This document discusses birthing practices in prehistoric times and identifies several criteria that were likely followed to maximize the chances of a successful birth, based on an analysis of birthing practices across cultures and time periods. Specifically, it argues that prehistoric groups would have focused on thermal regulation of newborns, designating a specific birthing location, providing support and companionship during birth, allowing mobility for the birthing woman, attention to pre- and post-natal environments, and incorporating rituals and symbols into the birthing process. The document examines the physiological and psychological importance of each of these criteria based on research on traditional birthing practices and the needs of newborns and birthing women.

1. Birthing in prehistory
Emer OÕ Donnell
Finders University of South Australia, Sturt Road, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
Received 11 September 2003; revised 19 September 2003
Available online 27 February 2004
Abstract
The means by which women in prehistory may have attended to their birthing requirements is not generally con-
sidered in archaeological theory and methodology. In this paper I examine the process of pregnancy and birth and
define a number of pre-requisite needs known to maximise the potential for a successful birth. A number of criteria are
identified which appear to be global, transcending socio/cultural mores. This paper outlines a methodological approach
to the identification of this human life event from an archaeological perspective.
Crown copyright Ó 2004 Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Since primitive peoples lack the scientific knowledge
upon which modern medicine is based, the correspon-
dence between many primitive customs and modern
practice may seem extraordinary. Actually, however, this
correspondence is not surprising, for it is the result of
many thousand years of wrestling with lifeÕs problems.
The customs of primitive people are the product of an
unbelievable amount of experimentation. . . The present
day customs of each society thus represent the net result
of all that its members have learned about the art of liv-
ing (Ford, 1964, p. 88).
Our first upright shuffle across the savannah, some
seven million years ago, set in motion a chain of evo-
lutionary adaptations which have made us arguably the
most innovative species on earth (Price and Brown,
1985; Schick, 1993). From that initial step it is evident
that hominid species did not stay put. They travelled
thousands of miles and experienced vastly diverse cli-
matic variations in the course of their travels. They
reached an extremely cold Europe, and faced an even
more critical need for thermal regulation than their an-
cestors on the savannah.
The varying climatic and environmental conditions
(Guiot, 1997) experienced by ancient and modern hu-
mans as they reached northern latitudes not only po-
tentially affected their viability throughout their entire
life cycle (Ainsworth Harrison, 1993), it may have in-
spired alternative modes of adaptation to survive
(Noble and Davidson, 1996). However, though bene-
ficial in many respects, these adaptations also poten-
tially introduced a broader spectrum of pathologies
which directly impinge on the health of the young and
vulnerable.
This paper reflects on the requisite needs of a par-
ticular group of Upper Palaeolithic humans from a
theoretical and archaeological perspective. These are
birthing women and their infants. This aspect of human
negotiation is not central to archaeological research. The
concept that active control and negotiation of the birth
process may have occurred during the course of human
evolution is of recent origin (Trevathan, 1997). That
such negotiation could be reflected in material evidence
as early as the Upper Palaeolithic has rarely been in-
corporated in archaeological discourse, or in the inter-
pretation of material evidence. This omission may be
due to the perspective that as the process of birth is
ostensibly organic; evidence relating to its negotiation
does not exist. However, with regard to hominid dis-
persal to colder climates thermal regulation becomes a
critical factor for a significant duration in maintaining
the health of birthing woman and newborn infants (for
E-mail addresses: emer61@yahoo.com.au, emero_donnell@
hotmail.com.
0278-4165/$ - see front matter. Crown copyright Ó 2004 Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2004.01.001
Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23 (2004) 163–171
www.elsevier.com/locate/jaa

2. reasons I will outline in this paper). It may also be
central to situating birthing women in a defined spatial
location, potentially rendering them visible from an ar-
chaeological perspective.
The Upper Palaeolithic period of south western Eu-
rope is considered from this perspective as it is in this
region that cultural complexity becomes evident from at
least 30,000 years ago (Gamble, 1986; Wenke, 1984).
Though Neanderthal and modern human groups shared
this area for a significant period of time (Zilh~ao et al.,
1999; Shreeve, 1995), the cultural complexity evidenced
from modernsÕ allows for a more detailed overview of
potential adaptations regarding birth. As this paper is
theoretically based, the methodology, though outlined,
is still being refined.
The increase of modern human populations during
the Upper Palaeolithic indicates (among other factors)
that women gave birth successfully and consistently
throughout this period and ensured the viability of their
newborn infants. Though demographic success may
have resulted from a number of factors; successful
birthing and postnatal care of newborn infants com-
pensated more than adequately for deaths due to age,
illness or injury, thus ensuring the continuation and
expansion of modern humans. Surviving evidence sug-
gests that the Neanderthal groups, as a distinct and
separate population no longer exist. However, it is also
evident that they occupied parts of modern day Europe
for approximately 200,000 years and survived significant
and intense climatic fluctuations during this time (Jor-
dan, 1999; Mellars, 1996). The duration of their exis-
tence and the success with which modern humans
adapted to the environment with demographic success
suggests some form of behavioural adaptation in the
manner in which both groups prepared for birth.
