1. PROJECT IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGY STRATEGIES FOR
NANO-FIBRE
IN THE SPECIALTY FILMS MARKET
D. Michael
Project Report 2013-ME45
Co-worker: S. Biswas
Supervisor: Dr M. Shahbazpour
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Auckland
3 October 2013

2. ii
2013-ME45
TECHNOLOGY STRATEGIES FOR
NANO-FIBRES IN THE SPECIALITY FILM MARKET
M. Shahbazpour, 2013
S. Biswas
D. Michael
ABSTRACT
RevolutionFibres is an Auckland based company, which focuses on the industrial scale production of
nanofibres. The company aims to create new innovative products using nanofibre technologies by
forming technology partners. RevolutionFibres have developed their own propriety Sonic Electrospin-
ning technology which lead to The Chameleon, RevolutionFibres pilot scale electrospinning machine.
Following The Komodo which offers large scale production runs and resulted in an award at the New
Zealand’s Engineering Excellence Awards.
RevolutionFibres believes that there is a significant application of nanofibres within the specialty films
market. As such the aim of this project was to identify and develop a technology strategy for lucrative
areas within the specialty films market. Initial research was conducted to form an understanding of the
nanofibre and specialty films industries as well as technology roadmapping; a process to bridging the
gap between the technological needs of the market with the current capabilities of the company. Re-
search showed that piezoelectric generators, oxygen barriers, fuel cells, sensors, dye sensitized solar
cells and super capacitors were industries where nanofibres offered an advantage. An introduction to
the industries, materials, manufacturing methods and key properties are documented.
Through analysis of the various industries, it was determined that the supercapacitors market was the
most suitable industry and aligned with RevolutionFibres company strategy. Current capabilities of
RevolutionFibres were discussed against the technological demands of the market and through the use
of a technology strategy canvas, a strategic plan has been devised to assist RevolutionFibres in enter-
ing the supercapacitors market within the next 3-5 years.

3. iii
Acknowledgements
I would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge the people whose support, knowledge and guid-
ance were significant in assisting to the successful completion of this project.
Souvik Biswas – A close friend and project partner, whose knowledge and assistance was of signifi-
cant value and in fully develop these ideas and implement them.
Dr. Mehdi Shahbazpour – Our project supervisor. He kept us on track throughout the year while sup-
porting us with plenty of knowledge on management engineering. He also developed and assisted us in
implementation of the Technology Strategy Canvas used to make recommendations.
Mr. Iain Hosie – Technical Director at Revolution Fibres, who organised this project and met with us
weekly. We worked closely in order to get a very clear idea of exactly what areas of the specialty films
market should be targeted, as well as providing us with all the information necessary to implement the
Technology Strategy Canvas.
Mr. Albert McGhee – General Manager at Revolution Fibres, who provided us with excellent market-
ing advice when it came to selecting the industries suitable for technology partnerships, as well as
providing excellent management consulting advice relating to the implementation of the Technology
Strategy Canvas.
Dr. Brett Wells – at Aeroqual, whose experience and knowledge in the sensor’s industry was invalua-
ble in coming up with a clear idea of the sensors industry and specifically which niches nanofibres
would be ideally suited for.

4. iv
Glossary of Terms
Sonic Electrospinning Propriety name for an industrial scaled technolo-
gy to manufacture nanofibres
PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene
PE Polyethylene
PANI Polyaniline
PVA Polyvinyl alcohol
PVF Polyvinyl fluoride
PVDC Polyvinylidene chloride
PVDF polyvinylidene fluoride
PVDF-HFP polyvinylidene fluoride-hexafluoro propylene
PAN Polyacrylonitrile
PMMA Polymethyl methacrylate
PLA Polylactic acid
FTIR Fourier transform infrared spectroscope
PVP Polypyrrolidone
PI Polyimide
PEN Polyethylene naphthalene
PZT Lead zirconate titanate
LDPE Low density polyethylene
PPy Polypropylene
PEM Polymer Electrolyte membrane
AFC Alkaline fuel cells
PPSU Polyphenyl sulfone
SPFEK Sulfonated polyfluroenyl ether ketone
PES Polyether sulfone
DSSC Dye-sensitized solar cells
Mesoporous Material containing pores with diameters between
2 to 50 nm.
Sonication Act of applying sound to agitate particles
EDLC Electrochemical double layer capacitor
AHP Analytical hierarchy process
p-doped Positively charging a molecule
n-doped Negatively charging a molecule
PP Polypyrrole
PEO Polyethylene oxide

5. v
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction............................................................................................................................1
2.0 Literature Review....................................................................................................................1
2.1 Nanofibres Industry....................................................................................................................... 1
2.1.1 Introduction to the nanofibres industry ................................................................................ 1
2.1.2 Materials ................................................................................................................................ 1
2.1.3 Manufacturing Process .......................................................................................................... 1
2.1.4 Applications............................................................................................................................ 2
2.2 Specialty Films Market ................................................................................................................. 2
2.2.1 Introduction to the Specialty Films Industry.......................................................................... 2
2.2.2 Manufacturing........................................................................................................................ 3
2.2.3 Materials ................................................................................................................................ 3
2.3 Technology Roadmapping ............................................................................................................ 3
2.3.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................ 3
2.3.2 Types of technology roadmaps .............................................................................................. 3
2.3.3 Technology Strategy Canvas................................................................................................... 5
3.0 Identification of Niched Industries...........................................................................................5
3.1 Piezoelectric Generators................................................................................................................ 5
3.1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................ 5
3.1.2 Structure................................................................................................................................. 5
3.1.3 Materials ................................................................................................................................ 6
3.1.4 Manufacturing........................................................................................................................ 6
3.1.5 Key properties of piezoelectric generators industry.............................................................. 6
3.1.6 Nanofibres based piezoelectric generators ........................................................................... 6
3.2 Oxygen Barrier Films.................................................................................................................... 6
3.2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................ 6
3.2.2 Structure................................................................................................................................. 7
3.2.3 Materials ................................................................................................................................ 7
3.2.4 Manufacturing........................................................................................................................ 7
3.2.5 Key properties of the oxygen industry................................................................................... 7
3.2.6 Films from hydrolysed whey protein ..................................................................................... 8
3.2.7 Clay Nanopaper - montmorillonite platelets in a continuous matrix of Nanofibrillated
Cellulose.......................................................................................................................................... 8
3.3 Fuel Cells ...................................................................................................................................... 8
3.3.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................ 8
3.3.2 Structure................................................................................................................................. 9

6. vi
3.3.3 Materials ................................................................................................................................ 9
3.3.4 Manufacturing...................................................................................................................... 10
3.3.5 Key properties of PEM fuel cells........................................................................................... 10
3.3.6 Electrospun composite proton exchange membranes ........................................................ 10
3.4 Sensors ........................................................................................................................................ 11
3.4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 11
3.4.2 Structure............................................................................................................................... 11
3.4.3 Materials .............................................................................................................................. 11
3.4.4 Manufacturing...................................................................................................................... 11
3.4.5 Key properties of industry.................................................................................................... 11
3.4.6 Polylactic acid membrane as substrate for biosensor ......................................................... 12
3.4.7 Electrospun polyaniline nanofibres for hydrogen gas sensing............................................. 12
3.5 Dye Sensitized Solar Cells .......................................................................................................... 13
3.5.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 13
3.5.2 Structure............................................................................................................................... 13
3.5.3 Materials .............................................................................................................................. 14
3.5.4 Manufacturing...................................................................................................................... 14
3.5.5 Key properties of the DSSC industry .................................................................................... 15
3.5.6 Nanofibres based counter electrodes.................................................................................. 15
3.5.7 Nanofibres based mesoporous semiconductor ................................................................... 15
3.5.8 Nanofibre based electrolyte................................................................................................. 15
3.6 Supercapacitors ........................................................................................................................... 16
3.6.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 16
3.6.2 Structure............................................................................................................................... 16
3.6.3 Material................................................................................................................................ 17
3.6.4 Manufacturing...................................................................................................................... 17
3.6.5 Key properties of supercapacitors ....................................................................................... 18
3.6.6 Nanofibres based electrodes ............................................................................................... 19
3.6.7 Nanofibres based separators ............................................................................................... 19
4.0 Market Analysis .................................................................................................................... 20
4.1 Criteria for Evaluation................................................................................................................. 20
4.2 Evaluation of Industries .............................................................................................................. 20
4.2.1 Piezoelectric Generators...................................................................................................... 20
4.2.2 Oxygen Barrier Films ............................................................................................................ 21
4.2.3 PEM Fuel Cells ...................................................................................................................... 21
4.2.4 Sensors ................................................................................................................................. 21
4.2.5 Dye-sensitized solar cells...................................................................................................... 21
4.2.6 Supercapacitors.................................................................................................................... 22
4.3 Analytical Hierarchy Process Results ......................................................................................... 22

