexity of the
end-of-life problem. During initial design, manufacturers should consider what
will happen to the aircraft at the end of life because some complex designs
can reduce recyclability rate. (Asmatulu, et al., 2013) This is applicable as
well to other original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) involved in the supply
chain such as engine manufacturers. Airliners and aircraft owners also play a
big role in this industry. The management of their aircraft at the end-of-life
phase is of great importance as it has direct effects on not only their profits,
but their corporate social image.

20
Governments are responsible for environmental protection and as such, can
pass regulations which dictate how end-of-lie aircraft will be treated.
Regulatory bodies such as EASA which specify safety requirements and
certify airworthiness of aircraft can also determine when an aircraft is taken
out of service. Aircraft dismantling and recycling companies are the obvious
stakeholders in this sectors in this sector.
Cost factors involved in the end-of-life phase of an aircraft are transportation
costs, cost of skilled workers, investment in innovative technologies, time and
required databases. (Keivanpour, 2015)
2.5 Comparison with other industries
This section outlines the end-of-life management in different sectors,
particularly the automotive industry. This is meant to illustrate that the
aviation sector is lagging behind with respect to recycling and the end-of-life
management of its products. Different industries have put directives in place
for the environmentally friendly end-of-life management of their products. In
Europe, the End-of-Life Vehicle Directive and the Waste Electrical and
Electronic Equipment legislations aim to improve how industries deal with the
waste they produce, with the former being for cars and the latter for domestic
household appliances. In aviation, however there is no such legislation and
aircraft owners and manufacturers do not have any regulations on how to
design or deal with their end-of-life aircraft, particularly how to design an
aircraft that meets legitimate end-of-life requirements. (Van Heerden &
Curran, 2010) The ELV legislation was introduced in 2000 in Europe.

21
In the EU, about 11.3million vehicles are deregistered each year and of
these, 7.6million are recycled. (de Brito, et al., 2007) In the Netherlands,
automotive recycling is financed by a dismantling fee which is charged to
every new car buyer. In 2007, this fee was €10 for each vehicle. (de Brito, et
al., 2007) The ARN (Auto Recycling Nederland) is the body in charge of end-
of-life vehicle recycling. According to ARN, 82% of a vehicle by weight is
recycled and 3% of it used in energy recovery. (de Brito, et al., 2007) In the
U.S., 95% of all automobiles at the end-of-life stage are likely to be recycled.
(Kumar & Sutherland, 2009)
A method has been determined by the International Standards Office (ISO) to
evaluate the performance of the recycling of automobiles and the efficiency
of the process. In this model, the reused components and recycled materials
are expressed as a percentage of the total vehicle’s mass in order to
calculate recyclability rates. They have not, however, defined a similar model
for measuring performance within the recycling of aircraft. (Van Heerden &
Curran, 2010)
2.6 Ecological hierarchy
This section analyses the possible options for management of end-of-life
aircraft. It analyses, from an environmental point of view, which options would
be better. It is worth noting that environmental best practice does not always
coincide with maximum value recovery. As such, aircraft owners often have
to make a trade-off between minimising their ecological footprint and
recovering some value from their end-of-life aircraft. The ecological hierarchy
is adapted from the ladder of Lansink, which specifies end-of-life activities

22
according to their friendliness to the environment. Figure 10 below shows the
pathway that can be used to ensure the least damage is made to the
environment when dealing with end-of-life aircraft. Environmental friendliness
decreases from the left to the right hand side of the diagram. The sub-
categories have the most sustainable options at the top.
Decreasing environmental friendliness
Figure 10: Ecological hierarchy adapted to EOL aircraft (adapted from
Van Heerden & Curran, 2010)
At the top of the hierarchy is the refurbishment and reuse of aircraft while
maintaining its same function. As seen from an end-of-life perspective, this is
the most beneficial to the environment as no new materials are invested into
the production of a new aircraft.
Many of the components in aging aircraft can be recovered before
dismantling, recycling or disposal. These can then be reused on other
aircraft, for example engines, landing gear, electronic motors, in-flight
End-of-
life
aircraft
Reuse
Refurbish and
reuse for
same
purpose
Use aircraft
for different
purpose
Reuse
specific
components
on other
aircraft
Reuse of
components
for different
function
Recycling
Retain quality
of material
Obtain a
lower quality
material
Recovery
Incineration
with energy
recovery
Disposal
Incineration
without
energy
recovery
Landfill