Nonetheless, when comparing and contrasting ma-
terial evidence related to Neanderthal and modern
groups, it is clear that difference exists, most particularly
in the realm we define as culture. Human to human
communication was maximised and symbolised in
modern groups, while in Neanderthal groups the evi-
dence remaining does not indicate cultural complexity.
Coincidentally (or not), symbolic expression first ap-
pears during a climatic downturn (Gamble, 1986; Mi-
then, 1991). It also peaks during a subsequent cold spell.
These climatic conditions may have necessitated in-
creased inter-group communication to ensure survival.
Such conditions may also have precipitated new forms
of action and innovation within human groups to ensure
their own survival. These conditions also potentially
affect, in a critical manner, birthing women, and their
newborn infants.
In a prehistoric context, demographic constraints are
not solely based on successful parturition. Differential
fertility, nutritional factors, disease, and conflict are
among the factors which directly impinge on group
viability. However, the ramifications of obstetric prob-
lems are also potentially significant factors in the
maintenance of any group system (Hassan, 1981). Death
in the negotiation of birth is not instantaneous. It may
be painful and protracted, and extremely difficult to bear
witness to. For example, an obstetric complication such
as placenta praevia can occur (where placenta obstructs
the opening of the birth canal). This causes extensive
haemorrhaging which is fatal to woman and infant. If
the pelvis is proportionately small in comparison to the
foetal skull dimensions, the result can be fatal. If the
birthing woman is inadequately nourished it may nega-
tively affect her ability to birth successfully. If portions
of the placenta are retained, sepsis may occur which can
prove fatal. Injury or illness during the course of preg-
nancy may also result in an obstetric dilemma. Unhy-
gienic conditions during the postpartum period can
result in puerperal fever, which is potentially lethal.
Adverse temperatures can directly and pathologically
affect newborn infants.
If we allow Upper Palaeolithic groups the same range
of emotions that we are capable of, the ramifications of
even one such death in a season may have had far
reaching consequences. In this Upper Palaeolithic con-
text, the loss of a woman in the negotiation of birth also
represents the loss of a contributive group member
(Ehrenberg, 1989). Such loss may also jeopardise the
future of any previous children she may have had. Those
who may have had some emotional attachment to the
woman will also be affected. The manner in which she
died may have an immediate effect on other women
within the group, whether they had birthed or not.
Confronted with the reality of what can go wrong, and
the potentially extensive and protracted pain involved
prior to death, the process of birth could have embodied
significant meaning for women in this context. It may
also have inspired them to employ mechanisms to ensure
the best possible outcome in the face of this uncertain
life event. Relethford notes that Ôreproductive behav-
iours are associated with learning, intelligence, and
adaptive social behavioursÕ (Relethford, 2000, p. 176).
Negotiating this life event is, doubtless, a strong moti-
vation to adapt, adopt, and create mechanisms that
maximise the potential for a successful outcome.
This is the case in technologically advanced con-
temporary systems as, even with vast developments in
obstetric and surgical techniques; the element of uncer-
tainty inherent in the birthing process continues to re-
main a recognised part of its dynamics. Within these
systems preparation for birthing involves a considerable
amount of pre and post-natal care. These mechanisms
also exist in historial and traditional systems (Cressy,
1997; Jordan, 1993; Priya, 1992; Kioke, 2000). Such
extensive attention realistically provides the optimum
base from which to negotiate an uncertain event.
Moreover, their duration is extremely significant. Such
164 E.O. Donnell / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23 (2004) 163–171

3. rites are not purely confined to the hours or days of the
actual birth process. They span virtually a year in the life
of a pregnant and birthing woman. Attention to pre and
post-natal needs are consistently reflected in rites, ta-
boos, symbolic structures, and material culture in vari-
ous levels throughout the world (Jordan, 1993;
Laderman, 1982). In this manner the pregnant body is
inscribed with meaning and such meaning is recognised
by the group of which she is part.
In addition to this, when traditional, historical and
contemporary medicalised birthing systems are exam-
ined from a physiological and psychological perspective,
a pattern of criteria begins to appear. Often enmeshed in
socio-cultural rites and beliefs, which form part of their
negotiation, they embody real and significant physio-
logical, and psychological benefits. They are also re-
flected in material evidence surrounding the birth
process. On closer examination, a number of these cri-
teria are so solidly locked in place that, though fractured
during the transferral of birthing systems from home to
hospital, medical systems are returning to them. This is
because no comparable alternatives, however carefully
structured, are even closely adequate. If these criteria
can be clearly defined to provide a testable Ôframework,Õ
it may be possible to reflect on the negotiation of birth
from an Upper Palaeolithic context.
Based on interdisciplinary research, on various as-
pects of parturition, I found that the following criteria
are attended to with considerable regularity to maximise
the potential for a successful outcome during birth.
Emphasis on one, or another, rests predominantly on
cultural or social mores, and sometimes on climatic
conditions. Exceptions are rare. They are adopted and
adapted to incorporate:
1. Thermal regulation to ensure the viability of the new-
born infant.
2. A defined spatial location.
3. Support and companionship.
4. Mobility in order for the birthing woman to negotiate
the process.
