1. 1) Introduction
1a) Science Communication:- Definition
The modern definition of ‘Science Communication’ (a.k.a ‘Science Engagement’) is the use of the
media to communicate Science to a non-scientific audience (a.k.a the general public). Examples of
media used for ‘Science Communication’ includes :-
1.Documentaries;
2.Newspaper articles;
3.Science Blogs;
4.Science exhibitions;
5.Science Fiction books; and
6.Etc.
However, as there are many ways of defining ʻScience Communicationʼ, there is no one true
definition (Bihis 2012). ʻScience Communicationʼ usually involved both professional scientists and
those involved in the media working together to convey Science, but has recently become a
professional and popular academic field as evident by the large amount of world-class universities
(e.g. University of Manchester and Imperial College London) providing both Bachelors and Masters
programmes dedicated to the study and research of Science Communication. Furthermore, thanks
to the contributions of popular Science Communicators, such as Carl Sagan and Professor Brian
Cox, more scientists are seeing ʻScience Communicationʼ as another form of career prospect. This
increase in interest for the field of ʻScience Communicationʼ is said to be caused by the increase in
the general publicʼs interest, knowledge and perception of Science. This can be seen as a good
thing for the field of Science but can also lead to its downfall, as Science has also been held with
skepticism in the general publicʼs eye. This skepticism is usually contributed to the media ʻspicingʼ
up scientific stories to gain a larger audience, leading the general public to have a twisted and
inaccurate perception of Science [for example, the general publicʼs perception of genetically
modified (GM) crops]. To truly understand the field of ʻScience Communicationʼ, the history of
Science Communication must first be discussed.
1b) A brief history of Science Communication
The beginnings of Science Communication have not been very clear due to the many ways
Science has been communicated, written or oral. For convenience, written forms of Science
Communication will be used. Some historians have stated that Science Communication began in
1543 when the Polish astronomer, Copernicus published his book describing the movement of the
Earth around the Sun, instead of vice versa (Dennison 2010). Others instead state that Science
Communication began in 1761 with John Newberryʼs children book, The New System of
Philosophy which described scientific subjects, such as the solar system and the human mind
(Boon 2006). Both these written records demonstrate that Science Communication has been
prevalent for a long time, rather than being a modern field. These written records also indirectly
showed that the general public already had a keen interest in Science. As the years went and with
the introduction of new technologies (such as radio, television and the internet), scientists have
found many different ways to communicate their Science.
However, communicating Science is not enough if the public does not understand it. During the
early periods of Science Communication, scientists were not really concerned if their Science was
understandable to the general public as they were more focused towards the scientific community.
This changed in 1943, when the British Association held a conference titled ʻScience and the
Citizen: the Public Understanding of Scienceʼ. The conference discussed on improving the general
publicsʼ understanding of the Science in which the scientists were trying to convey. At the time, the
scientists believed that a well-informed scientific nation was a prosperous nation. As such, the
scientist of that conference adapted the early version of the ʻdeficit model of science
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2. communicationʼ. This model describes that the general publicʼs skepticism of Science is due to the
lack of scientific knowledge. Therefore, by providing sufficient and adequate scientific information,
the publicʼs skepticism can be quelled (Dickson 2005). Initially, this deficit model worked, with the
public expressing great expectations for Science. However, after World War II, these expectations
declined and more disappointment ensured as the public became more aware about not only the
benefits of Science but also its dangers when abused ( for example, nuclear weapons). Even in the
later years when the model was used for both the 1985 Bodmer report and the 1992 Committee on
the Public Understanding of Science (COPUS), the general publicʼs skepticism still remained.
Hence, a new model for Science Communication had to be used. In the 2000, a report published
by a collaboration between The Office of Science and Technology and The Wellcome Trust, titled
Science and The Public, highlighted that the skepticism was not due to the lack of scientific
knowledge but the lack of public confidence for both governmental and commercial Science. This
is due to the misapplications of Science, such as the Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)
[a.k.a Mad Cow Disease] epidemic in 1990s which was caused by cows being given proteins
derived from sheep and other cattle (Ainsworth and Carrington 2000). Therefore, a new Science
Communication model that emphasized rebuilding the publicʼs trust in Science was created,
whereby the communication was no longer ʻone-wayʼ (i.e scientists strictly communicating the
science to the public) but ʻtwo-wayʼ (both scientists and the public communicate with one another).
The new model would require the collaboration between the scientists and the those working in
mass media and communication.
Unfortunately, this has proven to be difficult due to two factors. One factor is the media who, to
attract more audiences, sometimes twist and contort the Science being communicated, resulting in
the misleading of the public. For example, the March article on the US baby ʻcuredʼ from HIV (BBC
2013). The article states that the 30-hour old baby of an HIV positive mother was treated for 18
months with anti-HIV drugs. After the 18-months, supposedly the mother and child ʻdisappearedʼ
from the medical system, only to come back after 5 months. By now, the baby was two and a half
years and had no trace of the virus in her body. The general public may be misled to believe HIV
has been cured whilst scientists are more interested in how the treatment was done. Another factor
can be the scientists themselves who either attempt to hide or mislead facts from the general
public. A good example of misleading Science is Pfizer, a biopharmaceutical company publishing
misleading clinical trials of their anti-epilepsy drug, Neurontin in 2013 (Ehrenberg 2013). To reduce
these factor, both scientists and the journalists must be held accountable for the way the Science
is communicated.
In conclusion, Science Communication has evolved corresponding to changes in human culture.
No longer is it just dedicated to informing and educating the general public, but in also instilling
back the publicʼs trust in Science. With the advent of the internet and other forms of
communication, Science Communicators will find many different and (sometimes) unique ways to
effectively communicate the Science to the general public.
1c) Summary between Literature review and portfolio pieces
The literature review was titled as ʻThe history of yeast research and its current applications in the
production of heterologous proteins and biofuelsʼ. Therefore, the portfolio pieces discussed the
current applications of yeast and the timeline of yeast research :-
i) Biological Science Review (BSR) Article:- Discusses the current applications of genetically
modified yeast in production of Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) vaccine, biofuels and synthetic
insulin.
ii) New Scientist article:- Discusses the timeline of yeast research and how the knowledge
derived from the research has benefitted the human race.
iii) Creative Piece (a.k.a Yeastman comic):- Describes the uses of yeast in the form of the comic
superhero Yeastman.
iv) Oral presentation:- The presentation described the timeline of yeast research together with the
use of yeast in HPV vaccine production.
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3. 2) Context of Portfolio pieces
2a) Context of Biological Science Review article
The Biological Science Review titled, ʻ Yeast: The microscopic cell factoryʼ served to explain the
applications of genetically modified yeast in the production of biofuels, synthetic insulin and the
Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) vaccine to a target audience of A-level students. The aims of this
piece were :-
i) To inform the audience about the current applications of yeast in the fields of biotechnology and
medicine; and
ii)To change the audienceʼs perception of yeast just being important for alcohol brewing, baking
and causing fungal infections.
The article was evaluated by a group of University of Manchester Faculty of Life Sciences First
Year students who provided feedback via a Biological Science Review Feedback forms. The
evaluation was based on :-
i) The articleʼs relation to the A-level syllabus specifications;
ii)The appropriateness of the article for A-level students in terms of scientific content (e.g article
was too simple);
iii)Explanation of scientific theory and concepts;
iv)The audience engagement ability of the article; and
v)The use of FIgures and illustrations in the article.
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4. Yeast: The microscopic cell factory
Here is a little experiment for you to try. Go out to a street filled with people, pick a few ʻtargetsʼ and
ask them the following question; “ Do you know what yeast is?”. You will find that most of them
either answer that it is the ʻthingʼ you use to make bread and alcohol, or ʻsomethingʼ that infects the
urinary tract (usually women say this). From this, you can see how yeast is universally associated
with alcohol production and baking (and in some cases, yeast infection). This is not surprising as
ancient civilisations have used yeast in producing alcohol and bread, albeit they were not aware of
it at the time (See Figure1).
Figure 1: 4000 year old Egyptian Hieroglyphs depicting the baking process
However, this humble microorganism has more to it than just alcohol brewing and baking
The Biology of Yeast
Yeasts are eukaryotic microorganisms (similar to humans) who belong to the Fungi kingdom. This
is because they share certain similarities commonly associated with Fungal species (Kurtzman and
Fell 1998) :-
• Yeasts are capable of producing haploid spores as a form of sexual reproduction. They are
also able to undergo asexual reproduction, producing diploid daughter cells in a process
known as budding (See Figure 2);
• Yeasts are commonly unicellular but can form multicellular structures (such as hyphae) by
forming a string of attached budding yeasts (See Figure 3); and
• The cell wall of yeast cells contain chitin but also contain components of plant cell wall.
Figure 2: A) Reproductive cycle of yeast, B) An electronic microgram of budding yeast
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5. Figure 3: Hyphae of Candida albicans
One of the major characteristics of yeast is their ability to digest carbohydrates ( such as glucose)
into carbon dioxide (CO2) and ethanol in anaerobic conditions. The process is known as
anaerobic fermentation and is similar to the anaerobic digestion of carbohydrates in humans
albeit instead of producing lactic acid, ethanol is produced (See Figure 4). This process was
responsible for the use of yeast in both alcohol brewing and baking.
Figure 4: Anaerobic Fermentation of glucose in Yeast
5
A
Figure 2:(A) Yeast can exist in both diploid and haploid state. In a high nutrition area, the
diploid/haploid yeast cells undergo budding to form diploid/haploid daughter cells
respectively. In a nutrient-lacking environment, the haploid yeast cells die whilst diploid
yeast cells undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores that can conjugate with one another
to reform the diploid cell.(B) A closer look at a diploid yeast cell undergoing budding.
B
Figure 3:
Hyphae of
Candida
albicans, a
pathogenic yeast
that causes
candidiasis or
thrush