7. vii
5.0 Technology Strategy Canvas .................................................................................................. 22
5.1 Vision & Strategy........................................................................................................................ 22
5.2 Value proposition........................................................................................................................ 22
5.3 Customer Segments..................................................................................................................... 22
5.4 Performance ................................................................................................................................ 23
5.4.1 Supercapacitor electrodes ................................................................................................... 23
5.5 Value Chain................................................................................................................................. 23
5.5.1 Inbound & outbound logistics.............................................................................................. 23
5.5.2 Manufacturing operations and services............................................................................... 23
5.5.3 Marketing and Sales............................................................................................................. 23
5.5.4 Technology and human resources ....................................................................................... 23
5.5.5 Purchasing............................................................................................................................ 24
5.6 Finance Providers........................................................................................................................ 24
5.7 Technology Providers ................................................................................................................. 24
6.0 Recommended Strategy ........................................................................................................ 25
7.0 Conclusions........................................................................................................................... 25
8.0 List of References.................................................................................................................. 26
Appendix 1: Table representing the properties and manufactures of niche materials used in the
specialty films market................................................................................................................. 30
Appendix 2: Technology Strategy Canvas..................................................................................... 31
Appendix 3: List of materials used in nanofibre based gas sensors ............................................... 32
Appendix 4: Analytical hierarchy process .................................................................................... 33
Table of Figures
Figure 1-Simple Electrospinning apparatus setup................................................................................... 2
Figure 2-Pie chart representation of materials used in the specialty films market.................................. 3
Figure 3 – Examples of technology roadmap types based on purpose: a) product planning, b)
service/capability planning, c) strategic planning, d) long-range planning, e) knowledge asset
planning, f) program planning, g) process planning, h) integration planning [8]. .................................. 4
Figure 4 – Nanofibres based piezoelectric generator .............................................................................. 6
Figure 5 – Illustration of a Coulometric Testing unit.............................................................................. 7
Figure 6 – U.S. Department of Energy comparison of Fuel Cell Technologies...................................... 9
Figure 7 – Structure of a PEM fuel cell .................................................................................................. 9
Figure 8 – Graph representing the frequency shift at varying concentrations of hydrogen .................. 12
Figure 9 – Diagram representing the various components of a dye-sensitized solar cell. .................... 14
Figure 10 – Cross section diagram illustrating the structure of an EDLC ............................................ 17
Figure 11 – Cross section representing the structure of a coin cell supercapacitor............................... 18
Figure 12 – Illustration representing the structure of a wound supercapacitor cell. ............................. 18

8. 1
1.0 Introduction
RevolutionFibres is an Auckland based company, which focuses on the industrial scale production of
nanofibres. The company aims to create new innovative solutions and products using nanofibre tech-
nologies through partnership across a broad range of industries. RevolutionFibres have developed their
own propriety Sonic Electrospinning technology which lead to The Chameleon, RevolutionFibres pilot
scale electrospinning machine. Following that they developed The Komodo which offers large scale
production runs and resulted in an award in Manufacturing and Mechanical Engineering at the New
Zealand’s Engineering Excellence Awards.
RevolutionFibres believes that there is a significant application of nanofibres within the specialty films
industry. As such, the aim of this project was to form a technology development plan in which the
technological requirements of the most lucrative industry was identified and a strategic plan was de-
veloped in line with RevolutionFibres company strategy that enables the company to achieve market
entry. The plan will be developed through the use of the Technology Strategy Canvas and comprehen-
sive research of the nanofibres industry, the specialty films industry and associated technologies.
2.0 Literature Review
A literature review of the nanofibres industry and specialty films industry was conducted to bridge the
personal knowledge gaps present. Once an understanding of these industries was formed, a literature
review on technology roadmapping was conducted to better understand the strategic approaches to
identifying technological demands of an industry.
2.1 Nanofibres Industry
2.1.1 Introduction to the nanofibres industry
The first production of nanofibres was carried out between 1934 and 1944 with A. Formhals publish-
ing the first patent at this time describing the experimental production of nanofibres. Research contin-
ued in this area for several decades until the first technology enabling production of nanofibres ap-
peared on the global market in the 1980s [1]. The evolution of this technology has carried on from
then into current times where a vast variety of manufacturing methods, materials used and applications
have been developed.
2.1.2 Materials
The possibilities of materials used in the nanofibres industry are large in nature. Metals such as titani-
um [2], polymers and bioorigin materials such as wood fibres [3] have been recorded to work effec-
tively. A key requirement is chemical stability however the manufacturing process also affects the
ability to use a material. In laboratory conditions, the electro-spinning process is simple compared to
larger production scaled electro-spinning where problems develop due to the manufacturing process
rather than the materials stability. Therefore only through trial is it possible to effectively determine a
material’s usability.
2.1.3 Manufacturing Process
Nanofibres can be manufactured through a variety of ways such as electrospinning, melt spinning,
self-assembly, template synthesis, electroblowing, force spinning and many more [1]. However at pre-
sent, industrial scale manufacturing of nanofibres is only possible through the electrospinning process.
Electrospinning is a process that uses the application of an electric field to a stream of polymer solu-
tion emitted at a constant rate through the tip of a needle. When the electrostatic forces applied to the
fluid are high enough, the surface tension is overcome and the liquid bursts outwards in a jet. Molecu-
lar cohesion must be sufficiently high within jet so that it remains as a single stream of molecules.
This stream then dries into a fibre [4]. Figure 1 illustrates this process.

9. 2
Figure -Simple Electrospinning apparatus setup
RevolutionFibres uses a proprietary technology called “Sonic Electrospinning Technology” in order to
achieve industrial scaled production quantities. This is a needleless system which uses electrostatic
propulsion in a high speed spinning machine. Their flagship machine, known as “The Komodo” uses
this technology to achieve a production rate of up to 500m2
/hour with rolls 2 metres in width.
2.1.4 Applications
The applications of nanofibres have branched out into a variety of industries. Pioneering companies
like Nafigate and a multitude of research conducted by companies and university have resulted in ap-
plications in:
 The filtration industry: oxygen, water, gas, chemicals, ions, oils and many more.
 Optoelectronic devices: Used in dye sensitized solar cells or as a membrane separator in fuel
cells. As sensors and photo-catalytic applications.
 Medical industry: delivery of essential nutrients through the skin pores using nanofibres
sheets.
 Textile industry: Protective clothing against chemicals, oil, fuel. Rainwear, sports apparel-
breathable material. The applications of nanofibre within baby diapers is also possible.
RevolutionFibres have developed three proprietary technological applications of nanofibres. Their first
is SetaTM
, an electrospun collagen made from the skin of the hoki fish which serves as an excellent
filtration unit. The second is XantulayrTM
which is a composite reinforcement product using non-
woven polymers and actiVLayrTM
, a skin dressing made from collagen that can be used to apply topi-
cal creams or medicines.
2.2 Specialty Films Market
2.2.1 Introduction to the Specialty Films Industry
The specialist films market is large, diverse and well developed in nature. However based on the mate-
rials used as shown in figure 2, it can be represented into 2 categories:
Engineering Films: These are films which are manufactured and consumed in significantly large quan-
tities. They generally have a low cost price and low material value within the industry. Polyester, ny-
lon and polycarbonate are represented as engineering films [5].
High Performance Films: These are films which are manufactured and consumed in smaller quantities.
They hold a higher cost price and material value within the industry as their applications are more spe-
cific in nature. Examples of these films include fluropolymer, polyimide, polyethylene napthalate and
cyclo-olefin copolymer [5]. This category relates more closely with the niche markets that exist within
the specialty films industry and as a result in depth research was carried out to for an understanding
these materials

10. 3
Figure -Pie chart representation of materials used in the specialty films market
2.2.2 Manufacturing
The manufacturing of polymer films is diverse in nature. Generally the thin films are formed from ei-
ther a solution or from the vapour phase using a variety of techniques. In the solution form, solvent
casting, thermal spraying, spin coating, surface absorption and Langmuir-Blodgett films. In the vapour
form there is the deposition techniques, evaporation, sputtering, pulsed laser deposition and plasma
polymerization [6]. Solvent casting the easiest and simplest techniques which is limited by the inho-
mogeneous thickness while spin coating is the general preferred technique. Each technique offers its
own advantages and limitations which results in the application of the film having some governing
over the manufacturing method.
2.2.3 Materials
The properties and manufactures of niche materials used in the specialty films market have been de-
tailed extensively in Appendix 1.
2.3 Technology Roadmapping
2.3.1 Introduction
Technology roadmapping is technique widely used within industries to support strategic and long term
planning [7] . It involves understanding the market needs and current technologies while aligning the
companies’ vision with the market. It provides a great potential for supporting the development and
implementation of integrated business strategies as well as product and technology plans [8].
Treating technology as a type of knowledge can be useful to help effectively manage technology.
Technological knowledge generally comprises of both explicit and tacit knowledge [8].
 Explicit knowledge: Knowledge which has been articulate together with the physical manifes-
tation of technology
 Tacit knowledge: Knowledge which cannot be easily articulated and relies on training and ex-
perience
The management of technology is critical to ensure a company is able to maintain a competitive ad-
vantage within a market. It addresses the processes needed to maintain a stream of products or services
to the market. There are several definitions of technology management [7, 9, 10], The U.S. National
Research Council in Washington D.C. defined the management of technology as linking “engineering,
science and management disciplines to plan, develop and implement technological capabilities to
shape and accomplish the strategic and operational objectives of the organization” [9].
2.3.2 Types of technology roadmaps
There are a variety of technology roadmapping approaches based on the organizations aims and graph-
ical format used to represent the aspects. Generally technology roadmaps can be either forward or
backward looking. Backward roadmaps involve determining how to reach a target set by the market
and therefore is preferred by industries that are market driven. Forward roadmaps involve evaluating

11. 4
the potential of current technologies to meet future needs and therefore is preferred by industries that
are technology driven.
Examination of a variety of roadmaps enabled them to be clustered into 8 sections based on purpose
and 8 sections based on graphical representation [8]. Here we will briefly discuss the various purpose
based roadmaps.
a) Product planning: This is the most common type of technology roadmap where technology is
inserted into a manufactured product.
b) Service/Capability planning: This is more suited to service based companies focusing on how
technology supports organizational capabilities.
c) Strategic planning: This is suitable for general strategic planning where evaluation of different
opportunities or treats typically at the business level is conducted.
d) Long-range planning: This is used to support long-range planning often performed at the sec-
tor or national level as it can act as a radar for the organization to identify potential technolo-
gies and markets.
e) Knowledge asset planning: This type of roadmap aligns knowledge assets and knowledge
management initiatives with business objectives allowing companies to identify the
knowledge gaps enabling them to meet future market demands.
f) Program planning: This is more directly related to project planning as it focuses on implemen-
tation of a strategy and management of the development of a program.
g) Process planning: Similarly this is a roadmap that supports the management of knowledge, fo-
cusing on a particular process area.
h) Integration planning: This focuses on integration and evolution of technology in terms of how
different technologies combine within a system or product to form new technologies. This is
often done without showing the time dimension explicitly.
Figure – Examples of technology roadmap types based on purpose: a) product planning, b) ser-
vice/capability planning, c) strategic planning, d) long-range planning, e) knowledge asset planning, f)
program planning, g) process planning, h) integration planning [8].

