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A ‘special relationship’ in higher education? What
influence might the US higher education sector have
in terms of support for international students in the
UK?
David John Lochtie
a
a
Department of Media, Culture and Language, The University of Roehampton, London
SW15 5SL, UK
Published online: 01 Sep 2015.
To cite this article: David John Lochtie (2015): A ‘special relationship’ in higher education? What influence might the US
higher education sector have in terms of support for international students in the UK?, Perspectives: Policy and Practice in
Higher Education, DOI: 10.1080/13603108.2015.1074627
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2. perspective
A ‘special relationship’ in higher
education? What influence might the
US higher education sector have in
terms of support for international
students in the UK?
David John Lochtie
Department of Media, Culture and Language, The University of Roehampton, London SW15 5SL, UK
As international student migration and comparative education research have increased worldwide,
greater interdependency between national Higher Education (HE) systems has developed with policy
and practice frequently being shared internationally. As a key player in the international student market
the United States of America is especially influential over its peers and competitors, including the UK.
The market of HE with rising, and variable, tuition fees which has existed in the USA for some time
bears a resemblance to recent developments and proposals in the UK. Furthermore there are clear par-
allels between long standing federal funded access initiatives in the USA and recent UK governments’
widening participation policies. This paper examines whether international student support in institutions
across the globe may be influenced similarly by activities in the USA, specifically looking at academic
advising and the potential of utilising professional academic advisors to support personal tutoring in
the UK.
Keywords: international students; personal tutor; academic advising; student support; training; comparative
education
The importance of international
students and influence of the USA
The UK Higher Education (HE) sector now sources
around an eighth of its income from international
student tuition fees (Universities UK [UUK] 2014)
and these students make up 19% of the total student
population – a figure which looks set to grow
(Higher Education Statistics Agency [HESA] 2015).
They bring diversity to campus life, enhance the
experience of ‘home’ students, support the provision
of certain subjects and provide a valuable source of
income to universities and local economies (Univer-
sities UK 2014, 3). Only the USA has a higher share
of the increasingly competitive international student
market than the UK (Universities UK 2014) and
seven of the top ten universities worldwide are based
there (with the three remaining coming from the UK
[Times Higher Education World University Rankings
2014–15]). According to the media, significantly
Dave Lochtie is a Department Business Manager for
Media, Culture and Language
and elected Council member
at the University of
Roehampton with fourteen
years’ experience in various
roles in education. He is a
Deputy Coordinator of the
International Higher
Education Network of the
Association of University
Administrators (AUA) and an Executive Committee
member ofUK Advising andTutoring (UKAT). His Masters
in Leadership and Management in Education was
completed at the University of Roehampton and he has
presented on issues relating to international students,
academic advising and personal tutoring at conferences
for the AUA and UKAT. He has been involved with and led
many comparative education study trips to locations
in Europe, North America and Asia. Address for
correspondence: The University of Roehampton, London,
SW15 5SL. Email: d.lochtie@roehampton.ac.uk
# 2015 Taylor & Francis
PERSPECTIVES: POLICY AND PRACTICE IN HIGHER EDUCATION, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13603108.2015.1074627 1
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3. more British high schoolers are studying in the USA
(The Independent Online 2006; BBC News 2010;
The Telegraph 2011; BBC News 2014) and more US
students are travelling to the UK in return (Times
Higher Education 2014; HESA 2015).
The extremely diverse US system has a very different
offering to prospective international students from that
of the UK. This may include four-year courses, an
upper/lower division structure and a ‘general edu-
cation’ curriculum that covers a wider range of sub-
jects. The extra year generally gives more time for
students, including international ones, to explore
their options while the UK has an ‘intrinsic inflexi-
bility’ (Times Higher Education 2014) in comparison.
On the website of the Fulbright Commission they state
that UK students may be ‘attracted to the flexibility to
explore their academic interests before specialising’ in
the USA (2015). One such student seemed to agree,
stating that an advantage is ‘that you don’t declare
your major until the end of the second year and even
then you can take additional subjects’ (The Indepen-
dent Online 2006). However a US student studying
in the UK felt ‘a UK university would be the best fit
for me, since I would be able to focus from the begin-
ning on the subjects I am passionate about’ (Times
Higher Education 2014).
The number of international students arriving in the
UK fell for the first time in 2013, while international
students in the USA continued to grow (Universities
UK 2014). This was attributed in the media to
changes in student immigration regulations (The Guar-
dian 2012; Huffington Post 2013) beyond individual
institutions’ influence. However intensified compe-
tition in international student recruitment has ‘put
pressure on institutions to improve their product’
which may be more within their control (Brown and
Jones 2013, 1004). Their ‘product’ is more than
simply programme content and includes the support
available. As students are becoming better informed
about what support is available in different systems
(Bo¨hm et al. 2004), the assurance of its quality
becomes an important marketing tool.