6. The mechanism of yeast anaerobic fermentation was a recurrent interest for scientists from the
period spanning between the 18th century to the early 20th century, resulting in intense research
using the yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisae (Barnett 1998). This would involve the accumulation of
results from well-known chemists, such as Louis Pasteur and Theodore Schwann. It is because of
these men that modern scientists are able to understand the entire yeast anaerobic fermentation
process. An indirect implication of this long research was also the characterisation of the biological
properties of yeast we have come to understand.
The genetic transformation of yeast :- a new chapter to yeast application
From the early 20th century, people accepted that yeast could only be used for alcohol
fermentation and baking. However, scientists made an important discovery in 1978 when they
were able to successfully modify the genes of the yeasts (Barnett 2007). This led to much research
into yeast genetics, culminating in the Saccharomyces cerevisae whole genome sequencing
project. The project enabled scientists to understand the mechanism behind yeast biological
systems and how the yeast genes could be manipulated for human benefits. As such, yeast would
now be used in more ways than just alcohol brewing and baking;
1) Insulin and Yeast
Insulin is a hormone produced by pancreatic beta-cells which functions to regulate blood sugar
levels by causing several tissues (example liver and muscles) of the body to convert excess
carbohydrates to either glycogen or triglycerides (Anonymous 3 2013). A disruption in the levels
of this hormone can result in Diabetes mellitus. Diabetes mellitus is one of the most lethal diseases
and is suffered by 347 million people worldwide. The most common symptom associated with
diabetes is high blood sugar levels (NHS 2012). This can lead to organ and tissue damage in
human patients, resulting in blindness, gangrene and many more. Diabetes mellitus can be
categorised into two types, based on their causes :-
1) Type 1 Diabetes mellitus, whereby the human body is unable to produce sufficient insulin; and
2) Type 2 Diabetes mellitus, whereby the human body is capable of producing insulin but is unable
to respond to it.
The most common treatment of Diabetes mellitus was usually the replacement of insulin back into
the diabetic patient. Initially, insulin from animals (such as cows, pigs and horses) were used. This
was due to the similarity in their structure to human insulin. Unfortunately, the extracted animal
insulin was not pure which resulted in unwanted substances being extracted as well, leading to
human patients having an allergic reaction to these foreign substances (Heil and Schneider 2012).
Although methods of purifying insulin have significantly improved, there is still the risk of allergic
reactions occurring. To combat this issue, scientist decided to create ʻsyntheticʼ human insulin via
recombinant DNA technology using bacteria (usually Escherischia coli). This usually involved the
insertion of a recombinant plasmid with the gene encoding for human insulin into E. coli. The
synthetic insulin produced from bacteria should not have the unwanted substances usually found
6

7. in animal insulin extracts. As such, this reduces the risk of allergic reactions occurring.
Unfortunately, the synthetic insulin produced from bacteria had some limitations; such as the
synthetic human insulin not being exactly identical to natural human insulin, which may result in
human body not responding to it. This is contributed to the bacteria lacking the organelles (such as
Golgi Apparatus) required for correct processing and packaging of the human insulin
(Anonymous 4 2006). Fortunately, in 2003 the company Wockhardt began using genetically
transformed yeast to manufacture synthetic human insulin (BBC 2003). As stated, yeasts are
eukaryotic organism similar to humans. Therefore, the processing and packaging of their proteins
is nearly identical to that of humans. This reduces the risk of the human patients not responding to
the synthetic insulin. Unfortunately, there are some limitations to using yeast (Nasser et.al 2003) :-
1. The amount of synthetic insulin produced by yeast is not as high as those produced from
bacteria;
2. Although the packaging and processing of yeast proteins is nearly identical to that of human
cells, yeast still lack some processes found in human cells.
2) Human Papilloma Virus vaccine production
Human Papilloma virus (HPV) (See Figure 5) are viruses that infect skin cells and are responsible
for a myriad of diseases such as skin warts, genital warts, cervical cancer and (in some rare
cases) throat warts, known as respiratory papillomatosis (Anonymous 2 2011). HPVs are usually
transmitted via sexual contact between an infected individual with an uninfected female/male.
Sometimes, the infected person may not even show symptoms or signs that he/she is infected. It is
important to note though that HPVs that cause genital warts are not the same as those that cause
cervical cancer. HPVs are capable of causing these infections due to several viral proteins, for
example :-
• L1 is a viral coat protein that forms the outer shell of the virus and allows the virus to attach to
the skin cells. (Finnen et.al 2003)
• L2 is another viral coat protein but is responsible for transferring the HPV DNA into skin cells. It is
usually found together with L1. (Finnen et. al 2003)
• E6 and E7 proteins are both responsible for causing cancer. (Chaturvedi and Gillison 2010)
HPV infections are usually prevented with vaccines that either contain non-infectious forms of the
HPV whom have had their DNA removed or can contain non-infectious HPV coat proteins. The
vaccine aims to activate the patientʼs immune system to produce antibodies that specifically
destroy the HPV or itʼs proteins, preventing the initial infection of HPVs. The HPV coat protein
vaccines are commonly produced by the yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisae by inserting HPV L1
genes into the yeast via DNA recombinant technology as scientists are unable to grow human
papilloma viruses in normal laboratory conditions to produce the vaccine (Anonymous 1 2013).
7