23
entertainment systems, aerofoils, pumps and avionics. The engines are
generally the most valuable components of an aged aircraft; in some cases,
they can even constitute up to 80% of the value recovered from it.
Heat energy can be recovered from incineration of any carbon-containing
materials. The heat energy can be used to generate electricity or for other
functional applications. This is not one of the best options because the
carbon dioxide produced during the burning contributes to the aviation
industry’s carbon footprint, something this project is aimed at reducing.
As a last resort the materials from the aircraft are disposed of either by
incineration without energy recovery or by landfill.
3. CURRENT HANDLING IN EOL PHASE
It is difficult to define a set method by which end-of-life aircraft are
management. This is because different aircraft owners will choose different
routes for their end-of-life aircraft. Several different companies offer services
for the management of end-of-life aircraft and each one does things
differently. The option taken by the owners will often be determined by the
route with minimal losses. In some cases, corporate social responsibility will
push companies to choose the more environmentally friendly option.
According to Asmatulu et al. (2013), Bombardier was the first original
manufacturer to introduce operations in aircraft dismantling. As such, in 2010
Bombardier received dismantling certification from AFRA. The company
disassembled CRJ100/200 jets for refurbishing and some of their parts were
taken for use in other different companies.

24
In addition to this, some different companies also provide services at the end
of life stage of an aircraft. These services include decommissioning, disposal,
dismantling and material research. ASI (Air Salvage International),
WINGNET, BARTIN AERO RECYCLING, AELS (Aircraft End-of-Life
solutions) and TARMAC AEROSAVE are some of these companies.
A generalised process in the dismantling and recycling of an end-of-life craft
will normally occur in these stages: decontamination, disassembly and
dismantling, recycling and component management. This process is
described below.
3.1 Decontamination
This is the removal of hazardous materials from the aircraft. ICAO (2015)
outlines a sequence for decontamination which is as follows. Firstly, the
hazardous materials are identified and classified. The next step is
identification of removal methods and all associated risks. The hazardous
materials are then removed and treatment for each one is selected. This
procedure is all in an effort to reduce overall environmental impact, while
ensuring maximum safety for all workers involved. Hazardous materials are
classified as liquid, gas and solid, with the solid ones being the easiest to
handle. The liquids are more difficult to control. In aircraft, jet fuel, turbine oil,
waste water and hydraulic oil are examples of the liquid materials. Solid
materials include batteries, smoke detectors, mercury lamps, and
contaminated filters. Fire extinguishers and oxygen and nitrogen cylinders
are the gases.

25
Environmental risks associated with decontamination are soil, water or air
contamination, spills explosions and fires. There are also health risks for
workers, risks of accidents during the process and the risk of incorrect
storage procedures. Cost of the decontamination process is a major
challenge. There are also technological challenges involved with the process.
3.2 Disassembly
This is the parts removal stage. Engines, seats, landing gear, reactors, side
walls, carpets, luggage bins, ceiling panels and all non-metallic components
are removed. It is at this stage that all reusable parts are removed, re-
certified and reintroduced into the market. (Keivanpour, et al., 2015) The
engines are the first to be removed. They are inspected then returned to the
manufacturer in most cases, although depending on the results of the
inspection they may be fitted on other aircraft or stripped down for parts.
3.3 Dismantling, recycling and component management
At this stage the airframe is dismantled, the materials are transported to
recyclers and components are reintroduced into industry. Industrial wrecking
machines shred the fuselage into metals parts which are sent off to the
recyclers. The metal is a mixture of aluminium, zinc and magnesium alloys.
At the recyclers, eddy current machines are used to sort the metal in order to
isolate the aluminium.
It is preferable to pre-sort aerospace alloys before they are shredded, in
order to ensure the highest possible quality of recycled aluminium is
obtained. A practical technique in dismantling is to separate component
groups with the same alloys, such as grouping the wing upper skin, spars

26
and beams together since in the case of the 737 are all made from the same
alloy. Through this type of separation, all non-aluminium components may be
removed before any shredding occurs, thereby reducing the amount of
impurities in the alloys. Availability of records from the manufacturers which
help identify the component materials can be useful in making the
dismantling process easier.
3.3.1 Re-use of recycled aluminium alloys
Recycled aluminium can be used to manufacture components in new aircraft.
However, due to the composition, it would have to be used for components
which are not fracture critical, such as flaps. Components which are designed
on the basis of fracture mechanics concepts should be built from primary
metal.
Typically, an aircraft does not contain a lot of non-critical components; hence
the demand of the metal in this application may not be enough to justify the
re-use of the recycled metal. As such, it is useful to consider applications
outside of the aerospace industry, such as aluminium alloy castings. Another
application is as a deoxidising agent in steel production. It is useful to note
that this application is only possible for aluminium with high iron proportions
of iron in it. (Asmatulu, et al., 2013)
2XXX alloys, when recycled, gives rise to metals high in copper, magnesium,
manganese and silicon while metal from 7XXX alloys will contain high
amounts of zinc, copper and magnesium. If prior to the recycling process the
components were sorted according to 2XXX and 7XXX alloys, then the