If universities aim to enhance their competitiveness
in the international education market (Li 2012) they
must focus on international student needs and successes
(Lacina 2002).
Given the economic dependence of universities
on the fees from international students, it is
important that there is a clear understanding of
the issues facing them if an optimum service is
to be delivered, so that student retention is
improved and positive word-of mouth helps to
increase recruitment. (Brown and Jones 2013,
1004)
I sought to learn whether academic support for
international students in the USA could, or should,
influence future practice in student support elsewhere,
particularly including the UK where I am based. From
small-scale surveys of senior staff in colleges from each
system it has previously been observed that those in the
USA seem ‘able to offer a greater range of support and
easier access to guidance specialists for students of all
ages’ (King, Widdowson, and Brown 2008, 16) includ-
ing advising centres which appear lavish in comparison
to the UK (Johnstone 2009). This was my impression
when I first visited US institutions and it inspired me
to return to visit New Orleans to find out first-hand
what support may be available for international
students.
Collecting student and staff views
I visited seven colleges/universities, including public/
private, 2/4 year and religious/secular, etc. institutions.
I conducted semi-structured interviews (recommended
by Teichler 1996) with fifteen members of staff in
various international/study-abroad offices, academic
advising centres and academic departments. I met
with ten potential study-abroad students for a focus
group discussing their expectations and one student
who had recently returned from UK study abroad. I
observed five academic advisors in one–one inter-
actions with students and a further five in group work
activities. In the UK I interviewed two study-abroad
students visiting from the USA and eight members of
academic staff from my UK institution in London
with various experience of personal tutoring for inter-
national students in their current and previous roles
(both in the UK and USA). I obtained further input
from academics and staff at universities across the UK
via various jiscmail and network groups as well as
attending the first conference of UK Advising and
Tutoring (UKAT) where I discussed these issues with
colleagues from institutions across the UK. In these
interactions I used the literature to prompt and ques-
tion participants to see if it reflected their experience
and opinions. In this paper I present my findings
based upon these interactions often backed up by the
literature specifically referenced by (very well-
informed) colleagues in my meetings with them.
The term international students will be used to
encompass all students (including those travelling
from within the EU) who venture abroad for their
studies (Grimshaw 2011). As the USA is the
market leader in attracting international students,
an evaluation of the support they offer is of clear
benefit to their competitors and in the present
paper I approach this from a UK perspective. Obser-
vations are based primarily on academic challenges
international students may face, with an awareness
of the wider context of cultural and social adjust-
ment issues also. They are made with an understand-
ing of the distinct differences of both systems
including the fact that, as interviewees stated, the
DAVID JOHN LOCHTIE2
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4. general emphasis of HE in the USA is breadth and
variety while the UK focuses on depth and thorough
understanding of a certain subject (Internationalstu-
dent.com 2015).
Academic support and advising for
international students in the USA
Colleagues in international, study-abroad or advising
offices in New Orleans detailed many of the challenges
international students face which are prevalent in the
literature (often referring me to such sources them-
selves). These included culture clashes, financial
worries, homesickness (Gordon et al. 2000), language
learning (Andrade 2006) and linguistic differences
(Flannery Quinn, Morton, and Brindley 2009). They
also noted stress from a wide range of specific academic
difficulties (Yeh and Inose 2003), which may be more
unexpected to them (Zhai 2002). They agreed that
the different grading system (Sturzl-Forrest 2012),
unfamiliar expectations of in-class participation and
the need to formulate their own ideas rather than just
report others’ were challenges (Sarkodie-Mensah
1998). Students who had studied in both systems
suggested different question formats in assessment
were an issue along with level of choice in the curricu-
lum and less formal relationships with tutors (as
suggested by Cadieux and Wehrly 1986). Zhai stated
that where available specialist international advisors
‘are the most trusted university staff for international
students’ (Zhai 2002, 13). At the universities I visited
some advisors did focus on international students
specifically but they were rarely based in an inter-
national office.
In speaking to colleagues it was clear that in the US
academic advising has long been regarded as a critical
activity (Morgan and Pratt 2011) for international stu-
dents in overcoming such ‘unique concerns’ (Cadieux
and Wehrly 1986, 52). Priest and McPhee’s suggestion
that the academic advisors help make graduation a
reality (2000) was very much reflective of interviewee
responses and what I saw in practice. Respondents
suggested, seemingly agreeing with Habley (1994),
that academic advising was the only service which
ensured all students had the opportunity for ongoing
individual contact with a staff member and that this
support is particularly relevant to international stu-
dents, as Lamont suggests (2005).
