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The influence of the campesino a campesino movement in Cuban
agriculture during the “special period”.
By Dirk Fleischheuer

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Definitions:
Agro-ecology:”Thescientificbasisof alternative agriculture,synonymousinsome circleswith
collective actiononthe eco-managementof the natural resource base;commonusage inLatin
America.”
Campesino:“Traditional,peasant,small-scale,autonomousfarmer.”
(Wright,2009)
Introduction
In thisreportI reflectonthe effectsthe CampesinoaCampesino(CAC) movementhadonthe Cuban
agriculture andoverall economyduringthe periodafter1990 andthe role itplayedinrelationto
that economy. The reportisdevidedintosub-sections. Tofullyunderstandthe impactthe CAC
movementhadonthe transformationof Cubanagriculture itisimportanttobe aware of the special
circumstancesCubafacedduringthe time of the intervention.Likewise itisequallyimportantto
understandthe differencebetweenthe agro-ecological methodof farmingadvocatedbythe CAC
promotersand the methods of the industrializedagriculture thathadpreviouslydominatedCuban
agriculture.Italkaboutthese issuesinsection1and 2 respectively. Section3talksaboutthe
measurable impactsonCubanagricultural economy,whilesection4and 5 reflectmore onthe
“special”case Cuba.In section6 I talkabout the possible futuredevelopmentsinCubanagriculture.
The moviemento Campesino a Campesino.
One of the keycharacteristicsof the CAC’smovementisitsfocusonsustainable agricultural
development.WhichaccordingtoHolt-Giménezcanbe definedasamethodthat: “…meetsthe
needsof presentgenerationswithoutcompromisingthe needsof future generationstomeettheir
needs…”Thisconceptemergedasan answertothe greenrevolutiondevelopmentmethodswhich
failedtosolve the problemof rural povertyinLatinAmericaduringthe 1960’s and 1970’s. At the
same it time causedsevere damage tothe rural ecosystemsthroughthe use of heavymachinery,
agrochemicalsandirrigation.Asanalternative tothese methodsvariousinternationalNGO’s
developedprojectsforsustainableagricultureinMesoamericaduringthe 1970’s and80’s. These
projectswere carriedouton village levelandthe agricultural techniquesintroducedtothe small-
holdfarmerswere thenputintopractice.Overtime these smallholdersdevelopedastrategyof a

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low-risk,modern/ traditional mix of alternative techniquestoimprove the agro-ecological resilience
and productivityof theirfarming.Insocalled intercambiosdecampesino a campesino (farmerto
famermeetings) the knowledgegainedby the smallholderswasthensharedandcollectedandover
time developedintocomplexagro-ecological farmingstyles.(Holt- Giménez, 2006) It isthissharing
and developingof knowledge betweenthe campesinosthatis arguably anotherdefiningkey
characteristicof the CAC movement.
Cuba and the beginning of the “special period”
Afterthe Cubanrevolutionof 1959 the relationshipbetweenCubaandthe UnitedStatesof America
deterioratedrapidlyandculminatedinthe cessationof all diplomaticcontactsand the impositionof
an almosttotal economicembargoin1961. Even thoughtrade betweenCubaand othercountries
continued,the value of trade fromLatinAmericancountrieswithCubadroppedfrom$84 millionin
1958 to aboutone millioninthe late 1960’s. Duringthistime Cuba became almosttotallydependent
on the SovietUnion. (Shkolnick,2012) In 1988 Cuba imported83.8% of itstotal importsfromthe
socialisticblockcountriesof EasternEurope while exporting81.7% of itstotal exportstothe same
countries.The agricultural dependencyonthe mainexportcropsof tobacco, sugarand citrus was
significantand50% of the agricultural landof Cuba wascoveredbythe three crops.These
monocultureswere characterizedbyamethodof highexternal inputsof agrochemicalsandlarge
scale mechanizedproduction. InreturnCubareceivedfavourabletermsforthe importof petroleum,
machineryandraw materials.Of the Cubanproteinrequirements57% were importedandover50%
of meats,dairyproducts,edibleoil,herbicides,fertilizers,feedconcentratesforlivestockwere
importedaswell. (Gliessman&Rosemeyer,2010) While thismodel of agriculture andtrade
providedfoodsecuritytothe Cubanpopulationitdidnotprovide food sovereignty.In1989 the
socialisticblockof EasternEurope collapsedwhichledtoa lossof 85% of Cubantrade relationsand
nowthe country wasneithercapable of importingsufficientfood,norable toimportthe necessary
inputs(fertilizersetc.) toproduce foodunderthe oldproductionmethods. The Cubangovernment
declaredthe “special period”,aneconomicpolicybasedonwar-time austeritymeasures,
implementedinpeace time.Partof these measureswasthe break- upof large state-ownedfarms
intoBasic Unitsof Cooperative Production(UBPCs) inordertospeedupthe adoptionof new low
external inputpractices.(Rossetetal,2011) This wasbasedon the recognitionthatproductionona
smallerscale wasmore efficientandledtothe incorporationof approximately150.000 workersinto
the UBPCs. (Gliessman&Rosemeyer,2010) However,thistransitionproducedmixedresultsasthe
formerstate employedfarmerswere slow toadapttothe new requirements. Therefore the more
importantchangestookplace at the small-holdfarmerlevelitself.Practicallyall campesinosof Cuba