5. Attention to the pre and post-natal environment.
6. Ritual and symbolism in the psychological negotia-
tion of the process.
(1) Thermal regulation. Stringent attention to the
thermal regulation of the neonateÕs environment, par-
ticularly if there is no skin-to-skin contact between wo-
man and infant is essential (Hamilton, 1999). Research
indicates that there is some level of seasonality in the
timing of birth, particularly in colder environments
(Russell et al., 1993). Based on an examination of reg-
istration of births in Scotland (which included over four
million entries) the authors found that birth rates tend to
peak in spring/early summer (a wide peak) and again in
October (a narrow peak). In addition to this, the effect of
cold on pregnant women is also considered to have some
effect on the weight of neonates (Murray et al., 2000).
Consistently, cold conditions during the post-natal
period can be pathological to a neonate, who lacks the
capacity to shiver and whose efforts to thrive are severely
hampered by cold (Beischer et al., 1997; Turner et al.,
1988). BabiesÕ fat stores are quickly used in their attempt
to regulate their temperatures. When this happens, it is
at the cost of neonatal development. In the effort to
maintain a viable temperature, the infant will not gain
weight successfully, and will not develop as quickly as it
should. If attention to the thermal environment is not
adequate, the result is fatal for a newborn. Ideally,
newborn infants should maintain a core temperature of
at least 36 °C. If the infantÕs core temperature is between
32 and 36 °C, this is classed as moderate hypothermia. If
core temperature falls below 32 °C an infant is regarded
as having severe hypothermia (Ellis et al., 1996).
Ethnographies of birth consistently indicate a heat/
cold dichotomy related to the pre and post-natal envi-
ronment that reflect attention to the thermal needs of the
newborn (Jordan, 1993; Priya, 1992). Though the socio/
cultural rites, rituals and meanings attached to this as-
pect of birthing are many and diverse, its physiological
necessity remains constant, and is always attended to in
some manner.
(2) Spatial location. A defined spatial location is
perhaps the most distinctive hallmark of all birthing
systems (Cressy, 1997; Ford, 1964; OÕDonnell, 2002;
Steer and Flint, 1999). This location may be simply de-
marked by a screen or may have been deliberately
structured for precisely this event. Such deliberate choice
of a birthing area immediately situates the birthing
woman in a manner that provides her with the oppor-
tunity to incorporate all of the other criteria mentioned
above. Within this place apart she can access the support
and companionship of birthing attendants, she is able to
move and adopt birthing positions that maximise pelvic
expansion, she can control her immediate environment
and the temperature within it, and she can utilise rituals,
symbols and charms that provide not only a focus, but
psychological support throughout the process. Signifi-
cantly, the potential for thermal regulation is also en-
hanced.
The use of a place apart by birthing women addresses
the fundamental physiological need to control potential
sources of stress during the birthing process. Compara-
tive analysis with other birthing mammals clearly indi-
cates the detrimental effect of environmental stresses
ranging from noise, excessive light, overcrowding, in-
terference, or the presence of a stranger have on the
successful negotiation of birth (Macfarlane, 1977;
Martin, 1992; Naaktgeboren, 1990; Newton, 1987). The
experience of stress triggers an endocrinological reaction
in all humans (Lovallo, 1997). If environmental stress is
experienced during birthing, the endocrinological
response halts the dynamics of birth temporarily (Na-
aktgeboren, 1990). This real and necessary physiological
E.O. Donnell / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23 (2004) 163–171 165

4. reaction in the face of a perceived threat allows a
birthing woman the opportunity to escape the stressor
by removing herself to a more peaceful environment. If
labour is in the later stages the physiological reaction
brought about by stress causes a rapid conclusion to the
birth process, for the same purpose (Newton, 1987).
Therefore, despite rare exceptions, a defined and exclu-
sive spatial area is fundamental to the successful nego-
tiation of birth.
(3) Support and companionship. A further female-
centred response to stress has recently been defined.
From comparative analysis with other mammals, Taylor
et al. (2000) observed that in times of stress females tend
to build an attachment with other females, networking
with them for their mutual benefit, minimising their
exposure to stress. The authors suggest that such a re-
sponse may be endocrinologically based, adapted from
an evolutionary perspective for its obvious benefits.
Though this finding has not been directly related to the
birthing process, support during the stresses of birth is
now recognised as an intrinsic part of its negotiation
(Hodnett, 2000; Steer and Flint, 1999).
From a contemporary, obstetric viewpoint, the
problems affecting the physical and psychological health
of birthing women in technicalised systems, which were
not allowed access to such support, has led to a vast
corpus of research. Its benefits are tangible, ranging
from a lower incidence of surgical intervention, less
need for pain relief and improved post-natal psycho-
logical maternal health (Kitzinger and Davis, 1978;
Matlin, 1987; Rollins, 1996; Wagner, 1997). Essentially,
the support of another human being in the negotiation
of an uncomfortable, painful, and possibly frightening
event is of considerable comfort and embodies long-
standing benefits to woman and infant. There is also a
didactic element incorporated in such support, which is
particularly relevant in the case of first time birthing
women.