The international students I spoke to agreed that
they require advisors who are willing to go the extra
mile for them, help overcome culture shock and
adapt to the new teaching/learning environment and
educational system (as suggested by Slowinski 2003).
The advisors I observed provided lots of in-depth indi-
vidualised and personalised information which
appeared to help students prepare, make decisions and
reach educational goals (as stated by Morgan and
Pratt 2011). Colleagues suggested that they can
reduce the effects of stress (agreeing with Lee,
Koeske, and Sales 2004), while celebrating their cul-
tures and successes, and using proactive advising tech-
niques to follow up with students (endorsing Sturzl-
Forrest 2012). One colleague agreed with Byrd
(1991) when suggesting that advisors can help students
participate more fully in their university’s social and
cultural life while students suggested that they may be
the most important individual influence on their
studies, seemingly confirming Cadieux and Wehrly’s
(1986) assertion.
Faculty and professional advising
At each university I visited it was clear that academic
faculty play a major role in supporting all students,
including international ones (Self 2013). However col-
leagues raised concerns that the pursuit of higher insti-
tutional rankings and greater student applications had
led to research being given a greater weight than
teaching (Stromquist 2007) with advising a poor
third. The academic faculty members I spoke to
seemed to confirm Pardee’s assertion that ‘when advis-
ing is not a formal part of the tenure and promotion
process’ there is ‘no incentive for faculty to participate
in training or to devote a specific time to advising’
(Pardee 2000, 195). The advising specialists I inter-
viewed suggested that training on advising concepts
and relationship skills for faculty is rare (normally
focusing instead on the communication of factual
information) and if their performance is rarely evalu-
ated, recognised or rewarded (as can be the case)
they can be seen as ‘the weakest link in academic
advising’ (Gordon et al. 2000, 42).
Several colleagues suggested that international stu-
dents may rely more on student–faculty interaction
(agreeing with Zhao, Kuh, and Carini 2005), may
seek out their academic advisor ‘just to talk’ (citing
Gordon et al. 2000), have greater adjustment difficulties
and display behaviours which are challenging to inter-
pret (confirming Andrade 2006). Robertson et al.’s
(2000) study suggested that faculty members, though
experts in other fields, may struggle to recognise
specific psychological and emotional problems inter-
national students may suffer from and a number of
the advising specialists I spoke to agreed. They
suggested that, perhaps for these reasons, the trend
among institutions has been the increasing use of pro-
fessional advisors to support students (as suggested by
Self 2013), housed in a ‘more visible and centralized
location’ (referring me to Gordon et al. 2000, xi) as I
observed in several of the larger institutions I visited
(including the University of New Orleans and
Tulane). In most of the universities I observed the
responsibility for academic advising was generally
shared between faculty and professional advisors, as
was suggested in Habley (2000) and in a 2011 national
survey (Carlstrom and Miller).
PERSPECTIVE 3
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5. The Council for the Advancement of Standards in
Higher Education (CAS) suggests that professional
advisors are increasingly likely to hold graduate or pro-
fessional degrees in a related field (Miller 2012) and this
was true of the vast majority I encountered. Many were
responsible for certain subsets of students (as suggested
by Carlstrom and Miller 2011) such as international
students and often coordinated intervention pro-
grammes (confirming Poyrazli and Lopez 2007)
aimed at supporting those reluctant to seek help them-
selves (endorsing Yeh and Inose 2003). Andrade (2006,
148) states that ‘learning communities, support courses,
comprehensive programming and peer study partner-
ships have been successful in providing international
students with academic support’ and colleagues
reported similar successes. Oliver (1999, 29) suggests
that some international students ‘find the flexibility
and numerous choices offered in the US system of
higher education extremely confusing’ and, at least at
first, I did also. It appeared complex and clearly in
need of advisor support, particularly for international
students, but led to advising interactions which I felt
UK-based students (both international and home)
would also benefit from.