12. 5
2.3.3 Technology Strategy Canvas
The technology strategy canvas is a strategic based roadmap which allows for a structured approach to
effectively consider external factors such as the nature of the industry and technological advancements
as well as internal factors such as technological capabilities and company objectives. This strategic
roadmap was the chosen format used and is represented in Appendix 2.
The canvas highlights 7 key areas which help identify the current capabilities of the organization, cur-
rent and future market demand followed by technological gaps present which require to be achieved to
meet future market demand. The 7 key areas are discussed in further detail below.
1. Vision & strategy: Understanding the companies vision and strategy will help identify the tar-
get market and appropriate customer segments.
2. Value proposition: Identify the current value propositions offered by the company.
3. Customer Segments: Identifying the customer segments within a market which would benefit
from the value propositions offered by the company.
4. Performance: The current performance of the value propositions offered by the company is
recorded. Following that the performance requirements of the market are also recorded. An
analysis is then conducted to determine technology gaps.
5. Value Chain: The value chain can be represented by primary activities; inbound logistics, op-
erations, outbound logistics, marketing, sales and services and support activities; organization,
human resource, technology and purchasing. These sectors of the organization are analysed in
terms of current capabilities and future requirements to identify technology gaps present with-
in the value chain. Analysis of the value chain can also help identify sectors where value can
be added or cost reduced for the organization.
6. Finance provider: Understanding the financial capabilities of the organization will help deter-
mine its capabilities in developing new technologies.
7. Technology provider: Understanding the current technological capabilities of the company
will help determine a strategic approach to solving the technological gap present enabling the
organization to have a competitive advantage within the customer segment.
3.0 Identification of Niched Industries
The next aspect of this project was the identification of niched industries emerging within the specialty
films market. The specialty films market has a significantly broad variety of applications therefore
extensive research was carried out to identify these niched and newly emerging industries and the re-
sulting applications have been chosen based on discussion with RevolutionFibres.
3.1 Piezoelectric Generators
3.1.1 Introduction
Piezoelectric generators are energy sources which harvest mechanical energy. This could include vi-
brations [11], bending or compression of the material which generates a potential energy that is con-
verted into electrical energy. This technology has been present for a long time and natural crystals in
particular quarts were used as the source material. Early applications of piezoelectric generators in-
clude ultrasonic transducers and components in record players.
Recent research toward scalable power sources based on the power demand in small consumer appli-
ance such as watches have encouraged the industry to focus on nano-scaled generators.
3.1.2 Structure
Construction of piezoelectric generators are significantly based on the application. In the nano-scaled
piezoelectric generators, three different architectures thin film based, nanowire based and nanofibres
based are used [12]. Figure 4 shows the structure of a nanofibres based piezoelectric generator.

13. 6
Figure – Nanofibres based piezoelectric generator
3.1.3 Materials
Natural crystals were the first materials to be used as piezoelectric generators. Following that devel-
opment of synthetic crystals and ceramics were tailor made to provide excellent piezoelectric proper-
ties. In recent years, polymer based materials have been looked at with polyvinylidene fluoride
(PVDF) exhibiting good piezoelectric properties.
3.1.4 Manufacturing
Similarly, the manufacturing process of piezoelectric generators are subjective to their application. In
the nano-scaled generators, electrospinning is the preferred method of manufacturing nanofibres based
generators. Spin on and thin film deposition are used to manufacture nanofilm based generators [12].
3.1.5 Key properties of piezoelectric generators industry
Piezoelectricity properties of the material. This is can be tested through:
 XRD – x-ray diffraction to analyse the crystalline structure
 FTIR – Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy can be used to determine the dipole orienta-
tion and crystallographic structure of the material based on the sensitivity of CF2 orientation
changes [12].
 PFM – Piezoelectric force microscopy forms measurements based on the voltage induced de-
formation of the material [12].
Energy conversion efficiency – this can be calculated by comparing the output electrical energy with
the input mechanical energy from the induced strain [12]
3.1.6 Nanofibres based piezoelectric generators
The nanofibres based generators are manufactured using materials such as lead zirconate titanate
(PZT) and PVDF through the electrospinning process. Although limited to laboratory scaled testing,
optimization of the process parameters has shown that nanofibres generators with high energy conver-
sion efficiency can be built [12].
Outcome of research:
 The piezoelectricity of PVDF comes from its β-phase which is achievable during the electro-
spinning process [12].
 The PVDF nanofibres generators showed an average conversion efficiency of 12.5% which is
higher than its thin film variant which obtain efficiencies of 0.5% to 4% [12].
 Greater than 600 degrees Celsius is required to enhance the piezoelectric properties of PZT
 Electrospinning PZT required a solvent which lowered the overall energy conversion efficien-
cy.
3.2 Oxygen Barrier Films
3.2.1 Introduction
When oxygen is allowed to flow through a packaging it will assist the breakdown of organic materials
within that packaging. However this is not always the case for example fresh meat requires a high rate
of oxygen transfer to maintain the bright red colour in the meat with a low moisture permeability to

14. 7
avoid drying and bacterial growth. Therefore the true nature of oxygen barrier films are determined by
their intended purpose.
Physical properties, oxygen permeability rate and moisture transmission rate are important properties
when defining the intended purpose and quality of an oxygen barrier film [13]. Glad wrap for example
are currently made from low density polyethylene (LDPE) and would be defined as a low quality oxy-
gen barrier film due to its higher moisture transmission rate when compared to polyvinylidene chloride
(PVDC).
3.2.2 Structure
The construction of barrier films are largely multilayer coextruded films. The outer film will be a
strong plastic while the middle layer will be the thin key barrier layer. The bottom layer generally
comprises of low density polyethylene [14].
3.2.3 Materials
Metals like aluminium are the most effective oxygen barrier films however in polymer based films
polyethylene is the most common middle barrier films while nylon and polypropylene (PP) occupy the
outer layer [14]. Research into biodegradable material has shown that whey proteins and other bio-
materials can be used as barrier films.
Intermediate layer – acid or acid anhydrate-modified polymeric material which can bond the core layer
to the outer layers.
3.2.4 Manufacturing
Coextrusion if one form of manufacturing where each layer is extruded individually and cemented
together as they leave the extruder. In the nanofibres scale, manufacturing through electrospinning is
possible.
3.2.5 Key properties of the oxygen industry
Physical Properties: Such as stiffness, strength and elasticity are important properties when determin-
ing the purpose of the film.
Oxygen permeability rate: This can be determined through several forms. The American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) documents several testing methods through the use of coulometric sen-
sors represented in figure 5. These sensors are made up of 2 chambers with the barrier film forming a
seal between them. One chamber containing oxygen and the other is a carrier gas such as nitrogen. As
the oxygen gas permeates through the film into the carrier gas, it is transported to a coulometric detec-
tor where it creates an electrical current with a magnitude proportional to the number of oxygen atoms
flowing in the carrier gas [15].
Figure – Illustration of a Coulometric Testing unit.

15. 8
Moisture Permeability Rate: The measure of the rate diffusion of water particles in the air through a
film over a period of time. Moisture can encourage bacterial growth in organic food as well as reduce
shelf life in many consumer products. On the other hand, certain products such as fresh vegetables and
plants require a high permeability rate to prevent condensation. A simple and common form of meas-
uring the moisture permeability rate of a film is through the use of a vapour permeation cup such as
the BYK-Gardner Perm Cups or the Elcometer Payne Permeability Cups. The moisture permeability
rate is measured by suspending the film material across the top of the shallow cup, filled with water.
The cups are then placed in a controller environment such as a desiccator. The weight loss of the cup’s
water over a period of time is used to determine the rate of moisture transmission through the film.
The two most common standards for this test are ASTM D1653 and ISO-7783-2.
3.2.6 Films from hydrolysed whey protein
Whey protein has been shown to make transparent and edible films that have low oxygen and water
vapour permeability rates. Plasticizers were added. They are low molecular weighted substances that
improve the flexibility of the films. The barrier film conducted in the research were manufactured
through paper forming methods where a solution was laid out and cooled [16]. The research showed
that a 3 to 1 ratio of whey protein and plasticizer has a permeability rate of 41 cc µm/m2
day KPa
which is lower than high density polyethylene (HDPE) permeability of 427 cc µm/m2
day KPa. Unfor-
tunately, whey protein on its own was brittle and plasticizer was needed which was counterproductive
as plasticizer increased permeability.
3.2.7 Clay Nanopaper - montmorillonite platelets in a continuous matrix of Nanofibrillated Cel-
lulose
A multi-layered paper manufactured from sodium montmorillonite and nanofibrillated cellulose. This
paper achieves a strain to failure of 2% and offers both good oxygen permeability rates and was fire
retardant. However the moisture absorption rate of clay is significant [17]. The research showed very
low oxygen permeability at low humidity however increasing humidity increased oxygen permeability
exponentially.
3.3 Fuel Cells
3.3.1 Introduction
Fuel cells allow the separation of fuel to form electricity through a chemical reaction with an oxidizing
agent. The fuel is separated at the anode into a positively charged ion and a negatively charged elec-
tron. The ions are permitted through the electrolyte and the electrons are forced through a wire to gen-
erate current before reassembling at the cathode. A typical small fuel cell produces a voltage of 0.6 to
0.7V at full rated load [18]. The cell surface area can be increased through nanofibres which would
offer more current.
There are a significant number of different forms of fuel cells through the use of various metals and
electrolytes however the U.S Department of Energy has identified 5 key types. These are Polymer
Electrolyte membranes (PEM), Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC), Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC), Mol-
ten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) and Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC). The figure 6 below provides a
comparison of these fuel cells.
PEM fuel cells are the general form of fuel cells which operate in a more practical working tempera-
ture and were selected as the focus within fuel cells as these types of fuel cells offered the highest ap-
plicability within the nanofibres industry.