27
resultant alloys will have a typical composition as that shown in Figure 11
below.
Constituents
Alloys
Al Cu Fe Mg Mn Si Zn Others
2XXX 93 4.4 0.5 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.1 0.2
7XXX 90 2.0 0.4 2.5 0.2 0.2 6.0 0.2
Figure 11: Composition of the recycled aluminium ( (Das & Kaufman,
2007)
Aluminium manufacture is very energy-intensive because of the Bayer step
(electrolysis). If the aluminium is directly recovered and reused, 90% of the
initial energy is cut down, thereby reducing consumption of raw materials.
The primary production of aluminium consumes about 45 kWh for every
kilogram of the metal produced. On the other hand, production of aluminium
by recycling will only consume about 2.8 kWh per kilogram of metal.
Moreover, only 4% as much carbon dioxide is emitted when recycling, as
opposed to primary production. (Das & Kaufman, 2007)
3.3.2 Cabin interiors
Presently, cabin furnishings are not recyclable, except the aluminium in the
seat frames. As such, they are either sent to landfill or incinerated. Recycling
of plastics and fibres is currently costlier than sending them to landfill.
Considering the fact that cabin furnishings range in weight from 5 tonnes for
a 737 to 10 tonnes for a 747, it is important to consider other end-of-life
options which are friendlier to the environment. (Fitzsimons, 2011) Airlines
will typically schedule cabin upgrades, during which all cabin interiors are

28
replaced, every 10 years. (Towle, 2007) All the waste from this cannot
continue to be landfilled as this is increasingly becoming expensive.
Cabin furnishings consist of several materials and most of them are either
plastics or polymer-based composites. It is difficult to identify and distinguish
between the organic, metallic and the composite materials because all the
materials are used in close combination. Another difficulty is that materials
used in aircraft manufacture have properties that are particular to the
aerospace industry due to rigorous requirements like fire retardation.
Establishing a market for the recovered materials which maximises value
recovery is also a major challenge.
Used seats can be sold to different airliners or individuals for reuse. Air
Support, a French company that sells second-hand seats sold approximately
1,200 passenger seats in 2010. (Fitzsimons, 2011) However, the market has
far less demand than it has supply, so other options need to be explored.
Recycling of the carpets is already proving to be a viable option. As part of its
Take Back program, Desso (a carpet manufacturer) has already started a
carpet recycling project in collaboration with KLM. In 2014, 39 tonnes of
KLM’s carpets were recycled in this program. (AIRFRANCE KLM, 2014)
Another company, Delta and Mohawk Aviation Carpet, launched its ReCover
programme in 2007 under which it collects used carpets from airliners for
recycling. (Fitzsimons, 2011) However, due to lack of regulations in the
aviation industry, airliners are under no pressure to recycle their carpets and
most of them are sent to landfill.

29
Repurposing of the seats is also an option but is very uncommon and is
usually done by aircraft enthusiasts who can turn them into a home or office
chair for example. The aluminium seat frames are removed and recycled
along with the aluminium from the airframe.
4. CASE STUDIES
4.1 The AFRA initiative
The Aircraft Fleet Recycling Association (AFRA) is an international
association and accreditation body which represents the aircraft recycling
industry. Best known for salvaging and recycling components from aging
aircraft, it is dedicated to ensuring end of life airplanes are managed in an
environmentally responsible way. It also focuses on improving the life-cycle
of all aircraft by maintaining and reselling reliable airplanes and returning
them to service. (Mascle, et al., 2013) AFRA was officially launched in 2006
by Boeing. It is a coalition formed to improve end-of-life management of
aircraft. Boeing itself had no intention of recycling the aircraft but only meant
to facilitate for an organisation that would develop a code of conduct for the
management of end-of-life aircraft. The association brought companies from
both Europe and the U.S. into collaboration. These companies specialise in
different fields, including aircraft disassembly, salvaging parts and recycling
of materials. The scope of AFRA’s work encompasses storage of aircrafts
that are not in service, refurbishment of aircraft that could still go back into
service and management of parts from aircraft. It also includes recycling of
the materials that cannot be serviced or directly reused. (Towle, 2007) AFRA