8. Figure 5: Human Papilloma Virus
3) Yeast and Biofuels
Scientists have always been looking for sustainable sources of alternative fuel to replace the
depleting fossil fuels and to decrease the emissions of greenhouse gases (Federoff and Cohen
1999). One type of alternative fuel was biofuels. Biofuels are defined as fuels produced from
biological matter or living things (Somerville 2007). These fuels are usually ethanol produced from
fermentation of plant sugars which usually involves the use of yeast. As stated before, yeast can
anaerobically ferment glucose and sucrose to produce carbon dioxide and ethanol. Unfortunately,
yeast is unable to efficiently ferment other forms of carbohydrates, such as starch which is the
most common metabolic carbohydrates in plants. As such, plant scientists had to genetically
modify yeast to have the capability of fermenting these carbohydrates to produce ethanol. This
allowed for the production of first-generation biofuels, whereby the ethanol was derived the starch
stored in plants. Unfortunately, these first-generation biofuels could not produce as much energy
as fossil fuel and only did very little in reducing the amount of greenhouse gases being produced
(Farrel et. al 2006). Fortunately, scientists were able to discover that the entire plant could be used
as a source of biofuel. This was because plant matter consists mainly of the structural
polysaccharide, cellulose. Scientists hypothesised that by using the entire plant, more ethanol
could be produced that had enough energy to match fossil fuels. Furthermore, the production of
plant matter required carbon from carbon dioxide, a type of greenhouse gas from the atmosphere.
This meant that not only would the biofuel produced from plant matter produced the same amount
of energy as fossil fuels but there would be a sustainable source of biofuel which can aid in
reducing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Unfortunately, cellulose (being a
structural polysaccharide) was resistant to being broken down into its monosaccharide
components (Wightman and Turner 2011). This prevented yeast from being able to ferment the
plant matter into ethanol. Therefore, scientists again genetically modified the yeast by inserting a
bacterial gene encoding for a cellulose-digesting enzyme (cellulase) to aid in the fermentation (Ha
et.al 2010). Biofuels produced using plant matter were known as second-generation biofuels.
Conclusion
It is a shame that most people associate yeast with just alcohol brewing and baking when they
have made massive contributions to the world of medicine, the search for alternative fuels and the
world of Industrial Biotechnology. By looking at these various examples of yeast application, it
should be apparent that there is more to these humble microorganisms than they are credited for.
8
Figure 5: Human
Papilloma Virus
model showing
viral coat proteins
L1 and L2
L1 and L2 viral coat
proteins

9. ! 2ai) Reviewersʼ comments
Out of the entire First Year student group, three students gave feedback onto the article. These
students found the article to be appropriate for A-level students in terms of the syllabus
specifications and the scientific content. Furthermore, the reviewers found the article to be
interesting and easy to read, and did not require further explanation of the scientific theory of
content. The reviewers cited the style of the article to be just about right for a Biological Science
Review article and citing a good use of figures and illustrations.
! 2aii) Changes to Biological Review Article
A few minor changes was conducted onto the article after the First Year Students had given their
feedback. The changes include :-
a)A few grammatical errors were rectified;
b)The statement “ ...yeast can anaerobically ferment glucose to produce carbon dioxide and
ethanol “ was changed to “....yeast can anaerobically ferment glucose and sucrose to produce
carbon dioxide and ethanol”;
c)The statement “....unable to efficiently ferment other forms of carbohydrates, such as sucrose
and starch which are the most common metabolic carbohydrates in plants.”, was changed to
“....unable to efficiently ferment other forms of carbohydrates, such as starch which is the most
common metabolic carbohydrates in plants”; and
d)The sentence “Scientists theorised that by using the entire plant, more ethanol could be
produced that had enough energy to match fossil fuels.”, was changed to “Scientists
hypothesised that by using the entire plant, more ethanol could be produced that had enough
energy to match fossil fuels.”
9

10. 2b) Context of New Scientist Article
The New Scientist Article, titled ʻThe timeline of Yeast research and its contributionsʼ served to
explain the timeline of yeast research and how that research has benefitted the lives of the human
race to the general layperson audience. The aims of this piece were :-
i) Highlighting the major milestones in the yeast research timeline;
ii)Describing the contributions of milestones to the current knowledge of yeast which scientists
have used to develop technologies to benefit human lives; and
iii)Highlighting the change on the perception of yeast over time.
The article will be evaluated by a secondary marker who will also be evaluating this portfolio. The
evaluation is similar to the BSR article, in that it is based on :-
i) The appropriateness of the article for general public in terms of scientific content (e.g article was
too simple);
ii)Explanation of scientific theory and concepts;
iii)The audience engagement ability of the article; and
iv)The use of Figures and illustrations in the article.
10

11. New Scientist Article: The timeline of Yeast research and its contributions
What comes to mind when you think about yeast? You would had probably answered something
like this, “ Isnʼt it that thing that you use for baking or alcohol brewing?”, or “ Isnʼt it that thing that
causes infections in the genitals?” (if you were a brave and honest woman). To be honest, youʼd be
right. A huge majority of people would have answered like you did (maybe not so much on the
genital infections part). That comes as no surprise as historically, yeast (more specifically Bakerʼs
Yeast) has been used for the purposes of baking and alcohol brewing by ancient human
civilisations across time, although they were unaware of its existence. The earliest record of the
indirect use of yeast can be found in a 4000 year old Egyptian hieroglyphs that depicts the act of
baking (See Figure 1), although some historians claim that the indirect use of yeast had began in
the Sumerian times (Demain 2010).
Figure 1: Egyptian Hieroglyph of the baking process
However, scientists have been using yeast in scientific experiments since the late 18th century and
have found other uses for yeast than just being agents of baking or alcohol brewing and the
occasional yeast infection. Before we can understand the basis for these uses, we must first find
out everything we need to know about this microorganism.
Figure 2: Common associations of Yeast
Figure 2: (A) Baking as the carbon dioxide produced from the yeast helps the dough rise (B)
Fermentation of sugars for the production of alcoholic beverages (C) Yeast infections, e.g oral
11
Figure 1: This 4000-year old
Egyptian hieroglyph depicting
baking serves as an indirect
historical evidence to the use of
yeast. [Picture courtesy of
Kombucha Kamp (http://
www.kombuchakamp.com/
2011/12/kombucha-recipe-
sourdough-kombucha-bread-
starter-plus-more-recipes.htm)]
CBA