Historically, the support given to birthing women
was from other women who had themselves experienced
birth (Paige and Paige, 1981). This female-to-female
interaction is fundamental to virtually all traditional
birthing systems. Trevathan (1997) suggests that the
evolved female pelvic structure, couple with a corre-
sponding increase in the dimensions of the foetal skull
may also have contributed to the initiation of this sup-
port structure evident in ancient and present day birth-
ing systems.
(4) Mobility. Ethnographic research indicates that
during labour women adopt a number of positions to
alleviate pain and discomfort. During the actual birth
women overwhelmingly choose some form of upright
and forward leaning posture (Ford, 1964; Jordan, 1993).
This position is ideal from a physiological perspective.
Due to the evolutionary development of the human
pelvis a baby has to rotate on its way through the birth
canal in order to negotiate birth. This is the only means
by which it can actually navigate the female pelvic cav-
ity. Therefore, the physical position adopted by birthing
women during this negotiation has an impact on the
success of this transition. By being in an upright posi-
tion, ideally with arms raised above the level of the
waist, a woman is positioned to allow her pelvis to ex-
pand to its maximum extent, expediting the passage of
the baby. In contrast, the use of the lithotomy (lying flat)
position, once prevalent in medicalised systems, is
known to slow the birth process, seriously affect the
circulatory and pulmonary system of a birthing woman,
and is potentially lethal to the unborn infant (World
Health Organisation, 1996).
(5) Attention to the pre and post-natal environment.
Care of the pre and post-natal environment is also
paramount to the continued health of woman and child.
The immediate birthing environment must be main-
tained and access to the birthing woman must be strictly
regulated to avoid the possibility of infection or disease.
Beischer et al. (1997) outline the vulnerability of the
post-natal woman and infant due to the nature of the
labour process itself. Through trial and error, the high
rate of maternal mortality due to puerperal fever in the
last Century was sourced to unhygienic hospital condi-
tions and inadequate attention to this aspect of birthing
(Jordan, 1993). It is not surprising that for humans and
many other birthing mammals an intrinsic part of the
negotiation of birth involves careful preparation of the
birthing environment some time before the actual event
itself (Naaktgeboren, 1990), and continued maintenance
of the birthing environment for some time after. Ethn-
ographies of birth consistently record the attention given
to the pre and postnatal environment, aspects of which
may embody ritual of some type (Hart, 1965; Jordan,
1993; Laderman, 1982). Fundamentally, the continued
and lasting health of woman an infant relies on main-
taining this environment and excluding potential sources
of infection, which includes person-to-person transferral
of disease. The alternative is potentially pathological to
woman and child.
(6) Ritual and symbolism. Ritual and symbolism re-
lating to the entire process of pregnancy and birth is
recognised as providing significant psychological sup-
port in negotiating this life-event to the extent that the
World Health Organisation has included specific refer-
ence to its use in its Guide to Care in Normal Birth: A
Practical Guide (1996). Ritual relates to the ingestion of
particular foods, the avoidance of particular foods,
places or people, the use of charms and the wearing
of amulets, the use of particular locations imbued
with meaning related to pregnancy and birth, the
construction of symbols, the avoidance of certain types
of clothing or tasks, and so on. All forms have the sin-
gular purpose of attempting to ensure a safe pregnancy
and birth. The sharp instrument used for cutting the
166 E.O. Donnell / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23 (2004) 163–171

5. umbilical cord is often considered of symbolic signifi-
cance and is therefore disposed of, or retained according
to custom, as is the cord. Similar attention is given to the
removal and disposal of the placenta (Beausang, 2000;
Priya, 1992). The post-natal care of woman and child
incorporates ritual again related to a heat/cold dichot-
omy, the ingestion of particular foods, the marking of
the birth, the eventual naming of the infant and the re-
turn of the birthing woman to the larger community of
which she is part.
This use of ritual in the negotiation of birth cannot
be over-estimated. Even within modern medical systems
the entire process is heavily ritualised, though it can be
argued that ritual in this case often emphasises the sys-
tem over the birthing woman as central to the process
(Robertson, 1999). Irrespective of the emphasis, the
pregnant and birthing body becomes socially, culturally
and ritually ascribed with meaning from the perspective
of the birthing woman, and from those who come in
contact with her (Marshall, 1999). The ostensibly cor-
poreal experience of birth is, in reality, a complex mesh
of human action and interaction, involving intrinsic and
extrinsic negotiations (Thiele, 1999). As gender and
feminist studies have demonstrated, the human body is
not reducible to a given formula (Crowley and Himm-
elweit, 1992; Gatens, 1996; Grosz, 1994). The highly
evolved, complex human brain ascribes kaleidoscopic
meaning to human corporeality. The process of birth
similarly embodies a vast range of meanings and sig-
nificance and ritualised actions and interactions form a
fundamental part of its negotiation.