16. 9
Figure – U.S. Department of Energy comparison of Fuel Cell Technologies
3.3.2 Structure
Fuel cells are formed by 3 important components which are sandwiched together as shown in figure 7.
These are the anode, the electrolyte and the cathode. At the anode a catalyst has to oxidize a fuel such
as Hydrogen turning it into a positively charged ion and a negatively charged electron. At the cathode
the charged ions will reunite with the charged electrons with a third chemical, in this case oxygen
which in turn forms water [18]. In between these two components is the electrolyte which has to be
design to allow ions to pass through it but not electrons as the electrons travel through a wire which
creates current.
Figure – Structure of a PEM fuel cell
3.3.3 Materials
Fuel – hydrogen has been shown to be the most common fuel for these small fuel cells. Other possible
fuels include natural gas and alcohols such as methanol.
Anode/Cathode Catalyst – The type of material used on the plates vary however the most common
material used are metals, coated metals, graphite, c-c composite and carbon-polymer composite [19]
Electrolyte – The electrolyte is referred to as the heart of a PEM. Platinum or similar noble metals are
used which are costly. Nafion, polymers such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), partially sulfonated poly-
ether sulfone, polyphenyl sulfone or an inorganic material such as sulphated zirconia(s-ZrO2) can also
be used [18]. Nafion is a sulfonated tetrafluroroethylene polymer which has displayed excellent ther-
mal, mechanical and chemical stabilities while providing a high proton conductivity on its own [18].
Conductivity of Nafion is dependent on fibre diameter which is why sulfonation of the materials oc-
cur. The sulfonation has been shown to reduce fibre diameter and narrow diameter variation [18].

17. 10
3.3.4 Manufacturing
The manufacturing of fuel cells is dependent on the type. PEM fuel cells are manufactured through
respective methods developed by the manufacture. In some cases, the KUKA robotic arm has been
used as it provided automation and accuracy.
3.3.5 Key properties of PEM fuel cells
Electrolyte substance: The electrolyte substance used in the membrane has a significant role in defin-
ing the fuel cell as it helps set the efficiency, operating temperature and the choice of electrodes used.
The electrolyte properties and substance are defined through research and material testing to determine
which the most effective combinations are.
Operating temperature and pressure: Fuel cells may operate at ambient pressure or be pressurized. The
fuel cells gain some potential when pressurized [20]. The operating temperature also affects PEM fuel
cells. In general, each fuel cell design has an optimal operation temperature and helps determining the
possible applications of the designed fuel cell. Current polymer membrane fuel cells have a typical
operating temperature of 80 degrees Celsius [19].
Cell Efficiency: This is the measure of the effectiveness of the cell to convert fuel into energy. Effi-
ciency of PEM fuel cells in around 40 to 50 % [18].
In the modelling of a PEM fuel cell, the physical phenomena occurring within the cell can be repre-
sented by the solutions to the conservation equations for mass, momentum, energy, species and current
transport [20]. Faraday’s law for the relationship between electrical current and consumption of reac-
tants is also useful.
3.3.6 Electrospun composite proton exchange membranes
A composite proton exchange membrane which is produced via electrospinning consisted of nafion
and a polymers such as PVA [18]. The composite membrane formed offered a higher proton conduc-
tivity than pure nafion based on weight ratios.
In another instance, nafion reinforced with polyphenyl sulfone (PPSU) were electrospun simultaneous-
ly into a dual fibre mat [21]. Two distinct structures were formed:
1) Nafion reinforced with a PPSU nanofibres network. In this case, the Nafion component in the
fibre mat is softened and flows into the void spaces of the remaining PPSU fibre structure.
This is achieved through compression and thermal annealing of the mat [21].
2) Nafion nanofibres embedded in an uncharged PPSU nanofibres network. Here, the opposite
occurs where the PPSU component is softened and flows into the void spaces of the Nafion fi-
ber structure. This is achieved through compression of the mat followed by expose to chloro-
form solvent vapour and thermal annealing [21].
Sulfonated polyfluorenyl ether ketone (SPFEK) was also electrospun simultaneously with polyether
sulfone (PES) [22] and lastly a study of nafion with polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) formed nanowires
which acted as the electrolyte in between platinum catalyst [23]. Methanol was used at the fuel.
Outcome of research:
 The swelling that occurs in lower than expected based on the volume fraction of Nafion pre-
sent.
 Sulfonation helps reduce fibre diameter and narrow diameter variations.
 The long-term application of nafion with on/off cycles have shown to undergo undesirable
swelling and shrinking which leads to membrane degradation [21].
 They achieved excellent oxidative stability and proton conductivity of 0.056-0.061 S cm-1
at
30-80 o
C [21].
 Long term cycling of the SPFEK/PES membrane is still not efficient [22].

18. 11
3.4 Sensors
3.4.1 Introduction
Sensors are measuring equipment’s. They have a reactive material which is altered by the reagent.
This alteration is measured and an output signal is sent to an instrument which translates the signal
into a standard measurement form for that reagent. Due to the high porosity and surface area of nano-
fibres there are excellent candidates for potential applications where thin films are used as sensing ma-
terial. Based on research conducted, thin films were most commonly used in gas [24], stress, strain and
temperature sensing. Nanofibres in biosensors have shown to achieve diabetes and lung cancer detec-
tions abilities [25].
3.4.2 Structure
The reactive nanofibres are spun onto an unreactive substrate layer. This is then attached to the corre-
sponding measuring components which records the changes.
In gas sensors there are 3 common structures. These are acoustic wave sensors, resistive sensors and
optical sensors [24]. There is a broad class of acoustic wave techniques however they are all generally
based on an extremely sensitive gravimetric detector which is coated with a film that reacts to the in-
terested chemical, gas or pressure [26]. Resistive sensors use materials which exhibit conductivity
properties that are alters when affected by the reagent. Optical gas sensors use the presence of light
that is reflected onto photosensitive film. In the presence of the reagent the incident light is altered and
the film response to this [27].
In biosensors the structure is composed of a sensitive biological element that is followed by a trans-
ducer that transforms the biological reaction signal into another signal usually electrically based which
is easier to measure and quantify. This electrical signal is then pass onto an appropriate signal pro-
cessing unit.
3.4.3 Materials
The performance of the sensors are largely based on the material used. Gas sensors based on nano-
fibres use polymers, semiconductors, carbon graphite’s and organic/inorganic composites [24]. An
excellent list of these materials are presented in Appendix 3.
In biosensors the materials used to form the biological element are generally biologically derived ma-
terials such as tissue, enzymes and cell receptors. The transducer is made up of a range of materials.
The biological element is closely matched to the transducer material and insufficient research has been
conducted to list all the possible combinations [28].
3.4.4 Manufacturing
Techniques like spin-on and thin film diffusion are used to manufacture the film based sensing materi-
al. While electrospinning can be used to manufacture the nanofibres based sensing material.
3.4.5 Key properties of industry
A good sensor should accurately depict the measured property and be insensitive to other properties in
that environment.
Response time is a significantly important properties which is generally dominated by the material.
However it is also influence by the efficiency of the transducer and measuring equipment’s therefore
highly subjective on the experimental conditions. Other response mechanisms such as protonation,
deprotonating, reduction, swelling and conformational alignment [29] are material based properties
which can be used as accurate forms of sensing. In general, these properties alter the electrical conduc-
tivity of the material which is easily measurable using a programmable electrometer [29]. This princi-
ple is known as resistive sensors.
In biosensors the distribution of the biological element in the transducer membrane is an important
property. Electro probe microanalyzer or other similar mechanisms can be used to determine this [28].