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belongtoone of twotypesof cooperatives,eithertothe Credit&Service Coops(CCSs),ortothe
Agriculture ProductionCoops(CPAs).The CCS’sare made upof campesinofamilies.Theyowntheir
farmsand workthe landindividually,butthroughthe Coopmembershiptheycanactas a groupif it
comesto obtainingcredit,marketingof theirproduce,the combineduse of farmmachineriesand
the achievementof economicsof scale.The CPAs are collectivefarmswhere all assetsincludingland
and machineryare ownedcollectively. Almostall CubanfarmerswhetherCCSor CPA members
belongtothe National Associationof Small Farmersthe ANAP.(Rossetetal,2011) Duringthe crisis
those small-holdfarmerswere lessaffectedbecausetheyengagedinamore diversifiedagriculture
whichwasmore locallyorientatedandlessdependentonexternal inputs.(Gliessman&Rosemeyer,
2010) It wasto those farmersthe ANAPturnedinorderto meetthe immediatedemandforfood
withtraditional methodsof production.Theyneeded campesinoswhostillrememberedhow to
ploughwithanimal tractionandhowto use the manure as fertilizer. Itwasthe firststepin the
transformationof Cubanagriculture.(Holt-Giménez,2006)
The campesino a campesino movement comes to Cuba
In 1995 the firstagricultural workshopinCubawasheld.Inthe middle of the “special period”ateam
of three promotersgave aworkshoponwaterand soil conservationwhichwasattendedby12
farmers.Twoof these farmersputthe methodstheyhadbeentaughtintopractice andin Augustof
1996 theypassedontheirexperiencestotheirneighboursinthe firstCuban campesinoacampesino
workshop. Withthe helpof the ANAPandthe German NGO Bread ForThe World the workshops
were extendedtoall Cubanmunicipalitiesandwithinayear600 farmerswere trainedinthe new
methods.(Holt-Giménez,2006) The resultswere abetterconnectionof the people withthe landand
higherincomesbecause the qualityof the workhadimproved. (Rossetetal,2011) Particularsuccess
was achievedwithlivestock.Duringthe periodfrom1995 to 2000 the livestockunder campesino
managementincreasedwhile livestockmanagedbystate andUBPC farmscouldnot recover.In2006
the campesinosectorof Cuba ownedover43% of Cubanlivestockwhileonlyowning13% of the
land. (Gliessman&Rosemeyer,2010)

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Eightyears afteritsintroductionthe Cuban campesinoacampesinomovement hadgrowntoover
100,000 participatingsmallholders.(Holt-Giménez,2006) Eventhoughthe data to prove cause and
effectisnotavailable,asneither the MinistryforAgriculture northe ANAP maintainssuchdata,the
data showninFigure 1. seemstoreflectthe connectionbetween the CACmovementanditsnew
methodsof productionandthe increase intotal production.(Rossetetal,2011)
Figure 1. Total productionfromthe Cuban campesinosectorbetween1988 and 2009. The
productionin2008 wasaffectedbythree hurricanes. Source:Rossetetal, 2011