12. thrush [Pictures courtesy of The Times of India, Joseph Nicholson of eHow.com and BMJ Group,
respectively]
What is Yeast?
Yeast are a species of unicellular, eukaryotic (i.e they have a nucleus) microorganism who belong
to the category of Fungi (See Figure 3). Some of their biological characteristics are described
below (Kurtzman and Fell 1998) :-
1) It can form spores in areas which have low nutrients but usually asexually reproduce by
budding;
2) The cell wall of yeast is similar to that of fungus ( i.e. contain β-glucans and chitin) [See Figure
3B]; and
3) It has the ability to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide in low oxygen conditions (anaerobic).
The most well-known yeast species is Saccaharomyces cerevisiae, also commonly known as
Bakerʼs Yeast which (as the name states) is usually used for baking but it is also used for scientific
research. Other yeast species include Candida albicans, a pathogenic yeast species that causes
thrush (See Figure 2C). You may be asking yourself, what other use does this alcohol and carbon
dioxide-producing, (sometimes) infection causing microorganism have other than the described
functions above? To answer that, we must travel back into time to the late 18th Century, when
times were simpler and the French were really into brandy and wine.
Figure 3: The biological characteristics of yeast
Yeast timeline:
! a) Late 18th century - 1857
The beginning of yeast research started with itsʼ discovery. Even though historians have stated that
the indirect use of yeast dated back to the times of the Sumerians (23th Century B.C.), the
C
12
A
Figure 3: (A) Yeast colony (B) The cell wall
of yeast consist mainly of β-glucan and chitin
which are also components of fungal cell
wall (C) A electro-micrograph of yeast
budding [Pictures courtesy of
Chemistryland.com, Sigma-Aldrich® and the
Pathogen Profile Dictionary of The Journal of
Undergraduate Biological Studies,
respectively]
B
C

13. existence of yeast was only discovered by French chemists in the late 18th Century when they
were studying the alcohol brewing process. This was a time when alcoholic beverages, such as
brandy and wine were the major exports of 18th Century France (Barnett 1998). During their
excursion in studying the brewing process, they also characterised some of the biological
characteristics of yeast that we just discussed, such as :-
i) The ability for yeast to reproduce asexually via a process called budding (See Figure 3C);
ii) Yeast belonging to the Fungi Kingdom; and
iii) Yeast producing alcohol in anaerobic conditions.
Other French chemists, however, were not so keen on the idea of a fungus aiding in the alcohol
brewing process and would depict yeast as “ an organism that ate sugars from its mouth and
produce alcohol from its anus.” How imaginative early French chemists can be sometimes!
However, their rejection of the existence of yeast was not entirely uncalled for as it was also during
this period that the field of Organic Chemistry was booming, whereby chemists now could create
biological products, such as urea by chemical means ( Barnett 1998). It took one of the biggest
names in the field of Chemistry and Microbiology to finally get these chemists to acknowledge the
existence of yeast and he was none other than Louis Pasteur (See Figure 4), the French chemist
that gave us the pasteurisation process. By conducting his own experiments on the alcohol
brewing process, he was not only able to prove the existence of yeast but also prove that yeast
was a vital agent for the brewing process (Barnett 2000). Louis Pasteurʼs contribution to the
existence of yeast, not only marked the beginning of the Golden Age of Microbiology (the study of
the biology of microorganisms) but it paved way for more research done on yeast.
Figure 4: A photograph of Louis Pasteur
b) 1918 - 1996
Thanks to Louis Pasteur, more chemists and microbiologists began researching on yeast, resulting
in the discovery of different yeast species, such as Saccharomyces pastorianus, a yeast species
that when used in alcohol brewing gave bitter-tasting beer (Barnett 2001). This has allowed alcohol
brewing companies, such as Carlsberg, to determine the appropriate yeast species to use when
brewing beer. It was also during this period that the Father of Genetics, Gregory Mendelʼs
publication on the genetics of pea plants was taken seriously by the scientific community when
three scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and Erich Tschermak were able to replicate Mendelʼs
experiments in 1900. As such, there was a great interest by the scientific community in the
genetics of living creatures, resulting in the birth of yeast genetics (Barnett 2007). Thanks to the
works of Øjvind Winge, Jan Šatava and Carl Charles Lindegren, scientists who heavily researched
on the yeast species, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast genes involved in the alcohol
13
Figure 4: Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) was
French chemist who is remembered for not
only being responsible for the invention of
the pasteurisation process but also his
contributions to the world of Microbiology.
[Picture courtesy of The History Learning
Site]

14. fermentation process was identified (See Figure 5). Other scientists also heavily researched on
other aspects of yeast genetics, such as genes of mutant yeast strains, culminating into a vast
knowledge in yeast genetics. This knowledge would then be used to study the genetics of
mitochondria, a cell organ involved in producing cellular energy. Furthermore, the genetics of the
yeast species, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, would be used as a model for the study of the cell
division cycle in both plant and animal cells. With so much research done on yeast genetics, it was
no surprise that the next major milestone in the history of yeast was the genetic modification of the
yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae in 1973 (Hinnen et. al 1978). This major event revealed that
yeast could be genetically modified for a specific function/purpose. Many scientists jumped on the
bandwagon, modifying the genes of different yeast species for and adding their results to their
knowledge on the genetics of yeast. This culminated into the use of the yeast Saccharomyces
cerevisiae as the biological model for the Eukaryotic Whole Genome Sequencing Project in 1996,
due to its biological characteristics and genetics being the most well-studied amongst other yeast
species (Goffeau et.al 1996). This EU-funded project allowed scientists to build a database
containing and highlighting the genetic information and functions of the yeast genes which future
scientists have used for their own research.
Figure 5: A photograph of Øjvind Winge, and Carl Lindegren
Conclusion
By looking at the timeline of yeast research and highlighting the major milestones, we can now
understand that :-
i) Yeast exists as a Fungi and it is a vital part of the alcohol brewing process;
ii) Different yeast species can give different taste in alcoholic beverages when used in the
fermentation process;
iii) The genetics of yeast can be used as a model for the research on eukaryotic cells;
iv) The genes of yeast can be modified to serve a particular function; and
v) The whole genome sequencing of yeast genes has allowed scientists to further understand the
biological and genetic aspects of yeast.
Using these new discoveries, yeast can now be used in other applications instead of just being
confined to alcohol brewing, baking and the occasional yeast infection. For example :-
a) The anti-Human Pappilloma Virus (HPV) vaccine, Gardasil ®, was produced using genetically
modified Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Anonymous 1 2013);
b) Due to yeast alcohol fermenting abilities, they have been used in the breakdown of plants
sugars (e.g starch and sucrose) into ethanol to be used as sustainable biofuels (Ha et.al 2010);
14
Figure 5: (A) Øjvind Winge
(1886-1964), the Father of Yeast
Genetics, worked with his
colleague Otto Laustsen on the
sugar utilization genes of the
yeast Saccharomyces cerevisae.
(B) Carl Charles Lindegren
(1896-1986)was the first yeast
geneticist to analyse the spores of
Saccharomyces cerevisae and
constructed its genetic maps.
[Pictures courtesy of the
Carlsberg Group and Anonymous
(http://www.estherlederberg.com/
EImages/Cold%20Spring
%20Harbor/LindegrenCL.html)]
A B