19. 12
Optical sensors use the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy as a method to study the inter-
action of electromagnetic radiation in the infrared region with chemical compounds [24].
For acoustic wave sensors a frequency counter is used to measure the resonant frequency of the trans-
ducer when exposed to hydrogen gas [30]. A Fluke high-resolution counter is an example of a fre-
quency counter.
3.4.6 Polylactic acid membrane as substrate for biosensor
Biotin was incorporated into polylactic acid (PLA) nanofibres to form a membrane substrate for bio-
sensors based on biotin-streptavidin specific binding [28]. The nanofibres membrane immobilizes
streptavidin which in turn is used to immobilize biotinylated nucleic acid probes for the detection of a
synthetic E. coliDNA [28].
Outcome of Research:
 Biotin remains fixed onto the PLA fibres therefore reusable.
 Biotinylated DNA probe was successfully captured by immobilized streptavidin [28].
 Sulfur mapping indicated a non-uniform distribution of biotin on the membrane [28].
 Membranes required pre-blocking to eliminate non-specific binding between streptavidin and
PLA
3.4.7 Electrospun polyaniline nanofibres for hydrogen gas sensing
Polyaniline (PANI) nanofibres were electrospun onto a ZnO/64o
YX LiNb O3 acoustic wave transducer
[30] used for measuring hydrogen gas at room temperature. Its performance is shown in figure 8.
Figure – Graph representing the frequency shift at varying concentrations of hydrogen
Outcome of research:
 Relatively fast response time of 8 seconds
 Results were obtained at room temperature therefore environmental feasibility is good.
 Significant variation in vibration frequency around 3 kHz occurred at 1% Hydrogen gas ex-
pose [30].
 Offers repeatable responses and a good baseline stability [30].
 Recover time takes 60 seconds [30]
In another experiment 5 different response mechanisms were explored with PANI nanofibres between
30 to 120 nm in diameter. These were acid doping with hydrochloric acid (HCl) that affected protona-
tion, base dedoping ammonia (NH3) that caused deprotonation, reduction with hydrazine (N2H4),
swelling with chloroform (CHCl3) and conformational alignment when exposed to methanol (CH3OH)
[29].
Outcome of research:
 In all cases, the response time and extent of response is significantly better for PANI nano-
fibres over PANI thin films [29].

20. 13
 Varying the thickness of nanofibres PANI films did not affect the response time or sensitivity
to HCl however varying thickness did affect conventional films [29].
3.5 Dye Sensitized Solar Cells
3.5.1 Introduction
Solar cells are photovoltaic devices that generate energy from the Sun’s radiation. Dye-sensitized solar
cells (DSSC) are 3rd
generation solar cells which are currently being developed as an alternative to
silicon wafer-based photovoltaic (PV) cells. In 1991, Gratzel and O’Regan discovered that organome-
tallic dyes coupled with mesoporous nanocrystalline semiconductor films produced free electrons
when excited by light. A regenerative system could then be developed by adding a counter electrode
and a suitable redox electrolyte similar to a fuel cell [31, 32].
This new system offers several advantages:
 Mechanical robustness that lead to flexible and light weight cells.
 Therefore under ideal conditions, this cells can generate electrical power without experiencing
any irreversible chemical degradation
 DSSC’s work even in diffuse light conditions such as cloudy skies and non-direct sunlight
when compared to silicon based crystalline PV cells. This is because the silicon based PV
cells tend to reflect incoming light at angles of over 40 degrees, whereas DSSC’s can absorb
light from a much higher range of angles [31].
 Operation of the cell is generally insensitive to temperatures between 20 - 60 o
C [31].
 The transparent conductive layer is much thinner than what is required in other forms of PV
cells and this allows DSSC’s to radiate away much of the heat.
 There is flexibility in the choice of material allowing for properties to be adjusted and opti-
mized for particular applications.
There are also several disadvantages with DSSC which have limited their uptake in the solar cells in-
dustry:
 The overall cell efficiency is a major disadvantage. Current DSSC’s are achieving between 6-
11% efficiency due to issues such as recombination of excited electrons within the photoanode
[31].
 The liquid electrolyte has stability problems in extreme temperatures as well as photodegrada-
tion which affects the cells lifespan [31].
 Costly ruthenium (dye), platinum (catalyst) and conducting glass or plastic (contact) are need-
ed.
 The platinum catalyst can degrade between 25-40% over time of use.
3.5.2 Structure
In a DSSC represented in figure 9, sunlight passes through the transparent conductive glass into a
mesoporous nanocrystalline semiconductor layer that is chemically bonded to the dye. This is known
as the photoanode. The light excites the dye releasing electrons into the semiconducting metal anode.
From here, the electrons then flow through the circuit to the load and back to the semiconducting met-
al cathode known as the counterelectrode. The oxidized photoanode is rapidly reduced by electron do-
nation by the electrolyte and similarly the oxidized electrolyte is regenerated by the counterelectrode
[31, 32].

21. 14
Figure – Diagram representing the various components of a dye-sensitized solar cell.
3.5.3 Materials
Mesoporous Semiconductor layer: Titanium dioxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), niobium pentoxide
(Nb2O5), and cadmium selenide (CdSe) in the form of powder, nanoparticles, nanofibres or nanowires
have been used [31].
Dye: It is usually made of oxygen containing ligands such as carboxyl (–COOH), hydroxyl (–OH), or
salicylate groups. The 2 most commonly used sensitizers are the red ruthenium complex N3 and black
tri(thiocyanato)-2,2′,2″-terpyridyl-4,4′,4″tricarboxylate ruthenium(II) (‘black dye’) [31].
Electrolyte: Matching the dye and the electrolyte potentials are very important as the redox couple
must have a more negative electrochemical potential then the oxidized dye for reduction to occur. The
electrolyte should be able to carry currents up to 20 mA cm−2
. The iodide/triiodide redox couple is the
most commonly used electrolyte in conventional DSSC’s [31, 33]. Solid electrolytes have also been
developed using a quasi-solid-state polymer gel electrolyte prepared from in 3-methoxypropionitrile
together with a low-molecular-weight organic gelator, 1,3:2,4-di-O-benzylindene-d-sorbitol [31].
Counter Electrode: Platinum coated metal to catalyse the reduction of the electrolyte has almost wide-
ly been used as the counter electrode [31].
Transparent conducting electrode: DSSC’s are normally constructed between two sheets of glass coat-
ed with a conductive transparent layer. This is commonly fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) or Indium
doped tin Oxide (ITO) fabricated through chemical vapour deposition. This is the most expensive
component accounting for more than 50% of the total cost of DSSC.
3.5.4 Manufacturing
Mesoporous Semiconductor layer: Composed of 10-30 nm particles that have been sintered to form a
conductive layer usually 10 µm thick. Although dispersed commercial titanium dioxide is useable,
higher efficiency is achieved when titanium dioxide is synthesized via sol-gel techniques and grown
under hydrothermal conditions at temperatures between 190 – 270 °C. This approach offers a higher
porous structure after sintering [31].
Following that the film is deposited on the transparent conductive glass from a colloidal suspension
via screen printing or a doctor blade. The dry semiconducting films are then annealed at 450 °C for 30
minutes to sinter the materials and establish good interparticle connectivity.
Dye: A single layer is chemically bonded to the surface of the mesoporous semiconductor
Counter Electrode: A procedure for platinum coating of FTO glass involves using hexachloroplatinic
acid in dry isopropanol (5 mmol L−1
) and heating to 385 °C [31].
Transparent conducting electrode: This is fabricated through chemical vapour deposition at atmos-
pheric pressure.

22. 15
The photoanode is then used to sandwich the electrolyte layer with the counter electrode and is sealed
using resin.
3.5.5 Key properties of the DSSC industry
Efficiency: The power conversion efficiency is a measure of the photovoltaic cell’s performance. It
represents the fraction of solar energy converted over the area of the cell that is converted into electric-
ity. A cells efficiency is used to determine the size of the cell in order to produce the desired power
required. This efficiency is measured using a solar simulator which produces the appropriate solar
spectrum and records the corresponding photocurrent voltage.
Lifespan: The lifecycle of a DSSC is also a critical properties to enable a competitive advantage and
market demand. Existing silicon based cells are guaranteed to maintain 80-90 % of their original per-
formance over 20 years. Current DSSC’s are not capable of achieving those results.
Cost: Another key criteria is cost. A production cost of around US$ 1 per W is required to compete
with other electrical generation technologies [31].
3.5.6 Nanofibres based counter electrodes
To cope with the costly nature of platinum, PANI nanofibres on graphitized polyimide carbon films
were developed as possible alternatives in a tri-iodide reduction using TiO2 and the corresponding
electrolyte. The PANI electrode was prepared by electrochemical polymerization and the graphitized
polyimide carbon film was prepared through the application of significant heat according to the litera-
ture [34]. In another alternative, hollow activated carbon nanofibres (H-ACNF) were researched. It
was prepared by electrospinning of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) as a paralytic core precursor
and polyacrylonitrile (PAN) as a carbon shell precursor, followed by stabilization, carbonization, and
activation [35].
Outcome of research:
 The PANI based photovoltaic device showed an energy conversion efficiency of 6.85%
which is better than platinum electrode based DSSC’s [34].
 The H-ACNF electrode presented a much larger current density and therefore had a stronger
electrocatalytic performance than the platinum electrode [35].
 Efficiencies of 6.97% were achieved in the H-ACNF electrode cells [35].
3.5.7 Nanofibres based mesoporous semiconductor
The particle based titanium dioxide have low efficiencies due to the high density of grain boundaries
which exist between the nanoparticles. In comparison, nanofibres offer a lower density of grain
boundaries [32]. Therefore preparing titanium dioxide via electrospinning was investigated and re-
search showed that fibres in the 20 nm in diameter range were electrospun from a mixture of titanium
isopropoxide (TTIP) and polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) in dimethylformamide directly onto the conducting
glass surface. The fibres were then exposed to tetrahydrofuran vapour to facilitate removal of PVAc
from the fibres before calcining at 450 °C in air. There were other post treatments applied to improve
light-scattering properties and N3 sensitizer was applied to the electrospun photoanode [31].
Outcome of research:
 Higher specific surface area ranging from hundreds to thousands of square meters per gram
and bigger pore size [32]
 Efficiency of only 4.6% was achieved [31].
 Is able to increase the penetration of viscous polymer gel electrolytes.
3.5.8 Nanofibre based electrolyte
A polymer electrolyte based on polyvinylidene fluoride-hexafluoro propylene (PVDF-HFP) nano-
fibres was electrospun and the photovoltaic performance investigated in a DSSC. The PVDF-HFP was