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Figure 2.comparesthe percentcontributionthe campesinosectorhadinfarmlandanditstotal
national contributiontothe productionof keyfoodcropsin1989 and 2008. In all crop categoriesthe
numbersof productionimprovedsignificantly andtoa much biggerproportionthanthe increase in
farmlandcultivatedby campesinoswouldsuggest. (Rossetetal,2011)
Basedon the above statisticsitcan be saidthat the Cuban campesinos were animportantlinkin
preservinglivestockandtraditional cropvarietieswhich,fromalocal perspective,are extremely
importantfora sustainableagriculture. (Gliessman&Rosemeyer,2010)
If we lookat the numbersrelatingtothe foodproductionby campesinosandthe use of
agrochemicalswe alsogainsome useful insightintothe benefitsof the new methodsof production.
The productionnumbersof vegetables(atypical campesinocrop) forexample declinedinthe period

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from1988 to 1994 by 65%. In2007 those numbershadclimbedbackto 145% of the 1988 levels,
despite areductionof agrochemical usage of 72% comparedto 1988 levels.Other campesinocrops
like beans orroots andtubersshowedsimilarpatterns.Thisisinstarkcontrastto sugar cane (nota
campesinocrop) were yieldsfell by28% comparedwith1988 levelseventhoughthe reductionin
agro chemical inputswasonly5%,whichispracticallyinsignificant.(Rossetetal,2011)
See Figure 3. fordetails.(Source: Sosaetal,2013)
Note:All datain comparisonto1988 data.
The overall participationrate of campesinoswhichusednew,organicmethodsof fertilizationand
pestcontrol was forsome techniquesashighas95%.
See figures4and 5 for details.

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Figure 4 showsto whichextentsurveyedfarmersinCubausedorganicinputsandtechniquesto
improve soil fertility.

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Figure 5 showsto whichextent farmersusedorganicinputsandtechniquestocontrol pestand
diseases.
Source: Wright, 2009
Othermethods promotedbythe CACmovementwere the increaseduse of animal traction.While at
the endof the 1980’s the numberof tractors inCuba was around90,000 the numberof operational
tractors soondroppedsignificantlydue toalack of fuel,missingpartsandmaintenance.That’swhy
about300,000 oxenteamswere trainedreducingthe dependencyonfossil fuels,improvingthe
mechanical control of weedsandtherebysubstitutingherbicides.Tofurtherimprove soil fertility
and control pestsmore effectivelycroprotationsandpolycultureswere developed.Thisledtoan
increase in the yieldsof importantcropssuchas cassava or beans.(Gliessma n& Rosemeyer,2010)
One of the reasonsforsuch improvedyieldinpolyculturesisthatinsectswhichare harmful toone
crop are foughtoff byinsectsattractedby the othercrop. (Patel,2007)
Anotherpositiveside effectof campesinofarmingis itsimprovedadaptabilitytoclimate change and
betterresilience toextreme climateevents.Agro-ecological CACfarmsinCubasufferedless
hurricane damage in1998 than farmspracticingmore conventional methodsof farming.The CAC