30
is fully industry funded. The founding members of AFRA and their respective
fields of expertise are illustrated in the table in Figure 12 below.
Founding member Field
Adherent Technologies Composite technology, Recycling
Air Salvage International Disposal, Parting out, Dismantling
Bartin Recycling Group Disposal, Parting out, Dismantling
Boeing Aircraft Manufacture
Châteauroux Air Centre Storage, Disposal, Parting out, Dismantling
Europe Aviation Parting Out, Spares, Aircraft Interiors
Evergreen Air Centre Disposal, Parting out, Dismantling
Huron Valley Fritz West Disassembly, Salvaging, Recycling
Milled Carbon, Ltd Material research
Rolls Royce Engine Manufacture
WINGNet/ Oxford University Material Research
Figure 12: AFRA Founding members (AFRA, 2016)
4.1.1 Aims and Objectives
AFRA’s main aim is to develop a code of conduct for retired aircraft
management. (Boeing, 2007) Its goal is to introduce more effective
management of end-of-life activities in aviation. This is manifested in its
provision of an integrated fleet management process to aircraft owners.
(Coppinger, 2006) AFRA aims to improve quality of recycled materials, and
expand markets for these recycled materials both within and out of the
aviation industry. One of the consortium’s goals is to encourage continual
cooperation between its members with regards to technical and managerial
improvements.
4.1.2 Operations
Membership in AFRA is entirely voluntary and open to all companies who are
willing to show that they meet the criteria for membership. The board of
founding members is responsible for approval of membership applications.

31
The consortium offers one or both of two possible accreditations to
companies depending on their expertise, particularly disassembly and
recycling. A guide of best management practice for management of used
aircraft parts and assemblies for recycling of aircraft materials has been
published by AFRA as a guide to all members on how they should operate.
All accredited companies have to be audited to ensure that they comply with
the best management practices (BMP). (AFRA, 2016) The BMP handbook
states all requirements from AFRA; system requirements, facility
specifications, inventory accounting and audits, documentation and records
and parts and removal management.
The author takes a brief look at some of the operations of a few AFRA
members.
Canadian aerospace company Bombardier Aerospace received a
dismantling certification in 2010 from AFRA. In the same year, the company
disassembled 10 CRJ100/200 jets, from which 1500 reusable parts were
salvaged. (Keivanpour, 2015)
Marana Aerospace Solutions, formerly known as the Evergreen Air Centre, is
one of AFRA’s founding members. It is located at a storage field in the
Southern Arizona desert in the U.S. The storage field, which was established
in 1975, accommodates more than 400 aircrafts and dismantles between 24
and 48 of these each year. (de Brito, et al., 2007)
4.1.3 Results
AFRA’s membership rose to over 30 companies from 8 countries within it first
year of operation. (Boeing, 2007) By 2010, it had grown to 41 members, who

32
scrapped an estimated 30% of the world’s end-of-life aircraft. (McConnell,
2010) Since its establishment in 2006, AFRA has contributed to 2000 aircraft
being returned to the market. (AFRA, 2016) These are all aircraft that would
have otherwise been parked indefinitely and probably never returned to
service.
4.2 PAMELA
4.2.1 Introduction
Boeing’s competitor, Airbus launched the PAMELA (Process for Advanced
Management of End-of-Life-Aircraft) Life Project in 2006 with the aim of
recycling aircraft parts in order to protect the environment. It was initiated at
Tarbes Airport in France. SITA (a waste management company), EADS
(European Aeronautic Defence and Space), Sogerma Services and Hautes-
Pyrénés Prefecture were the partners involved in the PAMELA project. Unlike
Boeing, which did not directly involve itself in AFRA’s activities, AIRBUS was
directly involved in the separation and identification of aircraft parts during the
project. The main difference between the AFRA and PAMELA projects was
that Airbus was controlling the process, while Boeing was collaborating with
the partners. (de Brito, et al., 2007)
4.2.2 Aims and Objectives
The PAMELA project’s main objective was to demonstrate that 85-95% of
aircraft components could be recycled, reused or recovered. Furthermore,
the project would pioneer the environmentally friendly end-of-life
management in the aviation industry. It was established to test

33
environmentally friendly methods by which to recycle and dispose of end-of-
life aircrafts. (de Brito, et al., 2007) Another one of the goals was to enhance
eco-efficiency of aircraft and institute new ideals for green management in
the end-of-life phase of aircraft. (McConnell, 2010) Airbus also meant to use
this project to weigh the costs and benefits of recycling the materials and
components of aircraft. The project was also aimed at preventing the trade of
aircraft parts and materials on the black market.
4.2.3 Funding
PAMELA was a €3.3million project and the European Union’s LIFE
(l’Instrument Financier pour l’Environment) programme provided 47% of the
funding for it while the other 53% was industry funded. (Turner, 2006;
Coppinger, 2006)
4.2.4 Operations
The first experiment was on an A300B2-200 which had served 53489 flight
hours from the year 1982. (Coppinger, 2006) The structure of this particular
model consisted of 77% aluminium and 4% composites by weight. (de Brito,
et al., 2007) The PAMELA project did not, however, include aircraft engines.
4.2.5 Results
PAMELA confirmed that as much as 85% of the dry weight of an aircraft can
be recovered for recycling. (Mascle, et al., 2013) Asmatulu et al. (2013) noted
that PAMELA defined three steps which constitute the dismantling process,
namely decommissioning, disassembly and final draining of the systems.
Decommissioning involves cleaning, draining tanks and several safety

