1. 1
On a college campus it is impossible to know the background of every student. The
college admissions process is designed to capture data that will identify traits and demographics
in applicants that a college deems necessary. One piece of data that is becoming increasingly
important, yet glaringly absent from college admissions applications, is a student’s military
veteran status. This is a problem because student veterans face a unique set of issues that often
go overlooked when a student veteran is unable to be identified. Student veterans also suffer
from numerous undiagnosed problems that can impair their success in their college endeavors.
One of the most common undiagnosed problems that veterans face is Post Traumatic Stress
Syndrome or PTSD. PTSD has been a problem for as long as our world has known violence,
however it has only come to the forefront of psychosocial study in recent years as the amount of
returning combat veterans has increased through the U.S. wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. The
Veterans Affairs Administration estimates that between 11% - 20% of Veterans of the Iraq and
Afghanistan wars suffer from PTSD (1).
The rise in cases of PTSD has also coincided with an increase in the number of veterans
who are taking advantage of educational benefits provided by the military; in particular, the Post-
9/11 GI Bill. The increase of PTSD, and the rapid increase of student veterans has created a
“perfect storm” scenario for many college campuses. Colleges are unequipped to handle the
varied needs of this student population and therefore many student veterans do not get the help
and attention they need to be successful. Student veterans who do not receive support as they
transition from a life in the military to a life as a civilian student often find it difficult to be
successful, and difficult to persist through to graduation.
The purpose of this paper is to conduct a review of scholarly literature that has already
identified the problem of PTSD in student veterans, and its impact on retention rates of student

2. 2
veterans. Student development theory will then be applied to the problem of PTSD in student
veterans to decipher how the theories can help student affairs practitioners better understand and
work to accommodate the unique issues of this student population.. Finally, best practices will be
identified in collegiate level programs that are helping alleviate the negative impact on college
retention rates for student veterans suffering from PTSD.
Literature Review
An integral piece of the college experience is a student’s ability to successfully navigate
numerous transitions. New student orientation programs are designed specifically to help
students navigate the transition from high school to college, career services help students
navigate into employment after graduation, and student life programs help students navigate
through social transitions. Certain groups of students may also experience additional transitions
that have the potential to negatively affect their success. Military veterans who return home from
a combat situation and make the transition back into the college environment face a unique set of
transition issues that if not managed properly could destroy their chances of successfully
completing their degree.
One of the most difficult transition issues for student veterans to cope with is Post
Traumatic Stress Syndrome. According to an article entitled “Transitions: Combat Veterans as
College Students” published in the “New Directions for Student Services” journal, even for those
students who had attended college prior to their deployment, there was a major adjustment upon
their return (2). One student veteran who was interviewed by the journal commented that “after
having been away from school and formal classroom instruction, reentry was difficult. What
made it so hard was my attention span and my patience were very short, so sitting in class
became very hard to do.” (2) Another student veteran mentioned that “Once I got back to school,

3. 3
it was like I know what I need to do and it is right in front of me, but I’m just not doing it”.
Several veterans interviewed by the study also mentioned that they could not sleep at night and
had anger and stress which carried over from their time in combat. These symptoms are the
direct result of Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome developed from these students time in a horrific
combat war zone. Students ability to focus in a classroom setting, to sit for extended periods of
time through a lecture, to participate in group work, and to seek out academic support when they
are struggling, are all negatively affected by PTSD.
Student veterans suffering from PTSD also exhibit alarmingly higher rates of suicide and
depression than their fellow students. According to a study released by the American
Psychological Association “nearly half of student veterans - 46 percent- said they have
experienced suicidal thoughts, 20 percent said they have planned a suicide, and 10.4 percent
reported suicidal thinking on a frequent basis (4).” These statistics reveal that a high percentage
of student veterans have severe psychological effects as a result of their combat experience, and
that colleges can expect for these psychological issues to have a negative effect on student
veterans success rates.
Another area that is particularly difficult for many veterans is working in small or large
groups on academic assignments. Student veterans often complain that they dislike being in large
groups, they feel antisocial, and they always keep an outwardly mean expression in order to ward
off any unwanted social contact (2). This outward show of disinterest or possibly hostility
towards others results in many veterans feeling shunned or unprepared to equally contribute in a
group project. Group work can also be difficult for student veterans because it is likely that they
will be paired with a group member who is either unsympathetic or openly hostile towards
veterans because of that student’s disagreement with the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. When a