15. c) Yeast have been used to create artificial bacteria with artificial genes to aid in scientific research
(Kowalski 2008);
d) Yeast has been used as a model by scientists to further understand the biology of eukaryotic
cells, such as plant and animal cells; and
e) Yeast is one of the microorganisms (the other being bacteria) used to produce synthetic human
insulin for diabetic patients, thereby lowering the risks of the patient rejecting it (BBC 2003).
As you can see, yeast has so much more potential than we give it credit for and it has been crucial
to our lives, may it be for just our alcohol beverages or for the treatment of diabetes. All these
applications cannot have been known without the contributions of past chemists and
microbiologists. So, let us raise our glasses of yeast fermented beer and make a toast to not only
the humble but ever helpful microorganism but also to the fellow scientists that have made yeast
capable of what it does today.
15

16. 2c) Context of Oral presentation
The Oral presentation titled, ʻ The history of yeast research and its current applicationsʼ served to
describe the history of yeast research that culminated into present scientistsʼ knowledge on yeast
to a target audience of scientists. The aims of the presentation were :-
i) To remind scientists that the history of science is as important as the scientific future
developments due to the contributions of past scientists to current scientific knowledge; and
ii)To inform other scientists from different backgrounds on the current knowledge and applications
of yeast.
The oral presentation was evaluated by a group of University of Manchester Faculty of Life
Sciences scientists who had expertise in different areas of biological sciences (refer to feedback
form on page). The presentation was evaluated based on :-
i) Presentation skills of presenter;
ii)Visual aspect of the presentation;
iii)Ability of presenter to answer questions calmly and correctly; and
iv)Context of the presentation.
16

17. 17

18. 18

19. Please use the aide memoire for ʻoral presentationsʼ to generate feedback comments to your
student. These comments should be included by the student in their overall portfolio.
Feedback to student following oral presentation
Title of presentation: History of yeast research and its applications
Student: Dominic Thum
Date: 07.03.2013
Comments:
The talk contained two main aspects – a brief historical overview of yeast applications and earlier
yeast research and a more recent example of the use of yeast as a system for heterologous
production of HPV recombinant vaccine. The talk was delivered in a confident manner and
Dominic maintained good eye contact with the audience and held the attention of his listeners.
On the down side, there was a very limited use of pictures, illustrations and figures – only one
picture was used and it was hardly the most relevant. Part of the information – the background on
the HPV virus was not really relevant – it would have been far more appropriate to have discussed
what makes yeast the preferred system for production of recombinant heterologous vaccine. The
historical facts (names, years, etc) could have been presented in a more entertaining way –for
example an animated “travel through the centuries/time” and showing the pictures of the scientists,
and the results of their findings. There was insufficient cohesion between the two main parts of the
talk – it was not made clear enough how the chosen examples of early yeast research have paved
the way to contemporary use of yeast. The answers to the questions asked were also not
convincing.
As a first this was a satisfactory effort. However for future reference, talks could be improved both
in the way of context and also presentation through better use of pictures and figures.
19

20. 2d) Context of Creative Piece
The creative piece, a two issue comic titled ʻYeastmanʼ (Issue 1: A New Hero is Born and Issue 2:
The Wrath of the Super-Evolved Human Pappilloma Virus [HPV], respectively) served to explain
the biological characteristics of yeast and its current applications to a target audience of primary
and secondary school children. The aims of the comic were :-
i) To inform the students about the biological characteristics of yeast;
ii)To educate the students on the other uses of yeast than just being confined to alcohol brewing
and baking; and
iii)To make this form of Science Communication as entertaining and fun as possible.
The creative piece was evaluated using an online survey directed to University of Manchester
Faculty of Life Sciences First Year Microbiology students who have a better knowledge on the
biological aspects and applications of yeast. The creative piece was evaluated based on :-
i) The appropriateness of the comic as a learning resource for the target audience in (e.g portrayal
of Science); and
ii)Ability of the comic to engage and entertain the target audience.
20

21. 21

22. 22

23. 23

24. 24

25. Questionnaire for Yeastman
*Tick/circle where appropriate*
Question 1
Please state your Gender% % % % % % % M/F
Question 2
Which age group are you in?
11-20% % % % [% ]
21-30% % % % [% ]
31-40% % % % [% ]
41-50% % % % [% ]
Question 3
Did you find this comic entertaining?%% % % % Y/N
Question 4
What did you like about the comic?
The art style was simple yet easy to understand% % % % % % [% ]
The use of bright colours to catch the audiences attention%% % % % [% ]
The story/plot was engaging and easy to understand% % % % % [% ]
The portrayal of the science/technology % % % % % % % [% ]
Question 5
Did you learn anything from this comic?% % % % Y/N
(If no, skip question 6)
Question 6
What did you learn from this comic?
Yeast cell walls contain chitin%% % % % % % % % [% ]
Yeast are able to produce carbon dioxide and alcohol% % % % % [% ]
Yeast can have its gene modified for a particular purpose% % % % % [% ]
Yeast can be used to produce vaccines% % % % % % % [% ]
25

26. Question 7
Were the any issues with the comic that could be improved on?
Art Style (e.g too simple)% % % % % % % % % [% ]
Colour selection (e.g too much use of bright colours)% % % % % [% ]
Story/Plot ( e.g Plot is hard to understand)% % % % % % % [% ]
Portrayal of Science ( e.g the science behind the comic was too vague)% % % [% ]
Question 8
Would you recommend this comic to students as a form of Science
Communication?% % % % % % % % % % % Y/N
(If no, skip Question 9)
Question 9
Which student group would you recommend this to?
% Primary school students (<12 years old)% % % % % % [% ]
% Secondary school students (12 - 18 years old)% % % % % [% ]
% College students (18 - 20 years old)%% % % % % % [% ]
% University students (> 20 years old)% % % % % % % [% ]
Question 10
What medium should this comic be presented in?
Physical:
% Newspapers% % % % % % % % % % [% ]
% Magazines% % % % % % % % % % [% ]
% Comic Book% % % % % % % % % % [% ]
Online:
% Webcomic% % % % % % % % % % [% ]
% Motion Comic videos%% % % % % % % % [% ]
Thank you for your time. Your involvement is well appreciated.
26