34
procedures. Removal of equipment and parts from the aircraft is the
disassembly. In the final draining, hazardous materials are removed and the
aircraft is deconstructed.
The efforts of the PAMELA project resulted in the formation of TARMAC
Aerosave, a joint venture company set up at Tarbes Airport. TARMAC was
established with the aim of further developing the dismantling and recycling
technologies from the project and advancing them to an industrial level.
(McConnell, 2010)
5. SORTING TECHNIQUES
The purity of recycled aluminium is compromised by presence of silicon,
magnesium, zinc and other alloying elements. Thermodynamic obstacles
make it difficult to remove these unwanted elements from the metal.
(Gaustad, et al., 2012) It is imperative to determine ways in which this purity
may be improved, in order to produce aluminium of highest quality. A
common method currently used is dilution with primary-produced aluminium.
This section investigates potential sorting techniques which can be applied.
5.1 Eddy current separation
This method exploits the differences in conductivities of each type of metal in
the mixture. Eddy current separation is already used in aluminium recycling
and does not produce the desired purity level.
5.2 Magnetic sorting
This method is used to separate ferrous component from the non-ferrous
ones. (Gaustad, et al., 2012) Steel and some iron are pulled away from the

35
scrap by magnets. A limitation to the use of this method is that it does not
remove other non-ferrous contaminants like zinc, magnesium and copper.
5.3 Air sorting
In this method. suction is used to pull light-weight materials from the
shredded scrap, such as plastic, rubber and foam. (Gaustad, et al., 2012)
Metals can be separated by feeding material through a column with air
pushing upwards. In this case, the lighter metals move upwards and the
heavy ones collected at the bottom. However, the smaller, lighter pieces of
aluminium may be lost during this process, resulting in wastage.
5.4 Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy
Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) is a laser-based technique
which is a method of atomic emission spectroscopy (AES). The technique
uses a pulsed laser beam and optical emission to analyse a substance.
(Gaustad, et al., 2012) A pulse laser is activated when a sensor detects a
specific material. The material evaporates when radiation energy is locally
coupled into it, hence a plasma is generated which excites the material
constituents and they spontaneously emit radiation. Element-specific
radiation is emitted when the plasma decays. A spectrometer detects and
resolves this emission. (Noll, 2012) Das & Kaufman (2007) suggest that if
LIBS is scaled up enough to handle large aircraft components, it could be
useful in the sorting of aircraft alloys. It is a technique which can be used to
determine elemental composition of materials in real-time. LIBS would have
an advantage over other methods because it has potential for high speed

36
and volume. (Gaustad, et al., 2012) However, for optimal operation, there
must be no paint, coatings or lubricants in the coating.
5.5 Hoopes process
In this three-layer electrolytic process, scrap aluminium is added to an
aluminium copper alloy anode. The cathode is made of purified aluminium.
The Hoopes process requires a lot of energy (17-18kWh/kg) and as such
would not be the most economically beneficial method of separation.
(Gaustad, et al., 2012)
5.6 Low temperature electrolysis
An ionic liquid electrolyte is formed from anhydrous aluminium chlorides. The
anode is the aluminium sample that requires purification. The cathode is
made of pure aluminium or copper. This method can remove manganese,
silicon, copper, iron, zinc, nickel and lead, and is known to produce
aluminium of 99.89% purity. (Gaustad, et al., 2012)
6. RECYCLING CARBON COMPOSITES
Due to technological and economic constraints there are very limited
recycling operations for aerospace composite materials. (Yang, et al., 2012)
The reinforcement on the composites and the matrix or binders make it
particularly difficult to recycle them. At present, there is a very limited
availability of waste composites. In comparison with non-composite polymers
metals, production of composites is relatively small. Moreover, it will take at
the very least 10 years for the composites used in aircraft or automobiles to