From an evolutionary perspective, this use of ritual
in the negotiation of pregnancy and birthing may have
initiated from the basic patterning of the human mind
that strives to find meaning and connection in the ne-
gotiation of significant life experiences. Gosden observes
that the body Ôis the focal point of all levels of experi-
enceÕ (Gosden, 1999, p. 130). Ritual generates a sense of
order through which meaning is ascribed to corporeal
experience. In addition to this, the transposition of self
as a meaningful part of a larger universe can be effected
through ritual, and through symbolic gesture which in
turn, serves as a psychological defence, particularly in
the face of an uncomfortable, often painful, and po-
tentially hazardous life event. (Pyszczynski et al., 1997).
Therefore, thoughts of mortality in the negotiation of an
event such as birthing can be controlled and accounted
for by this means.
What relevance do these observations have in the
context of archaeological research? Given the proven
necessity for the above mentioned criteria in the suc-
cessful physiological negotiation of birth, their consis-
tent application cross/culturally, globally, historically
and within a contemporary context, these criteria may
potentially be sought in prehistoric systems also. Fur-
thermore, most of these criteria are tangible. To apply
this methodology, I have considered the most easily
adaptable spatial areas available to modern human
groups during the Upper Palaeolithic period in the south
of France. These are the south-facing caves and rock
shelters in the region. While a number could certainly
incorporate many of the criteria shown to expedite the
birth process this aspect of their potential use is not
definitive of all sites.
Methodology to identify potential birthing areas
Thermal regulation to ensure the viability of the newborn
The problem of controlling and maintaining tem-
peratures to ensure the viability of a newborn infant is a
critical factor in the negotiation of birth during the
Palaeolithic in Europe and even more so during the
Upper Palaeolithic. Given the climatic conditions which
deteriorated between 40,000 and 10,000 years ago, this
need for a place apart had to be mediated in some
fashion. Irrespective of season, however, the need for
neonatal thermal regulation should potentially situate
birthing areas in sites that offer maximum protection
from the elements. Theoretically it is possible that a
number of caves and rock shelters may have been
adapted for this purpose.
Suitable caves and rock shelters potentially embody
considerable thermal advantages with a minimum of
modification, a significant factor in the context of glacial
Europe. For example, caves not only provide shelter
from the elements; they can also retain an annual mean
temperature beyond approximately 10 m from their en-
trance (Collins, 1976). Therefore, if external tempera-
tures fall to )20 °C, within the cave temperatures may
remain at 18 °C above zero, a critical factor in main-
taining the life of a neonate. The temperature differential
required to sustain the life of a newborn is considerably
lessened in such an environment.
Rock shelters, like caves absorb solar radiation and
provide significant shelter with some adaptation. In both
cases, south facing sites are optimum locales from this
perspective, many of which occur in the south west re-
gion of France (White, 1980). As a result, this region
provides a potential testing area for this methodology.
Though caves and rock shelters may provide signifi-
cant advantages, they are also prone to currents of air.
Caves in particular tend to Ôbreathe,Õ as air is displaced
due to their morphology and variability in size. There-
fore, particular areas in both of these locations would
have to be chosen with care. In the former case, side
chambers or alcoves are potentially viable, as they pro-
vide additional protection from draughts and can be
modified through the use of hangings/constructed
windbreaks. Selected rock shelters may also bear evi-
dence for such modification. The presence of a hearth
E.O. Donnell / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23 (2004) 163–171 167

6. within or closely proximate to these areas may further
indicate that efforts were made to maintain consistent
temperatures.
From an archaeological perspective these areas
within selected caves may contain evidence for such
modification and may contain evidence of hearths.
A defined spatial location
The proven need for a place apart during birthing
additionally situates birthing women within a defined
spatial location. In the context of the evolved group
dynamics and access to resources evident in Upper
Palaeolithic Europe, this consideration had to be medi-
ated in some fashion.
From an archaeological perspective, potential birth-
ing areas in caves and rock shelters would be closely
proximate to group habitation sites, or may be flanked
by them. Proximal location to the main habitation
group is logical when one factors in the presence of
carnivorous animals in this region during the Upper
Palaeolithic period; the need for support and compan-
ionship for a birthing woman; the need to ensure the
safety of previous children (which may be hers or those
of her companion) and the need to access group re-
sources. Evidence for the presence of children may be
evident in areas closely proximate to this chosen site in
the form of footprints, for example.
Support and companionship
The need for support in the negotiation of birth is
also relevant to the spatial domain of birth. The chosen
area must be expanded to include the presence of an-
other or others. I can only estimate the maximum
number of people allowed within this area as to my
knowledge no research on this aspect of birthing exists.
The use of caves and rock shelters immediately provides
a three dimensional spatial area for this purpose with
minimal modification.
Mobility
This spatial location must allow for a degree of
mobility to expedite the birth process. An upright and
forward leaning posture is known to expedite the
birthing process, but such mobility must take into ac-
count the mobility of support companions also and the
need for an element of space in the maintenance of this
site. Certain areas within caves and rock shelters, by
their very structure, provide this facility.
Attention to the pre- and post-natal environment
The proven need to maintain the pre and post-natal
birthing area to ensure the health of a birthing woman
and her infant may be difficult to decipher from material
evidence, particularly in view of the period in question
(the Upper Palaeolithic). However, given the necessity to
maintain the pre and post-natal environment, the pres-
ence of large number of lithic tools or bones would
contradict the real and fundamental necessity to main-
tain a birthing site free from sources of disease or in-
fection.