23. 16
prepared by first being dissolved in acetone/DMAc (7/3 weight ratio) for 24 hours at room tempera-
ture. The solution was then electrospun. It was observed that a 15 wt% of HFP in the polymer concen-
tration formed highly regular morphology with an average diameter of 800 – 1000 nm [36]. The over-
all power conversion efficiency achieved was 5.01% at its best. When compared to a spin coated
PVDF-HFP film that achieved an efficiency of 1.43% it is clear that the nanofibres offer a significant
benefit [36].
3.6 Supercapacitors
3.6.1 Introduction
Supercapacitors are fast charging/discharging capacitors designed to offer capacitance in the hundreds
to thousands of Farads. There are 2 main types of supercapacitors, the first is known as an electric or
electrochemical double layer capacitor (EDLC) where carbon sheets are commonly used as the elec-
trode and, capacitance is stored electrostatically as a build-up of charge in the solution interface close
to the surface of the carbon sheets to balance the charge. The other is known as pseudocapacitors
where the bulk of the electrode material undergoes a redox reaction with the electrolyte to generate an
electrochemical charge at the opposite electrode [37]. A synthesized conducting polymer exhibits low
conductivity, therefore the electrodes need to be either positively doped (p-doped) where an electron is
removed or negatively doped (n-doped) where an electron is added to improve the conductivity of the
polymer as this generates charge carriers [38].
The advantages and disadvantages of EDLC are:
 Has a very long lifecycle, greater than 500 000 cycles.
 EDLC has faster kinetic charging and discharge as only the surface of the carbon sheet is be-
ing accessed [37].
 High power capabilities
 Low specific energy
The advantage and disadvantages of pseudocapacitors are:
 Stores a greater amount of capacitance per gram than EDLC as the bulk of the material under-
goes a reaction [37].
 There is significant swelling and contraction on charge and discharging of the pseudocapaci-
tors [37].
 Survives for only a few thousand lifecycles before performance begins to degrade.
 Lower rate of charge and discharge and therefore relatively lower power
3.6.2 Structure
The structure of an EDLC is similar to two capacitors connected in series. There are two outer con-
ducting films also known as electrodes which form a sandwich with the electrolyte film or liquid. The
electrodes are composed of a current collector bonded to an active material as illustrated in figure 10.
A separator is also placed in between to ensure the 2 electrodes don’t come in contact. This is then
insulated. The same structure is applied in pseudocapacitors, with various different combinations of
electrodes possible [37]:
1. Using the same p-doped polymer for both electrodes (symmetric)
2. Using 2 different p-doped polymers with a different range of electroactivity (asymmetric)
3. Using the same polymer for both electrodes with a p-doped polymer as the positive electrode
and a n-doped polymer as the negative electrode (symmetric)
4. Using a conducting polymer as the positive electrode with a carbon sheet based negative elec-
trode.

24. 17
Figure – Cross section diagram illustrating the structure of an EDLC
3.6.3 Material
Current Collector: Aluminium is the most common material used due to the low price, low density and
high electrochemical stability. When an aqueous electrolyte is used, nickel or stainless steel is the pre-
ferred material as aluminium is more reactive [39].
EDLC electrodes: Carbon thin films are the main material used in EDLC’s.
Pseudocapacitors electrodes: Conducting polymers such as polypyrrole (PPy), polyacetylene, and de-
rivatives of polythiophene have currently been used [37]. Also metal oxides such as rutheni-
um (RuO2), iridium (IrO2), iron (Fe3O4), manganese (MnO2) and sulfides such as titanium sul-
fide (TiS2) are commonly used.
Electrolytes: Can be classified into 3 broad groups; aqueous, salts dissolved in organic solvents and
ionic liquids. Generally aqueous electrolytes are based on strong acids or strong bases [39]. Ionic liq-
uids such as N-butyl-N-methylpyrrolidiniumbis (trifluoromethanesulfonyl) imide with PMet elec-
trodes, 1-ethyl 3-methyl imidizolium bistrifluoromethylsulfonyl imide with PEDOT electrodes and 1-
butylmethylpyrrolidiniumbis trifluoromethanesulfonylimide with a combined PPy and PEDOT elec-
trodes [37].
Separator: A dielectric porous film made from polymers that are electrochemically stable, have a high
thermal inertia and have a chemical inertia with the electrolyte. Cellulose fibres or Kapton which is a
branded Polyimide from DuPont have also been used [39].
3.6.4 Manufacturing
Small sized supercapacitors can have 2 physical appearances, a coin cell represented by figure 11 and
a wound cell represented by figure 12 which generally have a higher capacitance. Large cells construc-
tions have not been standardized as each manufacturer designs its cell depending on internal develop-
ments and performances [39].

25. 18
Figure – Cross section representing the structure of a coin cell supercapacitor.
Figure – Illustration representing the structure of a wound supercapacitor cell.
In manufacturing of supercapacitors, it is important to distinguish the different steps [39]:
1. Manufacturing of the electrode: The most cost effective and widely industrialized method in-
volves coating of a paste based on active carbon on the current collector using aqueous or or-
ganic solvents as a binder. In some cases the current collectors are treated to have a special
surface state in order to increase the adhesion to the active material. Manufactured electrode
thicknesses for power applications are in the range of 100µm and the current collector are in
the range of 200 µm.
2. Separator positioning: Thickness ranging from 15 to 50 µm. The manufacturing of the separa-
tor involves the formation of a thin film through electrospinning, spin-on or thin film deposi-
tion. This is then positioned in between the electrodes.
3. Electrode assembly by various processes: 3 main processes have been outlined in the litera-
ture. The first involves the stack being rolled up, fitted with pin connectors and placed in a cy-
lindrical aluminium casing. A rubber gasket is placed at the top of the casing before the spin-
ning operation and the case opening is folded over and pressed to form an effective seal. The
second method involves edge rolling, curling or heading process of the casing and cover with
a gasket to avoid short circuit if the electrodes are connected to the casing and cover respec-
tively. This technology has been well adapted for large supercapacitors. In the third method
the casing and cover are assembled by glue and each part is connected to one electrode. This
last 2 manufacturing method is suited for small coin-type supercapacitors.
4. Electrolyte impregnation
5. Closing of the system
3.6.5 Key properties of supercapacitors
Capacitance is measured in farads (F) and represents the ratio of electrical charge on each electrode to
the potential difference between them. For a parallel plate capacitor, capacitance can be calculated us-
ing the formula
𝐶 =
𝜀0 𝜀 𝑓 𝐴
𝐷
(1)

26. 19
Where 𝜀0 is the permittivity of free space, 𝜀 𝑟 is the relative permittivity of the material between the
plates, A is the area of each electrode and D is the distance between the electrodes. Therefore the 3
main factors that determine capacitance are the plate area, separation distance between electrodes and
the properties of the dielectric used [40].
Energy density represents the energy stored in a capacitor per unit weight or per unit volume. It relates
the charge (Q) at each electrode and the potential difference (V) using the equation [40]:
𝐸 = 1
2⁄ ∗ 𝑄𝑉2
(2)
Power density expressed as a quantity per unit weight (specific power) or per volume is also one of the
main attributes in a supercapacitor. It is the rate of energy delivered per unit time and therefore the
resistance of the internal components need to be taken into account to accurately determine the power
of a supercapacitor. The resistance of each component is measured and collectively referred to as the
equivalent series resistance (ESR). The measurement of power often assumes that the resistance of the
load to be the same as the capacitor which corresponds to the maximum power (Pmax) following the
equation [40]:
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑉2
4𝐸𝑆𝑅
(3)
The lifecycle is also an important property when manufacturing a supercapacitor. It is determined by
the number of charging and discharging cycles applied to the supercapacitor before its performance
begins to reduce.
3.6.6 Nanofibres based electrodes
The ability for nanofibres to create a highly porous structure is extremely beneficial as it increases the
specific energy stored in a supercapacitor. PANI prepared with polyethylene oxide (PEO) was electro-
spun to form a high aspect ratio web with nanofibres of 30µm in length and 200µm in diameter. The
electrochemical performance in aqueous and organic electrolytes were compared with a PANI powder
electrode [41].
Outcome of research:
 Higher specific capacitance than chemically synthesized PANI powder.
 Demonstrated very stable and superior performance than its counterpart due to the fibrous
morphology that facilitated a faster Faradic reaction.
 Capacitance retention in PANI nanofibres were 86% higher than PANI powder of 48% [41].
PPy is another electrospinable conducting polymer that is applicable as an electrode in supercapaci-
tors. PPy can only be p-doped and therefore can only be used as a cathode, however the development
of hybrid capacitors has led to their uptake [37].
PEDOT nanofibres were manufactured through electrospinning and vapour-phase polymerization as
well for use in flexible supercapacitors. The fibres had a diameter of 350 nm and were manufactured
following the literature in reference [42]. After electrospinning the fibres were immediately placed
under active vacuum for 15s then maintained under passive vacuum for the desired polymerization
time.
3.6.7 Nanofibres based separators
The separator film in supercapacitors are very thin films which can be manufactured through electro-
spinning. The requirements for a separator are electrochemical stability, high porosity, high thermal
inertia and chemical inertia against the electrolyte as well as being as thin as possible. Paper separators
consisting of solvent-spun cellulose fibres are conventionally used as separators in supercapacitors
[39]. Their thickness ranging from 15-50µm. A post treatment involves a drying process to avoid wa-
ter contamination. When the paper separator is exposed to a high voltage of at least 3V, oxidative de-
terioration occurs that results in the paper tearing.