Support for international students
in the UK
Interviewees in the UK were generally aware, as Li
(2012) and Grimshaw (2011) state, that international
student support is complex and can vary greatly
depending on factors such as location, mode and
length of study. However, the literature suggests that
international students in the UK suffer similar issues
of academic and personal acclimatisation as their US
counterparts (Luzio-Lockett 1998; Ryan and Carroll
2005; Li 2012; Brown and Jones 2013; McDonald
2014) and in the main the UK colleagues I interviewed
agreed. International student support has changed at
my institution whereby our international office now
primarily focuses on recruitment referring students
on, after initial orientation, to the same support ser-
vices as domestic students. This was echoed by some
colleagues who work at other institutions and also by
a member of a local volunteer group, aimed to
support international students at a UK university, inter-
viewed in Li’s (2012, 247) research;
. . . when the new students come at the begin-
ning of the Autumn Term, there is a big
welcome . . . That’s it, finished, and nothing else
happens. Because the Overseas Students Depart-
ment [International Office] just wants to recruit
more students for the next year, so they forget
about where they would go. This is one big
deficiency of the university welcoming
program, it doesn’t continue.
In that study the volunteer group believed ‘they had
identified a clear gap in the normal services provided by
the University (e.g. The International Office, The
Counselling Service, The Health Centre, and The Stu-
dents’ Union)’ (Li 2012, 247) and many colleagues I
spoke to felt similarly. Some felt that international stu-
dents may feel negatively about and therefore underuse
individual counselling support (as suggested by
Cadieux and Wehrly 1986; Luzio-Lockett 1998; Yeh
and Inose 2003). Perhaps to combat these issues
McDonald suggested an ‘expansion of orientation pro-
grammes for international students to include topics
such as current educational culture in the UK’ (2014,
62) and this idea was welcomed particularly by one of
the interviewees in this research. They agreed with
Andrade (2006, citing Lee and Wesche 2000; Schutz
and Richards 2003) that the process of adjustment
appears to be gradual, with Lin and Yi (1997) that
multi-phase approach orientation is needed and with
Coates and Dickinson (2012, 304) that ‘appropriate
interventions at critical points in the year’ are required.
UK colleagues stated that their institutions do not
distinguish between ‘international’ and ‘home’, as
they may often both be away from home and experi-
ence similar challenges. This rationale appears to be
rooted in sound logic but also perhaps in a British
interpretation of equal opportunity which differs
from that of the USA. In New Orleans I noticed a
markedly different approach to ‘advising specific
populations’ (National Academic Advising Association
[NACADA] 2015) via programmes solely targeted at
such groups as student athletes, first-
generation students, high-achieving (or ‘honours’)
students, veterans and international students. As
Lamont states, ‘clearly, students with diverse cultural
backgrounds benefit from advising initiatives tailored
specifically to their needs’ as part of a system that
‘embraces individuality’ (2005). Priest and McPhee
suggest ‘the extent to which advisors are able to under-
stand advisees rather than attempt to force them into an
over-generalized advising paradigm’ (2000, 112) is
important to their support and colleagues in New
Orleans echoed this.
McDonald (2014) suggests that increased support for
international students could help build ‘better repu-
tation in key countries’ which may ‘attract more stu-
dents and partnership opportunities’. However,
Bartram (2009, 312) raises a concern over casting the
international student as a victim in need of help, coun-
tering calls for further support for them by citing
Walker’s suggestion that they come primarily from a
bleeding hearts welfare lobby with ‘an overdeveloped
sense of welfare concerns’. They describe a potentially
‘inappropriate over-emphasis on student support in
some institutions’ which does not aid the development
of independent learners (Bartram 2009). The mixed
response I received from US colleagues on this
subject suggests that there is a balance that must be
DAVID JOHN LOCHTIE4
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6. found. When I visited the USA I attempted to imagine
myself as an international student facing all the chal-
lenges to study listed here. Personally I would not
want to be forced to engage in support activities
unnecessarily but would expect my (substantial) fees
to fund support which was tailored to my needs in a
clear fashion, should I require it.
Personal tutoring for international
students
Several authors from either country have equated aca-
demic advising in the USA directly with personal tutor-
ing in the UK (McCauley 2007; Robbins 2010;
Robinson 2012; Scott 2013) and the direct link
UKAT has with the National Academic Advising
Association (NACADA) in the USA suggests this also.
The UK colleagues I interviewed confirmed the belief
that ‘personal tutors can improve student retention and
success’ (Thomas 2012, 43) as theyoffer the opportunity
to help international students overcome cultural barriers
(Blythman et al. 2006). As Bowden (2008) stated, stu-
dents I interviewed listed personal tutoring as one of
the main reasons they stay on their course. UK col-
leagues at the UKAT conference raised concerns as to
whether personal tutoring is sufficiently supported (in
terms of workloads, training and links to promotion)
to ensure a quality, thorough and consistent service to
all (Owen 2002; Dobinson-Harrington 2006; Blyth-
man et al. 2006; Gubby and McNab 2013; Times
Higher Education 2015) and whether tutors are com-
fortable taking on the counselling aspects of the role
(Hart 1996; Stephen O’Connell and Hall 2008).