Therefore, though potential birthing areas may bear
evidence of use, material evidence would be significantly
less in comparison to habitation sites. This would be due
to the specialised use of this area coupled with the ne-
cessity to maintain it. The dispersal of remains or micro
remains may be suggestive of site maintenance (Tani,
1995). Pollen analysis within these areas may indicate
traces of Flora within this spatial location that had an-
algesic, antiseptic or absorbent properties, and which
may have been used for bedding.
The use of ritual and symbolism
Finally, the consistent and global use of ritual and
symbolic structures pertaining to the negotiation of
pregnancy and birth may also be present within these
areas. Specific tools may, for instance, have been de-
posited in a manner that suggests ritual disposal. They
may have been marked in some manner symbolically.
Symbolic motifs may also occur in this area. For ex-
ample, some may be placed in a manner difficult to
view from an upright position, but accessible from a
crouching position. Others may be position in a
manner that demarks or frames the entrance to this
area, indicating some form of specialised use. Some
may be situated within this spatial area. These sym-
bolic motifs may bear evidence for repeated renewal as
such a defined location could have been used by a
number of birthing women (though not simulta-
neously).
Discussion
This concept of a place apart during the negotiation
of birth touches on an alternative interpretation of a
proportion of Upper Palaeolithic symbolism. It is clear
that interpretations of Upper Palaeolithic symbolic
motifs are many and varied. It is also accepted that the
placing of motifs and representations is deliberate and
premeditated (Conkey, 1981; Leroi-Gourhan, 1982).
The negotiation of a potentially hazardous life-event
such as birthing could be incorporated within these in-
terpretations, particularly if these symbolic structures
occur within a spatial area that fulfils the other criteria
of a birthing locale.
Current theories of corporeality perceive the body
and mind as an integrated and highly complex unit
168 E.O. Donnell / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23 (2004) 163–171

7. enmeshed with socio/cultural influences (Gatens, 1996;
Grosz, 1994; Marshall, 1999). They argue that there
can be no clear cut definition separating mind from
body, particularly from the sexed body. Though from
birth we are consistently influenced by numerous and
diverse influences, these influences must first navigate
our sexed bodies and our intimate perceptions of
ourselves. We are motivated in part by our physio-
logical needs (Foley, 1991). For example, the physio-
logical need for food motivated the desire to hunt,
gather and create technologies to facilitate this. The
physiological need for warmth, particularly in an ice
age climate, is a strong motivator to seek or construct
shelters. The physiological need for a constant supply
of drinking water may have been a primary factor in
choosing the location of these shelters. Over time the
maintenance of these needs has become heavily socially
and culturally inscribed as they are intellectually ne-
gotiated.
Though pregnancy and birth appear as physiological
processes, their negotiation also involves similar intel-
lectual energy. It is another factor in the motivation of
human adaptation and in the construction and evolution
of technologies and cultural systems. The use of a place
apart in the negotiation of birth is a physiological and
psychological necessity of the birth process and, when its
significance is appreciated and recognised, this place
apart can provide a locus from which to examine female
corporeal, ritual, and symbolic strategies. For example,
the fundamental human propensity to express meaning
and connection evident in symbolic structures is gener-
ally accepted. As the negotiation of birth is a recognised
life event that embodies an element of the unknown, the
quest for meaning and connection in its psychological
negotiation may be greatly amplified. The creation and
maintenance of symbols may have served to reduce
anxiety, fulfil the expectation of relief or provide some
anticipation of success, all significant aspects of the ne-
gotiation of birth (Charlton, 1998). The inherent ele-
ment of uncertainty in birthing is a strong motivator to
anticipating this event and preparing for it long in ad-
vance.
This paper attempts to provide a preliminary meth-
odology for the examination of archaeological sites from
the perspective of birthing needs. Though further re-
finement is doubtless needed, theoretical consideration
of this vital aspect of human negotiation is extremely
relevant to archaeological research. Without consistent
and continuous success in the negotiation of birth, all
other aspects of human negotiation are indeed moot.
Serious consideration of the negotiation of pregnancy
and birth from an evolutionary context could also pro-
vide further indications of behavioural development.
From an Upper Palaeolithic context further research
may potentially reflect alternative aspects of human in-
novation and adaptation in what is regarded as a cul-
turally complex group system. From either perspective,
the negotiation of birth should be considered with the
same rigour and attention given to other aspects of
human negotiation (Davies, 2001), for example, the
transition from puberty to adulthood. This life event
(that could be viewed as a purely biological transition) is
also referred to in the interpretation of Upper Palaeo-
lithic material evidence (e.g. Owens and Hayden, 1997).
Cross-cultural rites related to this negotiation are stud-
ied in detail and reflected on from an Upper Palaeolithic
perspective, despite the fact that no ÔorganicÕ evidence of
this transitory life event exists. Nonetheless, symbols,
technologies and artefacts are ascribed meaning related
to this negotiation based on its perceived and accepted
significance to the maintenance of group systems. I
suggest that a life altering, intense and possibly life
threatening negotiation such as birth can also be equally
reflected in the spatial, symbolic and material remains of
the distant past, if we accept this possibility.