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farmssufferedlesserosion,landslidesandfewerplantsknockeddown,the latterdue toa more
multi-storied farmingsystemwhere onlythe tallestplantswereknockeddownandwhere the lower
storycrops quicklybenefitedfromthe addedsunlight.Furthertothata lot of treesblownoverwere
quicklystoodupagainby the campesinofamilies.(Rossetetal,2011)
The role of the ANAP
The initial role of the ANAPinCubanagriculture wasthatof a supporterof the revolutionand
promoterof peasantintegrationintoCubansociety.In2001 it tookon the role of a promoterof the
strategicnationwideimplementationof agro-ecology. The ANAPisthe onlyorganisationof Cuban
campesinosanditreachesintothe mostremote cornersof the islandof Cuba.It isable to mobilise
and guide farmersthroughitsnetworkandhasgreat educational influence.(Sosaetal,2013) The
political mass-mobilisationmethodology of the ANAPmade itpossible thateverycadre andmilitant
of the organisationcouldbe heldresponsibleforthe promotionandfacilitationof the movementin
theirrespective area.By2003 the agro-ecological CampesinoaCampesinomovementhadspreadto
all Cubanprovinces.(Rossetetal,2011)
Why is Cuba a special case?
The scalingup of sustainable agricultureonastate-wide basisismainlyapolitical projectthatwill
require the collaborationof the farmersandthe countriesinstitutionslike its governmentministries,
markets,banksandother social institutions.(Holt-Giménez,2006) InsocialistCubainthe 1990’s
such collaborationwasarguablyeasiertoachieve thanforexample inVenezuelain the early2000’s.
As LintonPage arguesthe Venezuelanstate failed,forsome time toincrease participationina
repeasantizationprocessbecausepeople hadtoshiftfroma capitalistwayof thinkingtoa more
socialistway. NeitherwasVenezuelaunderatrade embargoanddid therefore notface hungerand
foodshortagesas Cubadid.(LintonPage,2010) It can therefore be arguedthatthe political
influenceonthe movementinCubawasa significantfactorinitshuge success,eventhoughthe
campesinoacampesinomovementwassuccessfulelsewhereaswell –as iswell documented.
It is alsointerestingthat,afterthe initial crisis,the Cubaneconomydidmuchbetterthanother
post- Sovieteconomies.Thismighthave onlybeenpossible due to the political systeminCubathat
was ina positiontoadministerthe dramaticdecline of livingstandardsinthe early90’swithout
beingsubjectedtopolitical unrestorprotests.(Hoffmann andWhitehead,2006)

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The future of Cuban agriculture
Despite the successof the campesinoacampesinomovementCubaisstill a countrydependenton
foodimports. Increasedfoodproduction throughlocallyavailableresourcesisofficiallypromotedto
reduce thisdependency.Howeveritseemsthatinrealitythe focusisonthe promotionof industrial-
agriculture schemesinsteadof local peasantproduction.Thisreturntoconventional agriculture
suggeststhatagro-ecological productionmethodsare,atleast bysome decisionmakers, only
viewedas“alternatives”duringtimesof scarcity. Itis estimatedthatCubahasapproximately7
millionhectaresof landsuitable forcropproduction.If thislandwouldbe farmedwithdiversified
agro-ecological methods,thiswouldbe sufficienttomake Cubanotonlyfoodself-sufficient,butalso
turn itintoa foodexportingnation.(Alteni andFunes-Monzote,2012) One potential marketfor
Cubanproductscould be the UnitedStates(once the embargoislifted) withitsdemandfornatural,
organicproducts. Renewedtrade withthe U.S.wouldalsoreduce the costsforimports,as the U.S. is
Cuba’sclosestneighbour.(Shkolnick,2012) A returnto industrial agriculture ora possible
involvementwithgeneticallymodifiedcropproducts,asallegedbyAlteni andFunes,seems
therefore arathershort sightedandparadoxical approach.
Conclusion
The campesinoa campesinomovementof Latin-Americaisasmuch aboutagro-ecological farmingas
it isa social movementandaboutthe escape fromoldpowerstructuresandpoverty.Inthisrespect
Cuba isa somewhatdifferentcase.The Cubangovernmentidentifiedthe small-holdfarmersasa
vital tool inthe combatingof a threateningfamine.Bydrawingonthe knowledge of the campesinos
the economiccrisiscouldbe mitigatedandthe agriculture of the countrycouldbe adaptedto the
newrealities.The turntowardsmore ecologicallysustainablemethodsof productionwasborne out
of necessityratherthanconviction.Itprovedhoweverthatorganicagriculture canbe viable onabig
scale and that itcan be sufficienttofeedawhole country.Itishighlyquestionable if thiscouldhave
beenachievedwithoutthe centralisedstructure of the Cubanpolitical systemandthe vital role the
ANAPplayedinimplementing,monitoringandevaluatingthe reforms.The interventionsin
agricultural policiesduringthe specialperiodturnedapotential catastrophe intoasuccessstoryfor
the supportersof agro-ecological farmingandalsoconsolidatedasocialistregimeduringatime
whenothersocialistregimesaroundthe worldcollapsed.One shouldnotforgethowever,thatatthe

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root of the successwere the peasantfarmerswiththeirabilities,knowledge and awill toproduce
food.

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