27. 20
As a result, polymeric based separators have been developed to meet the higher voltage demand. Cel-
lulosic separators formed from material that is soluble in the electrolyte is one solution where the ma-
terial in the separator dissolves when impregnated with the electrolyte. Other options include PTFE, PI
and polyethylene (PE) [39].
4.0 Market Analysis
Once a good understanding of the 6 possible industries were established, workshop sessions with the
management were carried out to identify which industries best aligned with the value propositions of-
fered, the companies vision and the ability for RevolutionFibres to meet the technological require-
ments.
4.1 Criteria for Evaluation
A set of criteria listed below were used as the basic for evaluation during the workshop sessions.
Technology partners: Are there any manufacturer within the industry and will they be willing to work
with RevolutionFibres.
Pricing: Is pricing consistent with customer demand and will the additional cost of manufacturing
nanofibres for that industry be financial viable.
Performance: Does nanofibres offer any functional benefits to the industry and if so how significant.
Current capabilities: How technically ready is RevolutionFibres in entering this industry?
Industry specific resources: What are the materials, expertise and processes specific to the industry
which directly affect RevolutionFibres capabilities in entering the industry?
Industry overlap: Is the technological knowledge of the industry transferable to other neighbouring
markets.
An analytical hierarchy process (AHP) represented in the Appendix 4 was also conducted to determine
the appropriate customer segments to pursue. This ensured that a systematic approach was applied in
conjunction with personal point of views. Four criteria of the criteria listed above were used to com-
pare the 6 customer segments, these were the potential for technology partners, the performance pro-
vided, the current capabilities of RevolutionFibres and the depth of industry specific knowledge re-
quired to effectively participate within that industry.
4.2 Evaluation of Industries
4.2.1 Piezoelectric Generators
The piezoelectric industry is a mature industry with PZT being the key driving material having appli-
cations in actuators, ultrasonic motors, transformers and energy harvesting devices. The industry is
expected to reach $12.3 billion by 2014 [43], with piezomotors and actuators outperforming electro-
magnetic motors which are its competition. There are several well establish companies within the in-
dustry such as CTS Corporation, Omega Piezo Technologies and APC International Ltd who use PZT
while Measurement SpecialtiesTM
and Piezotech offer PVDF based piezoelectric films. The applica-
tions of nanofibres as an alternative form of film has shown clear benefits owed to the increased sur-
face area presented. When PVDF was used as the generating material, PVDF nanofibres generators
showed an average conversion efficiency of 12.5% which was higher than its thin film variant which
obtain efficiencies of 0.5% to 4% [12]. It was also established that the piezoelectricity of PVDF comes
from its β-phase which is achievable during the electrospinning process [12]. On the other hand, cur-
rent electrospinning of PZT required a solvent which lowered the overall energy conversion efficien-
cy. RevolutionFibres has the capability to electrospin PVDF using Sonic Electrospinning but not PZT
and post treatment of PZT required baking at temperatures greater than 600 o
C to enhance its piezoe-
lectric properties. This is an industry specific resource in the manufacturing of PZT which Revolu-
tionFibres cannot meet. The development of electrospinning PVDF for piezoelectric generators can
lead to significant overlap in the energy industry.

28. 21
4.2.2 Oxygen Barrier Films
The oxygen barrier films industry is a very large, diverse and highly developed industry within the
specialty films market. Industry leaders such as DuPont and Honeywell already offer a variety of solu-
tions at large volumes and affordable prices. However it was recognised that the value propositions
offered by nanofibres such as porosity and increase surface area were counterproductive to the market
requirements of oxygen barrier films. Also the market demands volumes and low costs that are not
achievable through electrospinning. The ability for RevolutionFibres to electrospin bioorigin based
materials could be advantages if a market demand should arise. The manufacturing of oxygen barrier
films involved combination of several thin film layers according to manufacturer patents developed to
meet specific requirements.
4.2.3 PEM Fuel Cells
In terms of systems shipped in 2012, the PEM fuel cells dominated the fuel cells industry by 88% as it
is used in the widest range of markets globally [44]. The diversity of applications range from consum-
er electronics to 1MW stationary power generators therefore standardization is not common in this
industry [44]. Some of the key industry suppliers include Tanaka Kikinzoku Kogyo K.K., Johnson
Matthey Fuel Cells, Advent Technologies and Danish Power Syatems. The growing demand for PEM
fuel cells has led to a need for the automation of PEM fuel cells manufacturing which has become the
current focus for some of these companies [44]. The increased porosity offered by nanofibres has
shown to provide performance benefits over its thin film counterpart. It was identified that Nafion was
the most effective material to use and other possible materials were PVP, PVDF, PES, SPFEK and
PPSU. RevolutionFibres has the capability to electrospin PES and PVDF using Sonic Electrospinning
but not Nafion. Due to swelling that occurs with Nafion, the industry has attempted to form composite
membranes to reduce this. RevolutionFibres has this ability as they have developed a composite mate-
rial in the past. The manufacturing of the films require thermal annealing, compression and vapour
treatments that are outside RevolutionFibres capabilities.
4.2.4 Sensors
The sensors industry is very large and diverse in nature. As such, it offers a variety of niched applica-
tions that RevolutionFibres could form technological partnerships with. Industry giants such as Hon-
eywell, BSA and Alpha Sensors have dominated the market through competitive pricing and products.
This has limited the uptake of new technologies such as nanofibres. The application of PANI nano-
fibres showed a lower response time and a high extent of response against its thin film counterpart in
testing a variety of chemical applications [29] validating the performance benefits offered by nano-
fibres. Another study indicated the performance benefits of PLA as a substate in biosensors. Revolu-
tionFibres have the ability to electrospin PANI and PLA using Sonic Electrospinning which are key
materials in resistive sensors. Several industry specific resources such as sonication of the PLA solu-
tion before electrospinning, a vacuum baking oven and expertise’s in this industry pose a technical
limitation for RevolutionFibres.
4.2.5 Dye-sensitized solar cells
The DSSC industry is still an emerging industry and commercialization has not occurred due to multi-
ple factors such as recorded efficiencies of only 11.2%, lack of stability and high module cost [45].
Dyesol is an Australian based company who are currently global leaders in DSSC and present a possi-
ble technology partnership. The applications of nanofibre alternatives has been shown to provide bene-
fits as electrodes [34], mesoporous semiconductors [32] and electrolytes [36]. RevolutionFibres has
the current capabilities to electrospin PANI and PVDF using Sonic Electrospinning but are yet to test
any of the other materials documented in the research. The industry present specific processing and
synthesis such as heating the electrode and semiconductor at upwards of 1000 o
C that are costly and
present technological limitations for RevolutionFibres. The ability to electrospin at diameters in the
range of 20 nm have been indicated to be difficult using Sonic Electrospinning as well. However due
to the nature of this industry, it is able to offer technological overlap to similar photovoltaic devices
and neighbouring energy industries.

29. 22
4.2.6 Supercapacitors
The supercapacitors industry is a relatively new industry that has developed well due to the applicabil-
ity of supercapacitors in a variety of industries such as electronics, automotive and wind to name a
few. Maxwell Technologies, Seimens and CapXX are possible technology partners present in the su-
percapacitors industry. In a study comparing PANI nanofibre electrodes to PANI powder based elec-
trodes, results showed that nanofibres offered higher specific capacitance, greater stability and superi-
or performance over its counterpart due to the fibrous morphology [41]. RevolutionFibres has already
indicated its capability to electrospin PANI using Sonic Electrospining and its capability to electrospin
fibres onto an aluminium foil substrate meeting the industry requirements in manufacturing of the
electrode. The electrospin-ability of PPy, PEDOT, PTFE, PI and PE present technical limitations for
RevolutionFibres as they have not been tested. The industry specific post-treatment of cellulose fibres
involved the removal of water contamination through thermal outgassing or acetone washing which
are technical limitations present in manufacturing the separator [38]. Similarly, development into this
industry can result in an overlap to other energy industries documented in the report if PANI is the
developed material.
4.3 Analytical Hierarchy Process Results
The AHP indicated that supercapacitors ranked highest with a weighting of 30.8% followed by piezoe-
lectric generators with a weighting of 21.5%, DSSC came third with a weighting of 18.3%, closely
followed by fuel cells with a weighting of 17%. Sensors ranked fifth with a weighting of 8.4% and
oxygen barriers was the lowest ranked with a weighting of 3.9%.
5.0 Technology Strategy Canvas
Weekly meetings were conducted with RevolutionFibres over the course of the project. These work-
shops focussed on understanding the company’s vision, determining its current capabilities and their
abilities to meet market demand when it arises. The technology strategy canvas was used as a guide-
line in identifying the appropriate sectors needed to be discussed.
5.1 Vision & Strategy
RevolutionFibres has a company strategy based on forming technology partners within an industry
that form the market pull or also known as market demand. Large scale manufacturing of nanofibres
using The Komodo present a different set of requirements in comparison to lab scaled electrospinning.
Therefore as part of RevolutionFibres business strategy, they provide a collaborative service with in-
dustries to determine their needs and design as well as manufacture a corresponding nanofibre with the
right properties that meet those needs. The company’s vision is to become industry leaders in the
manufacturing of nanofibres.
5.2 Value proposition
Nanofibres in comparison to thin films:
 Nanofibres offer increased porosity.
 Nanofibres offer increased surface area.
RevolutionFibres value proposition:
 Industrial scaled nanofibres manufacturing capabilities.
 Collaborative nanofibres design service.
 Experience and expertise in polymer materials and designing customized nanofibres.
5.3 Customer Segments
Correlation of the AHP results with RevolutionFibres, concurred that supercapacitors was the strong-
est customer segment to pursue with neighbouring energy markets such as DSSC, piezoelectric gener-
ators and fuels cells offering industrial overlap possibilities in the future. Although DSSC, piezoelec-
tric generators and fuel cells were also advantageous industries, the lack of technological partners for