References cited
Ainsworth Harrison, G., 1993. Physiological adaptation. In:
Harrison, G.A. (Ed.), Human Adaptation. Oxford Univer-
sity Press, pp. 55–71.
Beausang, E., 2000. Childbirth in prehistory. European Journal
of Archaeology 3 (1), 69–87.
Beischer, N.A., Mackay, E.V., Colditz, P., 1997. Obstetrics and
the Newborn: an Illustrated Textbook. W.B. Saunders,
London, Philadelphia, Toronto, Sydney, Tokyo.
Charlton, B.G., 1998. Psychopharmacology and the human
condition. JRSM 91, 599–601.
Conkey, M., 1981. A century of palaeolithic cave art. Archae-
ology 20 (8), 1–9.
Collins, D., 1976. The Human Revolution: From Ape to Artist.
Phaidon Press, Oxford.
Cressy, D., 1997. Birth, Marriage, and Death: Ritual, Religion
and the Life-Cycle in Tudor, and Stuart England. Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
Crowley, H., Himmelweit, S., 1992. Knowing Women: Femi-
nism and Knowledge. Polity Press in association with Open
University.
Davies, W., 2001. A very model of modern human industry:
new perspectives on the origins and spread of the Aurigna-
cian in Europe. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 67
(2001), 195–217.
Ehrenberg, M., 1989. Women in Prehistory. British Museum
Publications.
Ellis, M., Manandhar, N., Shakya, U., Manandhar, D.S., de
Fawdry, A.L., Costello, A.M., 1996. Postnatal hypothermia
and cold stress among newborn infants in Nepal monitored
by continuous ambulatory recording. Archives of Disease in
Childhood and Neonates 1996 75 (1), 25f–42f.
Foley, R.A., 1991. Introduction: investigating the origins of
human behaviour. In: Foley, R.A. (Ed.), The Origins of
Human Behaviour. Unwin Hyman, London, Boston, Syd-
ney. Wellington, pp. 1–11.
E.O. Donnell / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23 (2004) 163–171 169

8. Ford, C.S., 1964. A comparative study of human reproduction.
Yale Publications in Anthropology No. 32. Human Rela-
tions Area Files Press.
Gamble, C., 1986. The Paleolithic Record of Europe. Cam-
bridge University Press, Cambridge.
Gatens, M., 1996. The Imaginary Body. Routledge, London.
Gosden, C., 1999. Anthropology and Archaeology: a Changing
Relationship. Routledge, London and New York.
Grosz, E., 1994. Volatile Bodies: Towards a Corporeal Fem-
inism. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.
Guiot, J., 1997. PalaeoClimatology: back at the last interglacial.
Nature 388 (6637), 25–27.
Hamilton, P., 1999. Care of the newborn in the delivery room.
British Medical Journal May 22 1999. Available from
Websource B.J.M.com.
Hart, D.V., 1965. From Pregnancy through Birth in a Bisayan
Filipino Village.
Hassan, F.A., 1981. Prehistoric Mortality: the Palaeodemo-
graphic Approach. Academic Press, New York, London,
Toronto, Sydney.
Hodnett, Ed. (2000) Caregiver support for women during
childbirth (Cochrane Review). Available from Websource
cochrane/revabstr/aboooo100.htm. Oct. 2000.
Jordan, B., 1993. Birth in Four Cultures: A Crosscultural
investigation of Childbirth in Yucatan, Holland, Sweden
and the United States, fourth ed. Waveland Press.
Jordan, P., 1999. Neanderthal: Neanderthal Man and the Story
of Human Origins. Sutton Publishing Limited, Somerset,
England.
Kioke, S.J., 2000. Revisiting the past: discovering tradition care
and the cultural meaning of pregnancy and birth in a cree
community. M.Sc. Thesis. Queens University at Kingston
(Canada).
Kitzinger, S., Davis, J., 1978. The Place of Birth: A Study of the
Environment in which Birth Takes Place with Special
Reference to Home Confinements. Oxford University Press,
New York.
Laderman, C., 1982. Giving birth in a malay village. In: Kay,
M.A. (Ed.), Anthropology of Human Birth. F.A. Davis
company, Philadelphia.
Leroi-Gourhan, A., 1982. The Art of Prehistoric Man in
Western Europe. Translated by Norbert Guterman. Thames
and Hudson, London.
Lovallo, W.R., 1997. Stress and Health: Biological and Psycho-
logical Interactions. Sage Publications, London, New Delhi.
Macfarlane, A., 1977. The Psychology of Childbirth. Open
Books, London.
Marshall, H., 1999. Our bodies, ourselves: why we should add
old fashioned empirical phenomenology to the new theories
of the body. In: Price, J., Shildrick, M. (Eds.), Feminist
Theory and the Body. Routledge, New York.
Martin, E., 1992. The Woman in the Body: A Cultural analysis
of Reproduction, second ed. Beacon Press.
Matlin, M.W., 1987. The Psychology of Women. Holt, Rine-
hart, and Winston.