4. 4
student veteran is unable to successfully participate in class lectures, discussions, or group
projects, their performance suffers. When performance in the classroom declines, their ability to
be successful and to persist through to graduation also declines.
According to an article entitled “Old Friends and New Faces” published in “Veterans in
Higher Education”, PTSD is a serious matter on a college campus: “...It is a serious matter for
college administrators to consider, because the treatment of PTSD is very specific and likely
outside the purview of a college or university counseling clinic where short-term counseling is
the focus”(3). PTSD that has been diagnosed but is receiving improper or inadequate treatment
and support is just as bad as undiagnosed PTSD. “If untreated or unaddressed, students who
suffer from physical or psychological disabilities will likely begin their postsecondary pursuits at
a disadvantage that will negatively affect their persistence and degree attainment(3).” Most
colleges are ill equipped to handle the varied needs of returning veterans with symptoms of
PTSD. To avoid a negative effect on the persistence of student veterans, college administrators
must find a way to implement adequate support systems for this student population.
There are many ways that colleges can develop support systems to address the problem of
PTSD and it’s negative effect on retention rates. Elizabeth O’Herrin in an article entitled
“Enhancing Veteran Success in Higher Education” recommends implementing the following
support systems for student veterans: Ensure veterans receive a thorough introduction to the
university through a unique orientation program, establish specific veteran points of contact
within campus offices, create veteran-specific learning communities on campus, and streamline
disability and veterans services (5). These initiatives will not eliminate the negative effects of
PTSD on a student veteran but they can help to ease the transition from combat to civilian
college campus. Student veterans experience one of the same disadvantages that plague first-

5. 5
generation college students: “a lack of ability to navigate the systems and bureaucracy of a
college campus. While veterans are used to being the focus of attention for military support
services, they may find that they are not the focus of attention for support on a college campus”.
(6) While veterans suffer from an inability to navigate the college, coupled with a high tendency
for PTSD, the above mentioned support systems become even more imperative. College
administrators need to understand the urgency behind the implementation of these support
systems before their campuses are flooded with maladjusted veterans who struggle to be
successful. College retention rates cannot afford to fail their student veterans.
Student Development Theory
To better understand how the issues of Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome negatively affect
student veterans retention rates it is important to understand how the leading student
development theories apply to the problem. This section will examine William Perry’s cognitive
student development theory, Arthur Chickering’s psychosocial student development theory, and
Nancy Schlossberg’s adult student development theory. This section will also focus on the
implications for practice in the student affairs profession as results from the research.
Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome is a cognitive malady at it’s core. Licensed psychiatrists
are the most skilled at handling cases of PTSD, which is why student veterans suffering from
PTSD present such a problem for unprepared college campuses. The various stages of a student’s
intellectual development are detailed in William Perry’s cognitive development theory. The key
for helping student affairs practitioners understand and assist student veterans suffering from
PTSD, is found in the first stage of Perry’s theory: Dualism. One could argue that the military in
essence forces a soldier into a dualistic mindset. The military has a very strict hierarchical
structure and chain of command. Soldiers are force to instantly obey, without question, any