27. 3) Results of Creative Piece Evaluation
The Creative Piece, Yeastman, was evaluated by University of Manchester First Year Microbiology
students via an online survey (Refer to page 25 for the questionnaire). The questionnaire had 34
respondents, with 1 invalid response. The results are displayed below;
3a) Entertainment Value and Enjoyment aspect
The results of the online survey showed that 96.67% of the respondents found the comic
entertaining with 3.33% finding it otherwise (Refer to Figure 1a)
Figure 1a: Entertainment Value of Yeastman comic
When asked which aspect of the comic did they enjoy :-
i) 35% enjoyed the simplistic but easy to understand art style.
ii)13% enjoyed the use of bright colours to attract the audiences attention.
iii)30% found the plot to be easy to follow and engaging.
iv)22% enjoyed how the science was portrayed in the comic.
(Refer to Figure 1b)
Figure 1b: Pie Chart of Enjoyment aspect of Yeastman comic
27

28. 3b) Education value and aspect of comic
When asked if they learned anything from the Yeastman comic :-
i) 93.75% learned something.
ii)6.25% did not learn anything.
(Refer Figure 2a)
Figure 2a: Education Value of Yeastman comic
Those respondents that had responded to learning something from the comic was asked for further
details on what the had learnt. Their responses were :-
22%
30%
13%
35%
Enjoyment aspect of comic
The art style was simple yet easy to understand
The use of bright colours to catch the audiences attention
The story/plot was engaging and easy to understand
The portrayal of the science/technology
28

29. i) 30% learnt that Yeast can be genetically modified for a particular purpose.
ii) 28% learnt that Yeast can produce vaccines.
iii)23% learnt that yeast cell walls contain chitin.
iv)19% learnt Yeast can produce carbon dioxide and ethanol.
(Refer Figure 2b)
Figure 2b: Pie Chart of education aspect of Yeastman comic
3c) Issues within the comic
The respondents were asked if the Yeastman comic had any issues that could be improved on.
Their response was :-
i) 39% felt that the portrayal of the Science was too vague.
ii) 36% felt the comic used too many bright colours.
iii)19% felt the art style to be too simple.
iv)6% felt the plot was hard to understand.
(Refer Figure 3)
Figure 3: Pie Chart of Yeastman comic issues (to be improved upon)
28%
30%
19%
23%
Pie Chart of Education aspect of Yeastman comic
Yeast cell walls contain chitin
Yeast are able to produce carbon dioxide and alcohol
Yeast can have its gene modified for a particular purpose
Yeast can be used to produce vaccines
29

30. 3d) Appropriateness of comic as Science Communication medium and Target audience of
Yeastman comic
When asked whether the comic was appropriate medium for Science Communication, 100% of the
respondents replied “Yes” (Refer Figure 4a). When asked which target audience would the
Yeastman comic be appropriate for :-
i) 35.29% stated Primary school students (<12 years old).
ii) 55.88% stated Secondary school students (12-18 years old).
iii) 8.82% stated College students (18-20 years old).
iv) 0% stated University students (>20 years old).
(Refer Figure 4b)
Figure 4a: Use of comic as form of Science Communication
39%
6% 36%
19%
Pie Chart of Yeastman comic issues (to be improved upon)
Art Style (e.g too simple)
Colour selection (e.g too much use of bright colours)
Story/ Plot ( e.g Plot is hard to understand)
Portrayal of Science ( e.g the science behind the comic was too vague)
30

31. Figure 4b: Target audience of Yeastman comic
3e) Appropriate form of medium
When asked how the comic should be presented to its target audience :-
i) 67% suggested via Webcomic.
ii) 18% suggested via Magazines.
iii)6% suggested via Motion Comic Videos.
iv)3% suggested via Newspapers.
v)6% suggested via comic books.
(Refer Figure 5)
Figure 5: Pie Chart of Appropriate medium for Yeastman comic
31

32. 3d) Conclusion
Considering the results of the evaluation, it can be concluded that the Yeastman comic is an
appropriate medium of Science Communication targeted towards Secondary school children as
majority of the respondents were able to learn about Yeast from the comic. However, the comic
has a major issue of portraying the Science too vaguely. Henceforth, the Yeastman comic has to
be improved in this aspect in order to become a more effective Science communication tool.
6%
67%
6%
18%
3%
Appropriate medium for Yeastman comic
Newspapers Magazines Comic Book Webcomic
Motion Comic videos
32

33. 4) Reflection
4a) Reflection on Biological Science Review (BSR) Article
Having no experience in writing articles for A-level students and the fact that my A-levels ended
three years ago made the writing of the Biological Science Review article difficult initially. To gauge
the level of Science that these students had, it was a necessary requirement to take a look at the
UK A-level syllabus. Having looked at the syllabus, it was a difficult decision in writing for the article
as my Final Year Project topic, Yeast, was not covered in their syllabus. Fortunately, after setting
myself a week to come up with a topic, I discovered that part of the A-level syllabus covered
genetic modification. With that, I decided upon my topic for the article. Looking back at that initial
decision-making process, I realised that I had been quite complacent when looking at the A-level
syllabus and had only scanned over it once. I believe this stems from a great weakness of mine in
that I scan documents rather quickly for facts that I need, neglecting other facts only to then regret
it later. As such, the consequence of this weakness has led to me wasting more time and effort in
redoing most of my work again. However, this weakness has also acted as my strength in that it
allows me to pick out the important facts and information that the article/document is trying to
convey in a short period of time. Therefore, although this weakness sometimes led to me wasting
time in redoing my work but it also helped me save time by picking out important facts when
reading through loads of scientific articles. Due to its ambiguous nature, it is hard to decide a
strategy to improve upon the weakness without having any consequence on the strength. The only
strategy that comes to mind is to do my research as rigorously as possible and pay more attention
to details.
Once I had decided on my topic, the writing of the first complete draft of the article became
relatively easier. Although having no experience in writing articles, my experience in writing essays
allowed me to be aware that an article was similar to a story, in that it had three parts :-
i) An introduction;
ii)A body; and
iii)A conclusion.
With my strength in giving a natural flow to my essays, I was able to decide on how I would write
the article and how it would flow. The next issue was the scientific content. Being a University
student for almost three years, my scientific knowledge and my writing style was stark contrast to
when I was in A-levels. Therefore, I had to use the Libraryʼs resources of Biological Science
Review articles to gauge the style of writing and the level of scientific knowledge. Having a
deadline for the evaluation of my article also helped in improving my time management skill, as I
learnt the importance of using a calendar to plan out my work for the coming weeks. Overall, the
writing of the Biological Science Review article has not only allowed me to identify one of my key
weaknesses but also allowed me to improved upon some of my strengths.
4b) Reflection on New Scientist Article
Due to the similarities to the Biological Science Review article, the decision-making and writing of
the New Scientist article was not difficult. However, the major difference was the broad choice of
topic for the article and the target audience was also different. Once more, the issue of the
appropriate level of scientific knowledge appeared. Hence, I resorted to looking at the articles
within the New Scientist to gauge the level of scientific understanding. However, this proved to be
an issue within itself as the writing styles of New Scientists authors were quite different, being that
there was no described universal format. Fortunately, the New Scientist exercise that I had done in
the Science Media workshops held by the University of Manchester helped me in this respect, and
I found myself constantly referring back to the exercise. Having established my weakness in the
writing of the BSR article, I tweaked my strategy to ensure that it was not as prevalent by carefully
33