37
return for recycling. As such, there is limited availability for waste composites
for economically viable recycling. (Yang, et al., 2012)
There are plenty of existing methods to recover carbon fibre from simple
carbon composites which consist of monolithic fibre-reinforced materials.
However, these methods are not applicable to the advanced composites that
are used in aircraft manufacture. (Gosau, et al., 2006) One of these methods
is pyrolysis, which is thermal decomposition of the polymer at temperatures
between 750 and 950°C. The use of pyrolysis as a recycling technique for
CFRP was attempted in the mid-1990s by research company Adherent
Technologies Inc (ATI). However, the company’s Energy Programs Manager
revealed that they came to a decision that pyrolysis was not the optimal
recycling process for CFRP. (McConnell, 2010) Single step pyrolysis requires
high temperatures, which in turn result in oxidation of the material. Vacuum
pyrolysis, despite preventing oxidation and other adverse chemical reactions,
leaves a layer of ash on the surface of the composite material. This ash (or
char) is undesirable as it hinders good interaction between carbon fibre and
resin matrix, hence producing a weak composite. (Gosau, et al., 2006)
Composites from the automobile industry can be ground into fillers which can
be used in moulding of new composites. This, however, when applied to
high-performance composites such as those used in aerospace, the
expensive fibres are devalued.
Figure 13 below shows the structure of the composite used in the Boeing
787.

38
Figure 13 The layered structure of the 787 composite (Gosau, et al., n.d.)
With the lack of adequate recycling methods, the greater proportion of scrap
composites are sent to landfill, and a few are either incinerated or ground into
fillers. It is not optimal to continue sending all scrap carbon composites to
landfill. Furthermore, there is a chance that bans may be placed on this due
to environmental regulations.
Like most other materials removed from aircraft, the composites are rarely
pure and often contain contaminants such as polyethylene backing, paints,
sealants and metals. As such, the need to pre-sort in order to remove these
contaminants makes finding a solution even harder. Vacuum pyrolysis is
effective in handling contaminants but as mentioned before, results in an
undesirable ash.
ATI has studied the use of high temperature wet-chemical processes as a
recycling method. Upon testing, it was seen that the obtained material
reached 99% purity despite showing 10% less mechanical strength in
comparison with the virgin material. (Gosau, et al., 2006) However, on a
large-scale this method seems very costly. The process conditions are a
temperature of over 300° and a pressure of 500 PSI and since these

39
conditions are atypical in chemical processing, custom equipment is required.
(Gosau, et al., 2006) A low temperature wet-chemical process would be
unable to process some types of impurities.
Boeing has been working with technology firms to discover opportunities in
composite recycling. Tests for this project have been carried out using
composite manufacturing scrap from the 777 and the 787. The tests have
shown that carbon fibres in the CFRP (Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic) can
be recovered and recycled.
7. DISCUSSION
There is a high chance that a directive similar to the ELV Directive will be
introduced into the aerospace industry. In anticipation of this, all stakeholders
in the industry should begin to contribute to developments in the end-of-life
management of aircraft. Governments must force aircraft owners to recycle.
(from an environmental perspective) The author has found that the material
composition of aircraft continues to evolve due to demanding requirements in
the industry. The use of composite materials is of particular interest, as the
review of literature reveals that it will only increase. As such, it is imperative
to suggest ways in which recycling of composite materials can be developed.
High costs of virgin carbon fibre mean that a lot of industries would benefit
greatly from use of recycled carbon fibre instead.
7.1 Challenges in dismantling and recycling
The field of dismantling and recycling of end-of-life aircraft already faces
several challenges. Through a review of literature and an analysis of the case
studies, the author was able to determine some of these challenges.

40
The distinctive properties of aerospace aluminium alloys have caused
recycling in aviation to lag behind, in comparison with automotive
applications and packaging, where the recycling of aluminium has become
attractive economically.
Since the only directives which force the aviation industry to become more
environmentally friendly are the REACH (Registration, Evaluation,
Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals) and RoHS (Restriction of the use
of Hazardous Substances), manufacturers’ designs are mostly influenced by
the market itself. This creates a challenge in that manufacture and material
selection does not necessarily take into consideration the end-of-life
management of the aircraft. Another challenge this creates is that industry
lacks motivation to further develop recycling technology for end-of-life
aircraft. The automotive industry in the EU, for example has been forced by
ELV directive to develop recycling and recovery technology. On the other
hand, in aviation any such developments by organisations are entirely
voluntary. As such, the urgency with which these technologies are developed
is much less in aviation. At present, aircraft owners are under no legal
obligation to recycle their aircraft. Furthermore, as value recovered from
recycling is very minimal, they have no financial incentive to recycle.
In addition to this, the increased use of composite materials in aircraft
manufacture makes the end-of-life problem an even more complex one. As
yet, no economically viable methods of CFRP have been introduced into the
industry. The issues with large scale recycling of composites remains
unresolved.