Mellars, P., 1996. The Neanderthal Legacy: An Archaeological
Perspective from Western Europe. Princeton University
Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
Mithen, S.J., 1991. Ecological interpretations of palaeolithic
art. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 57 (Part 1), 103–
114.
Murray, L.J., OÕReilly, D.P., Betts, N., Patterson, C.C., Davey
Smith, G., Evans, A.E., 2000. Season and outdoor temper-
ature: effects on birth weight. Obstetrics and Gynaecology
96 (5 pt. 1), 689–695.
Naaktgeboren, C., 1990. The biology of childbirth. In: Chalmers,
I., Enkin, M., Keirse, M.J.M.C. (Eds.), Effective Care in
Pregnancy and Childbirth. Oxford University Press, New
York.
Newton, N., 1987. Birth 14 (2), 106–108.
Noble, W., Davidson, I., 1996. Human Evolution, Language
and Mind: A Psychological and Archaeological Inquiry.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Owens, D., Hayden, B., 1997. Prehistoric rites of passage: a
comparative study of transegalitarian hunter-gatherers.
Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 16, 121–161.
OÕDonnell, E., 2002. A place apart: birthing in prehistory. M.A.
Thesis. Flinders University of South Australia.
Paige, K.E., Paige, J.M., 1981. The Politics of Reproductive
Ritual. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Price, T.D., Brown, J.A., 1985. Aspects of Hunter–Gatherer
complexity. In: Price, T.D., Brown, J.A. (Eds.), Prehistoric
Hunter–Gatherers: The Emergence of Cultural Complexity.
Academic Press, New York, pp. 3–20.
Priya, J.V., 1992. Birth Traditions and Modern Pregnancy Care.
Element Books Limited, Longmean, Shaftesbury, Dorset.
Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., 1997. Why do we
need what we need. A terror management perspective on the
roots of human social motivation. Psychological Inquiry 8
(No. 1), 1–20.
Relethford, J.H., 2000. The Human Species: An Introduction to
Biological Anthropology, fourh ed. Mayfield Publishing
Company, California, London, Toronto.
Robertson, A., 1999. The Pain of Labour—A Feminist Issue in
Birth Issues Vol Xiv No 1. Summer 1999.
Rollins, J.H., 1996. WomenÕs Minds, WomenÕs Bodies: The
Psychology of Women in a Biosocial Context. Prentice-
Hall.
Russell, D., Douglas, A.S., Allen, T.M., 1993. Changing
seasonality of birth—a possible environmental effect. Jour-
nal of Epidemiology and Community Health 47 (5), 362–
367.
Schick, K.D., Toth, N., 1993. Making Silent Stones Speak:
Human Evolution and the Dawn of Technology. Weiden-
feld and Nicolson, London.
Shreeve, J., 1995. The Neandertal Enigma: Solving the Mystery
of Modern Human Origins. Viking. Penguin Group,
England, New York, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand.
Steer, P., Flint, C., 1999. Physiology and management of
normal labour. British Medical Journal 318, 793–796.
Tani, M., 1995. Beyond the identification of Formation:
Behavioural inference based on traces left by cultural
formation processes. Journal of Archaeological Method
and Theory 2 (3).
Taylor, S.E., Klein, L.C., Lewis, B.P., Gruenewald, T.L.,
Guring, R.A.R., Updegraff, J.A., 2000. Psychological Re-
view 107 (No. 3), 411–429.
Thiele, B., 1999. Retrieving the baby: feminist theory and
organic bodies. Canadian Woman Studies 18 (No. 4), 51–
61.
Trevathan, W.R., 1997. An evolutionary perspective on au-
thoritative knowledge about birth. In: Davis-Floyd, R.E.,
170 E.O. Donnell / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23 (2004) 163–171

9. Sargent, C.F. (Eds.), Childbirth and Authoritative Knowl-
edge: Cross-Cultural Perspectives. University of California
Press, Berkeley.
Turner, T.L., Douglas, J., Cockburn, F., 1988. CraigÕs Care of
the Newly Born Infant, eighth ed. Churchill Livingstone,
Edinburgh, London, Melbourne and New York.
Wagner, M., 1997. Confessions of a dissident. In: Davis-Floyd,
R.E., Sargent, C.F. (Eds.), Childbirth and Authoritative
Knowledge: Cross; Cultural Perspectives. University of
California Press, Berkeley, CA, pp. 366–393.
Wenke, R.J., 1984. Patterns in Prehistory. Oxford University
Press, Oxford.
White, R.K., 1980. The upper palaeolithic occupation of the
perigord: a topographic approach to subsistence and
settlement. Ph.d Thesis. University of Toronto.
World Health Organisation (1996) Care in Normal Birth: A
Practical Guide. Report of a Technical Working Group.
Maternal and newborn Health/Safe Motherhood Unit,
Family and Reproductive Health. World Health Organisa-
tion, Geneva.
Zilh~ao, J., DÕErrico, F., 1999. The chronology and Taphonomy
of the earliest Aurignacian and its implications for the
understanding of Neanderthal extinction. Journal of World
Prehistory 13 (No. 1), 1–68.
E.O. Donnell / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23 (2004) 163–171 171