34. researching the articles to ensure that I thoroughly understood the subject matter. This had a
positive impact in shortening the time required to write the first complete draft. Due to the
similarities to the BSR article, the strategies I had used in that process was imported into the
writing process of the New Scientist Article, such as the use of the calendar to plan out the writing
process. Overall, this process was a fun experience and it allowed me to have a wider perspective
and better appreciation of yeast.
4c) Reflection on Creative Piece
The initial decision-making process behind the creative piece was difficult as I had too many ideas
for the creative piece, from videos to flash animations, etc. Fortunately, the time available to me
and my finances helped out in the decision-making process as each idea had a different time span
and a different amount of financial investment. It was decided that the creative piece was going to
be a comic, due to several factors :-
i) I had the necessary experience in drawing comics;
ii) It was the cheapest alternative amongst the other choices; and
iii) It would not be as time consuming.
The next issue was deciding a target audience. The decision was split between targeting the comic
to a mature audience (e.g University students) and a younger audience (e.g Primary School
children). Time and my drawing capabilities determined that a younger audience was appropriate
as less time is required to make the comic. When deciding how to evaluate the creative piece, I
was again plagued by my ignorance. It was heavily emphasised to us that the creative piece had to
be evaluated by the coordinators of the Science Media workshop. However, after having a
discussion with a fellow Science Media project student, I was told that the creative piece did not
have to be evaluated. Trusting her, I ignored the evaluation step until I was shown the presentation
slides on the guide to the portfolio which stated that the creative piece MUST be evaluated.
Fortunately, my ability to work under pressure allowed me to come up with the evaluation method
for the creative piece in a short time. Reflecting on it now, I learnt that I should always reaffirm the
information via multiple sources, instead of just relying on a single source.
The process behind designing the creative piece was not as difficult as a storyline had already
been written. However, one of the most time consuming process was the designing of the scenes
within the creative piece. Again, this was due to me being unable to decide between different
ideas. Once the scenes were designed, the drawing and inking process began. Unfortunately, it
was during this process that I was highlighted to my time management skills. As I had stopped
drawing when I entered college, both my drawing skills and my estimation of the time taken for the
completion of the drawing and inking became rusty. Hence, this became another time consuming
process. Fortunately, I had a clear, set deadline to complete this to compensate for the rustiness.
The following processes of colouring and ʻtouching-upʼ were not so difficult. Overall, the process
behind the creative piece has allowed me to relearn old drawing techniques, highlighted another
weakness of mine which I have to improve upon and rekindled my love for drawing and
storytelling.
4d) Reflection on Oral Presentation
Oral presentations are not alien to me as my degree programme has allowed me to experience
and improve upon my presentation skills. However, the presentations I had done were not usually
evaluated, as such I was not too worried in giving a bad presentation. This changed when I had to
do an oral presentation on my Final Year Project topic to the Heads of the Life Sciences
Department of the University of Manchester. The process behind the design of the presentation
slides was excruciating as my Project Literature Review topic was heavily focused on the history of
yeast research whereas the presentation had to be focused on the scientific knowledge. This
troubled me as I was lacking the required knowledge and dreaded the day when we were given the
times and places for our presentations. Fortunately, my confidence in my presentation slides was
34

35. boosted when I practiced the presentation in front of a Microbiology lecturer who stated that the
presentation was good.
Regarding the presentation, I always use the same presentation style in that I try not to refer to my
notes when I present, allowing me to give the presentation a natural and undisturbed flow. The
strengths of this style include :-
i) The presentation style ensures that I interact with the audience more, thus making the
presentation more engaging; and
ii)The style is more professional as it makes known to the audience that the presenter knows what
he/she is presenting.
Unfortunately, this presentation style also has its weaknesses :-
i) Certain important facts can sometimes be forgotten and thus making me unable to answer
certain questions;
ii)The style makes me speak faster to convey the points, twisting my tongue and making me say,
“Um..”, too many times; and
iii) Not taking questions into account.
Although I knew I lacked the necessary knowledge, a confident appearance could mask this flaw.
As such, I mimicked a mindset of a lecturer which helped me gain the confidence and calmness to
give the presentation. Unfortunately, my confident facade was not enough to hide my lack of
knowledge as it became apparent during the question and answer session, when I was unable to
answer a simple question. As such, the only way to improve upon my presentation skills is to :-
i) Spend more time on practicing instead of just practicing it a day before; and
ii)Ensure that I thoroughly understood the subject material to avoid the risk of being unable to
answer questions.
We were then given the evaluation of our presentations by our respective project supervisors. I
was glad to hear that my presentation was engaging and entertaining (as history can be a bit
boring) but it also highlighted my flaws within the presentation, such as my slides having too much
text. This can be improved on with the addition of pictures or animations but it is determined by the
content of the presentation. Overall, the presentation process allowed me to learn to be more open
with criticism, highlighted the weakness of my presentation style and how to improve upon.
4e) Reflection: Conclusion
In conclusion, the writing of the portfolio was a fun and great experience. The information I had
gathered to complete each piece allowed me to have a new respect and perception to the Yeast.
The pieces within the portfolio was something different from what I was usually accustomed to and
it has allowed me to explore and experiment with my creative side. The portfolio has also
highlighted some of my key weaknesses to improve upon but also helped in reinforcing most of my
strengths. Throughout the process, I have learnt new skills and techniques, and manage relearn
some old skills. Overall, if I was again given the choice of Final Year Projects, I would still pick the
Science Media project.
35