30. 23
DSSC and the lack of material knowledge for fuel cells sets these industries as long term customer
segment. It was also concluded that the sensors industry and oxygen barriers industry were not suitable
for RevolutionFibres to pursue due to their large, complex and diverse nature.
5.4 Performance
Using RevolutionFibres production services preliminary information document as a template, the cur-
rent performance criteria for the manufacturing of supercapacitor electrodes was documented.
5.4.1 Supercapacitor electrodes
Overview: Application as an electrode in supercapacitors. Since the material produced is for an elec-
tronic component, contamination from air such as dust need to be avoided. The main performance cri-
teria of the material is conductivity.
Substrate requirements: Thin metal sheets generally aluminium, nickel or steel. Thickness in the range
of 200 µm. The substrate acts as a current collector in supercapacitors therefore the industry partner
should be consulted to determine the appropriate weight, width and supplier of the substrate.
Nanofibre criteria: The most suitable polymer to use is PANI (Mw = 65,000) with diameters in the
range of 200 nm. Solvents such as choloroform and camphorsulfonic acid as well as an additive PEO
(Mw = 100,000) we used in forming the solvent according to the research in reference [41].
Other information: The PANI solvent was prepared by dissolving PANI (0.7 g) in chloroform (1.95 wt
%) followed by the addition of camphorsulfonic acid (0.15 g). The resulting sol was contained in an
air-tight bottle and stirred for 24 hours to form a homogeneous and transparent solution which was
then filtered. After that, 0.7 g PEO was added and again stirred for 24 hours before electrospinning. In
the lab scaled model, the composite solution was placed in a 5-mL plastic syringe with a capillary tip
of 12 mm in diameter. Electrospun PANI were collected by attraction to an aluminium current collec-
tor at an applied voltage of 20 kV. The distance between collector and needle was 10 cm and the feed
rate of the solution was 1 mLh-1
[41].
5.5 Value Chain
5.5.1 Inbound & outbound logistics
Analysis of the logistics, indicated that there could be a limitation in the effective co-development of a
material for use in supercapacitors as most of the main industry manufacturers are situated overseas.
The company also has no storage space which could become an issue for international partners who
may require monthly shipment if cheaper.
5.5.2 Manufacturing operations and services
The manufacturing operations are currently nowhere near capacity and therefore should be able to
handle the market demand of supercapacitors in the future. However the materials development ser-
vice has limited resources which are currently well utilized. Expansion of this sector is recommended
to ensure that RevolutionFibres is able to meet market demand. It was also discussed in the meeting,
that there was a possibility to develop a custom supercapacitor electrode specific manufacturing ma-
chine if market demand was present as the technology is well understood.
5.5.3 Marketing and Sales
This has a small presence in the company currently. RevolutionFibres have representative in the Unit-
ed States, United Kingdom and Australia who act as liaisons for technological partners in those coun-
tries. To assist bridging the gap, Iain has indicated that he will attempt to market RevolutionFibres
capabilities to supercapacitors manufacturer in the near future.
5.5.4 Technology and human resources
RevolutionFibres provide technology through industrial scaled manufacturing of nanofibres and active
development of their core materials. There are 4 engineers whose skills delegated to 70% focussed on
core material improvements, 20% on technology partner objectives and 10% on emerging technolo-

31. 24
gies. Supercapacitors are a relatively new industry and as such have little documentation of industry
standards. It can be assumed that the minimization of dust will be advantages as this is undesirable in
electronic components.
Technical Capabilities of RevolutionFibres:
 The ability to electrospin PVDF, Bio-origin based materials, PES, PLA and PANI using Sonic
Electrospinning.
 The ability to electrospin nanofibres onto an aluminium foil substrate.
Technical limitations of RevolutionFibres:
 The ability to electrospin PZT and Nafion using Sonic Electrospinning.
 The ability to electrospin 2 separate materials simultaneously. The ability to electrospin one
material over another is within the company’s capabilities and offers an alternative to achiev-
ing a composite membrane.
 There are post treatments involving thermal annealing, compression and vapour treatment in
the manufacturing of composite PEM that are currently not part of RevolutionFibres capabili-
ties.
 The PLA membrane went through a chemical post treatment processes to form a capture zone
then it was placed in a vacuum oven for an hour. Following that it went through another chem-
ical treatment to prevent binding of other proteins with the membrane and dried in a vacuum
oven for 2.5 hours [28]. This not within RevolutionFibres capabilities.
 Complex post treatment processes were implemented in the manufacturing of the counter elec-
trode and semiconductor for DSSC, requiring heating chamber upwards of 1000 o
C. Manufac-
turing of the mesoporous films required post treatment to remove the PVAc fibres and calcin-
ing at 450 o
C [32].
 The ability to electrospin using Sonic Electrospinning at a very small fibre diameter range of
20 nm for applications in semiconductor separators.
5.5.5 Purchasing
PANI was difficult to attain in small quantities as it was generally so in large 20kg bags. However
RevolutionFibres is able to attain PANI in small quantities through The University of Auckland.
5.6 Finance Providers
Finance is always required when entering a new market. However discussions with RevolutionFibres
established that little funding is spent on research and development of material in the current structure
where funding is spent on increasing manufacturing capabilities. This has merged with their business
strategy which focuses on forming technology partners who assist in the financial requirements of de-
veloping a new product. RevolutionFibres is capable of attaining funding for the development of any
specific alterations to The Komodo if required by the market partner.
5.7 Technology Providers
Supercapacitor technology partners:
Small sized cells: Panasonic, NEC-Tokin, Elna, Seiko, Korship, Cooper Bussmann, Alumapro, Shoei
Electronics, Smart Thinker, Nichicon, Nippon Chemicon, Vina, Vishay, Rubycon [39]
High power cells: Batscap(France), Nesscap(South Korea) and LS Mtron(South Korea) [39].
Maxwell Technologies: This is one of the best known manufacturers in the supercapacitor field, hav-
ing a full portfolio of cells from 5 F to 3000 F in hydroxide based electrolytes. The company is over
45 years old and has branches in the United States, Switzerland, Germany and China [46].

32. 25
Siemens: The Company holds a leadership position in the development of supercapacitors in regenera-
tive braking systems for trains and automobiles in Europe [46].
ESMA: This Company’s technology is based on an asymmetric capacitor geometry (Ni/Carbon in
NaoH) which is under the pseudocapacitors category. Based in Paris, the company was also the first to
produce supercapacitors with specific energy exceeding 10Wh/kg in modules with 30MJ of storage
capacity which were used as motive power units for city busses and trucks in 1997 [46].
CapXX: This is an Australian based company solely focused on supercapacitor for portable and wire-
less applications. The company has won several awards for their technological achievements in the
supercapacitors industry.
6.0 Recommended Strategy
 As RevolutionFibres business strategy is market pull, the first step is establishing a technolog-
ical partnership with one of the supercapacitors industry leaders. This will require direct mar-
keting of nanofibres and RevolutionFibres capabilities to the manufacturers.
 Due to the diverse nature of supercapacitor applications, conducting further research into the
supercapacitors market will provide RevolutionFibres with a better technical knowledge of the
industry and meeting the market demands.
 To meet an identified technical market requirement, research should be conducted on the abil-
ity to Sonic Electrospin PANI onto the documented aluminium substrate or a substrate of
similar properties.
 To achieve this, expansion of RevolutionFibres materials development sector is recommend-
ed. This will ensure RevolutionFibres is able to meet future market demand of this service.
 During this time, it is recommended that RevolutionFibres explore the possibility to develop a
supercapacitor electrode specific manufacturing machine as this technology will help bridge
the gap with market demand once a partnership has been established.
 Also, it is recommended that RevolutionFibres attempt to bridge the identified technical limi-
tations to better enable the company to meet industry demands.
 Expand into neighbouring industries that utilize PANI and PVDF such as DSSC, fuel cells and
Piezoelectric generators if the supercapacitors industry is unsuccessful.
7.0 Conclusions
 We believe that the supercapacitors industry was the strongest customer segment to pursue
within the specialty films market for RevolutionFibres. In order to successfully enter the su-
percapacitors market, RevolutionFibres will need to form a technology partnership in the near
future.
 Neighbouring energy markets such as DSSC, piezoelectric generators and fuels cells offer in-
dustrial overlapping possibilities in the future however are currently limited due to complex
post processing and technical requirements.
 The sensors industry and oxygen barriers industry were not suitable for RevolutionFibres to
pursue due to their large, complex and diverse nature.
 PANI and PVDF were identified as a valuable material in the energy industry.
 PVDF nanofibres in piezoelectric generators and PANI nanofibres as supercapacitor elec-
trodes required no post processing.

33. 26
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