41
The complexity of cabin interiors is also a problem which means recycling
them is very costly.
7.2 Maximising value recovery
Aircraft owners can recover value from their end-of-life aircraft through
parting out and recycling. The most valuable parts are the engines, avionics,
landing gear and rotable parts. The high-quality alloys that make up the
airframe could also be valuable. Cost of recycling aircraft is often more than
the value recovered, hence aircraft owners have no incentive to recycle their
aircraft. The absence of any government regulations does nothing to better
the situation. From an environmental perspective, governments should
introduce regulations that will force aircraft owners to recycle.
Recovery of aluminium is especially beneficial since use of secondary
aluminium is more conservative than use of primary aluminium manufactured
using bauxite. The quality of the recycled aluminium, however, is not
compliant with material requirements in aircraft manufacture, hence it has to
be used for other applications. However, to increase quality of recycled
aluminium, and consequently value recovered, improved separation
techniques should be employed.
7.3 Recommendations
It is imperative to consider personal and environmental protection when
developing technologies for end-of-life management for aircraft.
Contamination of the environment must be avoided as this not only
counteracts the green efforts of recycling, but could incur charges from
environmental protection agencies.

42
Separation methods must be improved in aluminium recycling. The author
suggests Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy and low temperature
electrolysis as the best methods. This is because they provide the highest
possible purity, and the products may be reused in aircraft manufacture.
Investment in composite recycling technology must be increased.
Governments should introduce legislations that accelerate innovation in this
field such as a ban on landfilling, or a landfill quota.
Manufacturers should consider recyclability in their designs. Designs should
have least possible complexity, without compromising safety of course. This
will help reduce the complexity of the end-of-life problem It is recommended
that material identification tags be introduced by manufacturers. This could
be in the form of barcodes. Obviously, tagging of critical components might
be considered risky.
7.4 Conclusion
In anticipation of an end of life directive, all stakeholders in aviation should
focus on improving the dismantling and recycling of aircraft. The purpose of
this project was to suggest ways in which this could be done. Through an
extensive literature review and the case studies of AFRA and PAMELA, the
author was able to identify problems within the field of dismantling and
recycling of commercial aircraft. These are the impurity of recycled
aluminium, the difficulty in composite recycling and cabin interior treatment.
The project has suggested ways in which the field can be improved.

43
7.5 Future Work
There is a considerable amount of work and research that can still be done
following this project. This includes further research on tagging methods
which will aid in component identification at the end of life. Further research
can be done to determine more efficient ways to recycle CFRP.

44
8. References
AFRA, 2016. Aircraft Recycling: About AFRA. [Online]
Available at: http://www.afraassociation.or/AboutUs.cfm
[Accessed 21 April 2016].
AFRA, 2016. Aircraft Recycling: AFRA Accreditation. [Online]
Available at: http://www.afraassociation.org/bmpaccreditation.cfm
AIRFRANCE KLM, 2014. AIRFRANCE KLM Corporate Social Responsibility
Report. [Online]
Available at:
http://www.airfranceklm.com/sites/default/files/publications/afklm_radd_2014
_uk_dp.pdf
Anon., 2015. Aircraft cost evaluator. [Online]
Available at: https://www.conklindd.com/CDALibrary/ACCostSummary.aspx
[Accessed 16 December 2015].
Asmatulu, E., Overcash, M. & Twomey, J., 2013. Recycling of aircraft: State
of the art in 2011. Journal of Industrial Engineering, pp. 1-8.
Boeing, 2007. Aircraft & Composite Recycling (2007 Boeing Commitment
Update). Boeing Environmental Technotes, December, 12(1).
Boeing, 2015. Boeing: 787 Dreamliner. [Online]
Available at: http://www.boeing.com/commercial/787/
Brady, C., 2016. Boeing 737 Orders and Deliveries. [Online]
Available at: http://www.b737.org.uk/sales.htm
Brady, C., 2016. Boeing 737 Production. [Online]
Available at: http://www.b737.org.uk/production.htm
Coppinger, R., 2006. Scrap Value. [Online]
Available at: https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/scrap-value-206891/
Das, S. K. & Kaufman, J. G., 2007. Recycling aluminium aerospace alloys.
Journal of Light Metals, pp. 1161-1164.
Davies, H., 2015. A new look engine leasing market. [Online]
Available at: http://mro-network.com/opinion/2015/07/new-look-engine-
leasing-market/5759