36. 5) References
5a) Science Communication introduction
a) Ainsworth C., Carrington D. (2000), BSE disaster: the history, Available at http://
www.newscientist.com/article/dn91-bse-disaster-the-history.html (Accessed on 28 March 2013)
b) BBC (2013), US HIV baby ʻcuredʼ by early drug treatment, Available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/
news/world-us-canada-21651225 (Accessed on 27 March 2013)
c) Bihis R. (2012), Views and Misconceptions of Science Communication, Available at http://
klima.observatory.ph/Magazine/2012Sep05Wed051208 (Accessed 26 March 2013)
d) Boon T. (2006), A Historical Perspective on Science Engagement, Engaging Science: Thoughts,
deeds, analysis and action, Available at http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/stellent/groups/corporatesite/
@msh_publishing_group/documents/web_document/wtx032689.pdf (Accessed on 25 March 2013)
e) Dickson D. (2005), The case for a ʻdeficit modelʼ of science communication, Available at http://
www.scidev.net/en/editorials/the-case-for-a-deficit-model-of-science-communic.html ( Accessed on
24 March 2013)
f) Dennison B. (2010), History of Science Communication, Available at http://ian.umces.edu/blog/
2010/12/26/bill-dennison-speech-to-latornell-conference-ontario-canada-part-3-history-of-science-
communication/ (Accessed on 24 March 2013)
g) Ehrenberg R. (2013), Published clinical trials shown to be misleading, Available at http://
www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/347933/description/
Published_clinical_trials_shown_to_be_misleading (Accessed on 27 March 2013)
h) Office of Science and Technology (2000), Science and the Public: A Review of Science
Communication and Public Attitudes to Science in Britain, Available at http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/
stellent/groups/corporatesite/@msh_peda/documents/web_document/wtd003419.pdf ( Accessed
on 25 March 2013)
i) The Royal Society (1985), The Public Understanding of Science, Available at http://
royalsociety.org/policy/publications/1985/public-understanding-science/ (Accessed on 26 March
2013)
5b) Biological Science Review Article
a) Anonymous 1 (2013), Gardasil Vaccine, Available at http://ciitn.missouri.edu/cgi-bin/
pub_view_project_ind.cgi?g_num=2&c_id=2007008 (Accessed 25 January 2013)
b) Anonymous 2 (2011), HPV Infection, Available at http://bodyandhealth.canada.com/
channel_condition_info_details.asp?disease_id=345&channel_id=2037&relation_id=42951
(Accessed 27 January 2013)
c) Anonymous 3 (2013), Insulin, Available at http://www.diabetes.co.uk/about-insulin.html
(Accessed on 26 January 2013)
d) Anonymous 4 (2006), Bacterial Expression System, Available at http://www.exonbio.com/
bacterial_expression.php (Accessed 28 January 2013)
e) Barnett J.A. (1998), A history of research on yeasts 1: Work by chemists and biologists
1789-1850, Yeast, 14(16), 1439-1451
36

37. f) Barnett J.A. (2007), A history of research on yeasts 10: foundations of yeast genetics, Yeast, 24
(10), 799-845
g) BBC (2003), Indian firm markets vegetarian insulin, Available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/
south_asia/3126823.stm (Accessed on 26 January 2013)
h) Chaturvedi A., Gillison L.M. (2010), Human Papillomavirus and Head and Neck Cancer. In
Andrew F. Olshan. Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Prevention of Head and Neck Cancer (1st
ed.). New York: Springer
i) Farrel A.E., Plevin R.J., Turner B.T., Jones A.D., OʼHare M., Kammen D.M., (2006), Ethanol can
contribute to Energy and Environmental Goals, Science, 311(5760), 506-508
j) Fedoroff N.V., Cohen, J.E. (1999) ʻPlants and population: Is there time?ʼ, Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 96, 5903–5907
k) Finnen R.L., Erickson K.D., Chen X.S., Garcea R.L. (2003), Interactions between Papillomavirus
L1 and L2 Capsid Proteins, Journal of Virology, 77(8), 4818-4826
l) Ha S-J., Galazka J.M, Kim S.R., Choi J-H, Yang X., Seo J-H, Glass N.L., Cate J.H.D, Jin Y-S.
(2010), Engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae capable of simultaneous cellobiose and xylose
fermentation, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 108(2), 504-509
m) Heile M., Schneider D. (2012), The Evolution of Insulin Therapy in Diabetes Mellitus, The
Journal of Family Practice, 61(5), S6-S12
n) Kurtzman C.P., Fell J.W.(1998), The Yeasts - A Taxonomic Study, 4th ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier
Science
o) Nasser M.W., Pooja V., Abdin M.Z., Jain S.K. (2003), Evaluation of Yeast as an Expression
System, Indian Journal of Biotechnology, 2, 477-493
p) Neeper M.P., Hofmann K.J., Jansen K.U. (1996), Expression of the major capsid protein of
human papillomavirus type 11 in Saccahromyces cerevisae, Gene, 180 (1-2), 1-6
q) NHS (2012), Diabetes, Available at http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Diabetes/Pages/Diabetes.aspx
(Accessed 27 January 2013)
r) Park M., Kim H. J., Kim H-J (2008), Optimum conditions for production and purification of human
papillomavirus type 16 L1 protein from Saccharomyces cerevisae, Protein Expression and
Purification, 59(1), 175-181
s) Pscheidt B., Glieder A. (2008), Yeast cell factories for fine chemical and API production,
Microbial Cell Factories, 7, 25
t) Romanczuk H., Howley P.M. (1992), Disruption of either the E1 or the E2 regulatory gene of
human papillomavirus type 16 increases viral immortalisation capacity, Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the USA, 89(7), 3159-3163
u) Somerville C. (2007), Biofuels, Current Biology, 17(4), R115-R118
v) Wightman R., Turner S. (2011), Biosynthesis of the plant secondary wall: Digesting the
indigestible, The Biochemist Magazine, 33, 24-28
37

38. Figures
i) Figure 1: Anonymous 1 (2012) Kombucha Recipe: Kombucha Bread Starter+ Kombucha
Sourdough and Kombucha Hotcakes Recipe, Available at http://www.kombuchakamp.com/
2011/12/kombucha-recipe- sourdough-kombucha-bread-starter-plus-more-recipes.html (Accessed
20 October 2012)
ii) Figure 2(A): Anonymous 2 (2012), Yeast Reproduction is romantic, Available at http://royal-
sprout.blogspot.co.uk/2012/04/yeast-reproduction-is-romantic.html (Accessed 08 February 2013)
iii) Figure 2(B): Becker B.J (2006), “On Spontaneous Generation” (1864) - an address delivered by
Louis Pasteur, Available at https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/NatureandArtifice/week7f.html
(Accessed on 01 February 2013)
iv) Figure 3: Anonymous 3 (2012), Yeast Infection--Candida Albicans, And The Symptoms and
Treatments of Candidiasis, Available at http://www.fungusfocus.com/html/candida_info.htm
(Accessed on 03 February 2013)
v) Figure 4: Anonymous 4 (2010), Compensation Point, Available at http://www.tutorvista.com/
content/biology/biology-iv/respiration/compensation-point.php (Accessed on 09 February 2013)
vi) Figure 5: Anonymous 5 (2004), Human Papillomavirus (HPV), Available at http://
www.bristol.ac.uk/biochemistry/gaston/HPV/hpv_information.htm (Accessed on 10 February 2013)
5c) New Scientist Article
a) Anonymous 1 (2013), Gardasil Vaccine, Available at http://ciitn.missouri.edu/cgi-bin/
pub_view_project_ind.cgi?g_num=2&c_id=2007008 (Accessed 25 January 2013)
b) Barnett J.A. (1998), A history of research on yeasts 1: Work by chemists and biologists
1789-1850, Yeast, 14(16), 1439-1451
c) Barnett J.A. (2000), A history of research on yeasts 2: Louis Pasteur and his contemporaries,
1850-1880. Yeast, 16(8), 755-771
d) Barnett J.A., Lichtenthaler F.W. (2001), A history of research on yeasts 3: Emil Fischer, Eduard
Buchner and their contemporaries, 1880-1900, Yeast, 18(4), 363-388
e) Barnett J.A. (2007), A history of research on yeasts 10: foundations of yeast genetics, Yeast, 24
(10), 799-845
f) Demain A.L. (2010), Industrial Biotechnology, Sustainable Growth and Economic Success,
Weinheim: Wiley
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40