Several of the UK colleagues I interviewed suggested
that international students often need more advisor
time than regular students (Cadieux and Wehrly 1986)
so these issues seem particularly relevant to them.
They raised similar concerns to Luzio-Lockett (1998)
that if many support activities are parcelled up as part
of a task which is on the periphery of their role these
students may not receive the support they require.
International student participants in McDonald’s
(2014) survey ‘expressed reluctance at the idea of speak-
ing to an academic, even a named personal tutor or
supervisor, regarding personal issues’ meaning ‘that
some international students are potentially missing
out on important support which is available to them’
(2014, 64)–the students I interviewed felt similarly.
A proactive profession of
international student academic
advising in the UK?
McDonald (2014) suggests that ‘employing experts
who could advise staff on cultural issues which may
affect international students’ could be seen by insti-
tutions as ‘an investment in their staff and international
students’. Such specialists can be a primary contact for
international students and important sign post to each
of the various support functions on campus (Coates
and Dickinson 2012, 304). They can use ‘surveys,
interviews, and focus groups’ to find out what inter-
national students really think (Andrade 2006, 150)
and serve as ‘international champions’ educating col-
leagues about the specific challenges these students
face (Cadieux and Wehrly 1986). As in the USA,
funding for international specialists may be limited
but where they do not exist support services such as
Welfare or Careers Advisors are usually well trained
in supporting international students. However ‘the
provision of non-academic student advisors’ (a dis-
tinctly different role) ‘is a recent development’ which
‘has not yet been widely taken up across the sector’
(McCary et al. 2011, 3) in the way it has in the USA.
Similar positions and departments have, though,
begun to appear at Hull University (2015), The Uni-
versity of Edinburgh (2015) and The University of
East London (2015) which may yet be able to
provide some specialism in international student
support, as they do in the USA. The UK colleagues I
spoke to had limited or no experience of professional
academic advisors but were very positive about these
developments and welcomed further information
about (and potentially further research into) them.
Lessons learned
As the US and UK education systems are individually
diverse and comparatively different any observations
are made with an awareness of the potential limits of
comparative education (Teichler 1996). Additionally,
‘international students show within-group differences’
(Poyrazli and Lopez 2007, 276) so the ‘cultural back-
ground of the student is significant’ (Coates and Dick-
inson 2012, 296). We cannot ‘assume that a student
will necessarily think or behave in a particular way
simply because he or she is from a particular country
or region’ so must remain ‘careful in generalising
regarding support systems that aim to fit for all’
(Grimshaw 2011, 706). Furthermore, there may be
variations according to the subject and level (i.e.
undergraduate, postgraduate or research) at which
they study.
The research I have conducted and the literature I
have reviewed suggest that the USA has great influence
over its competitors, so there may be a benefit in observ-
ing their student support as I have done. The main focus
of this paper has been from a UK perspective – lessons
may be learnt for the benefit of the wider international
community but this would require further research.
From speaking to academic colleagues in both countries
they seem to face similar issues of being overburdened
with multiple tasks meaning support for students,
including international ones, from faculty advisors/per-
sonal tutors may be limited. I observed how in the USA
professional academic advisors play an important role in
PERSPECTIVE 5
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7. plugging this potential gap. While professional advisors
were sometimes critical of faculty advisors the same
was true in reverse so the balance, management and
optimal utilisation of both important sources of
support appear paramount. There are signs that a
version of the professional advising role may be
popular and successful inthe UK as apossiblewayof sup-
porting students here though it may not be the only one
(particularly where an international office with a remit
for student support still exists).
Self suggests that ‘regardless of the persons who
provide academic advising at any institution, the
success or failure of efforts depends upon a strong train-
ing and professional development program’ (Self, 2013)
and this was a clear theme among interviewees. It may
include ‘multicultural training about discrimination’
(Poyrazli and Lopez 2007, 276) to ensure that interpret-
ations of student behaviour (Andrade 2006) are not
influenced by cultural conditioning (Wisker et al.
2008). While there may be issues of training and
support in the USA the level of qualification in related
fields among staff and theory in practice I observed
was impressive. As McDonald’s UK study suggested
(2014), I would suggest that further support for inter-
national student support staff is the key in ensuring stu-
dents receive the support they need. For professional
staff this may be new roles, qualifications and advising
centres or for academic personal tutors this may be
release time or links to the promotion process. As Blyth-
man et al. (2006) suggest, the support of university
leaders will be required to achieve this but I would
argue that this is justified in supporting the students
the sector is now so reliant upon.
Acknowledgements
The author thanks Lukasz Daniluk for support in sour-
cing and referencing.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the
author.
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