45
de Brito, M. P., van der Laan, E. A. & Irion, B. D., 2007. Extended Producer
Responsibility in the Aviation Sector, Rotterdam: Erasmus Research institute
of Management.
Fitzsimons, B., 2011. Seconf life. Aircraft Interiors International, September,
pp. 58-64.
Gaustad, G., Olivetti, E. & Kirchain, R., 2012. Improving aluminum recycling:
A survey of sorting ad impurity removal technologies. Resouces,
Conservation and Recycling, Volume 58, pp. 79-87.
Gosau, J. M., Wesley, T. F. & Allred, R. E., 2006. Integrated Composite
Recyling Process. Dallas, s.n.
Gosau, J., Wesley, T. F. & Allred, R. F., n.d. Carbon fiber reclamation from
state-of-the-art 2nd generation airraft composites, Albuquerque: Adherent
Technologies Inc.
Holmes, M., 2014. Global carbon fibre market remains on upward trend.
Reinforced Plastics, 58(6), pp. 38-45.
IATA, 2016. Demand for Air Travel in 2015 Surges toStrongest Result in Five
Years. [Online]
Available at: http://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Pages/2016-02-04-01.aspx
[Accessed 12 March 2016].
ICAO, 2013. 2013 Enironmental Report, s.l.: International Civil Aviation
Organisation Environment Branch.
ICAO, 2015. ICAO Global Aviation PArtnerships on Emissions and
Reductions. Montreal, s.n.
Ito, H. & Lee, D., 2005. Assessing impact of the September 11 terrorist
attacks on U.S. airline demand. Journal of Economics and Business, 57(1),
pp. 75-95.
Jiang, H., 2013. Key fiindings on Airplane Economic Life, s.l.: Boeing
Commercial Airplanes.
Keivanpour, S., 2015. An Integrated Approach to Value Chain Analysis of
End of Life Aircraft Treatment, s.l.: Universitè Laval Ph.D.
Keivanpour, S., Ait-Kadi, D. & Mascle, C., 2015. End of life aircrafts recovery
and green supply chain (a conceptual framework for addressing opportunities
and challenges). Management Research Review, 38(10), pp. 1098-1124.
Kumar, N. et al., n.d. The Economic Impact of September 11, 2001 on the
Aviation Industry, Seattle: The University of Washington.
Kumar, V. & Sutherland, J. W., 2009. Development and assessment of
strategies to ensure economic sustainability of the U.S. automotive recovery
infrastructure. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 53(8), pp. 470-477.

46
Lee, S., Choi, B. & Feijóo, R. S., 2010. Frontiers of Assembly and
Maufacturing. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Lu, B. & Wang, N., 2010. The Boeing 787 Dreamliner: Designing an Aircraft
for the Future. Journal of Young Investigators.
Mascle, C., Keivanpour, S. & D, A.-K., 2013. Toward a strategic approach to
end-of-life aircraft recycling projects: A research agenda in Transdisciplinary
context. Journal of Management aand Stability, 3(3), pp. 76-89.
McConnell, V. P., 2010. launchingthe carbon fibre recycling industry.
REINFORCEDplastics, March/April, pp. 33-37.
modernairliners.com, 2015. Boeing 787 Specs, what makes a Dreamliner?.
[Online]
Available at: http://modernairliners.com/boeing-787-dreamliner/boeing-787-
dreamliner-specs
[Accessed 15 December 2015].
Noll, R., 2012. Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy. Berlin: Springer-
Verlag.
Pohlen, T. L. & Farris, T. M., 1992. Reverse logistics in Plastics Recycling.
International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, 22(7),
pp. 35-47.
Siles, C., 2011. AIDE À LA DÉCISION POUR LA GESTION, Montreal:
UNIVERSITÉ DE MONTRÉAL.
Starke, E. A. & Staley, J. T., 1996. Application of modern aluminium alloys to
aircraft. Progress in Aerospace Sciences, 32(2-3), pp. 131-172.
Towle, I., 2007. The Aircraft at End of Life Sector: a PReliminary Study.
[Online]
Available at: http://users.ox.ac.uk/~pgrant/Airplane%20end%20of%20life.pdf
[Accessed 12 February 2016].
Turner, A., 2006. Airbus goes greener with airframe recycling project.
[Online]
Available at: https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/airbus-goes-greener-
with-airframe-recycling-project-205699
Van Heerden, D. J. & Curran, R., 2010. Value Extraction from End-of-Life
Aircraft. In: Encyclopaedia of Aerospace Engineering. s.l.:John Wiley & Sons
Ltd, pp. 3715-3719.
Yang, Y. et al., 2012. Recycling of composite materials. Chemical Engieering
and Processing: Process Intensification, Volume 51, pp. 53-68.
Ye, L., Lu, Y., Su, Z. & Meng, G., 2005. Functionalized composite structures
for new generation airframes. Composites Science and Technology, 65(9),
pp. 1436-1446.

47
Appendix
Below are the Gantt charts used by the author for the management of the
project.

Final Dissertation

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Viewers also liked

Viewers also liked (13)

Similar to Final Dissertation

Similar to Final Dissertation (20)

Final Dissertation