6. 6
authority that ranks above them. They accept the authority as the truth and they do not question
the source of that authority.
One reason that so many student veterans arrive on a college campus in the dualistic
stage is that over 90% of student veterans are former enlisted soldiers, not officers (6). This
means that the student veterans arriving on campus were largely the ones being directed,
receiving orders, and carrying out the whims of the authority. They were not decision makers,
they did not develop critical thinking skills, and they did not have to take responsibility for their
daily provision. Low ranking enlisted soldiers were told what to do, when to do it, and how to do
it for their entire military experience. They did not have to seek out solutions to problems, or
decide how to manage their time, it was all done for them. Making the transition to college is
difficult, because these former low level enlisted soldiers now have nobody standing over their
shoulder telling them what to do.
Dualistic student veterans crave a strong authority to tell them what to do, how to do it,
and to give them a simple right or wrong answer. Many student veterans suffering from PTSD
are already averse to group work because of the social interaction with unfamiliar people, but
being dualistic further complicates group work because now they are forced to create new
material instead of simply responding to the professor in charge. Group work would also be
difficult because a dualistic thinker does not value the opinion of their peers. A dualist will only
see merit in the opinion of the authority, the professor, and will likely be unwilling to accept any
input from a peer that contradicts the authority. A dualist does not believe that there can be more
than one right or wrong answer and they also believe there are no gray areas of truth. Some
college professors may create a classroom environment where this type of cognitive structure
will flourish. However, many classrooms are moving towards a more multifaceted student

7. 7
engagement model built on class discussion, essay response exams, group work, and oral
presentations. All of these activities would be very difficult for someone in a dualistic mode of
thinking, which would greatly impact their chances of being academically successful.
Dualistic student veterans will also struggle with time management skills. In the military,
enlisted soldiers do not set their own schedules, and they do not have to manage their own time.
The freedom inherent in the college experience can be very overwhelming for a student veteran,
especially one suffering from PTSD. There is nobody looking over the shoulder of a student
veteran ensuring that they accomplish their necessary tasks. This is one reason that support
systems specifically tailored for student veterans are so important. Student veterans have a
unique set of needs, and these needs go far beyond the basic support services that are offered to
the rest of the student body.
The pervasiveness of dualistic thinking among student veterans is one of the main
reasons that their transition into college is often so difficult. The strict dualistic structure in the
military is in place to maintain the safety and effectiveness of the military unit. Without strict
control, there would be chaos and unintended injury and death. The power structure is engrained
into a soldier’s psyche so that their reactions will be automatic, almost without thought. This is a
very difficult cycle to break. Most student veterans have spent multiple years living under this
structure and the stark contrast on a college campus is difficult to grasp. Dualistic student
veterans will still look to their authority figures to make the right decision, they believe that their
professors hold the only truth, they see diversity of opinions as confusion, and they believe there
are only right and wrong answers. Success for a dualistic student veteran is only more difficult to
obtain when they also suffer from the symptoms of PTSD. They will have a hard time focusing,
they may not sleep well at night, they may have latent anger issues, they may be depressed or

8. 8
have thoughts of suicide, and they will get easily stressed in social settings. The comparatively
relaxed structure on a college campus is the last thing that the above student needs to ensure their
success.
It is important however not to incorrectly perceive dualistic student veterans as
unintelligent or incapable of change. The majority of student veterans are highly motivated,
results oriented, and determined. With proper help from student affairs practitioners they can
move past dualistic thinking and greatly increase their chances of being successful and persisting
to graduation. Helping a dualistic student veteran move towards multiplicity begins by helping to
explain the rationale behind the freedom on a college campus. Student veterans need to
understand that they are in control of their own success at college and that they will be the
decision makers. Empowering student veterans to make their own decisions, and helping them
find access to all of the support systems that they need will greatly help aid them in their
transition to college. Student affairs staff should be aware however, that dualistic student
veterans will likely never seek out help. Soldiers are very individualistic and prefer to figure
things out on their own, even when that means failing on their own. Student affairs staff will
likely have to seek out student veterans rather than wait for the veterans to turn up asking for
help.
The problem of student veterans suffering from PTSD and how that negatively impacts
their retention rates can also be viewed using Arthur Chickering’s psychosocial student
development theory. Chickering presents seven vectors that students go through in their
development as students. The vectors are not sequential and they can be revisited at different
stages of development. Chickering’s first vector is “Developing Competence”. Soldiers are
taught a number of skills during their training. The vast majority of these are physical or

9. 9
technical skills. Soldiers live and die by their prowess at their physical and technical skills.
Intellectual and interpersonal skills however are often times underdeveloped in a majority of
soldiers. Thus when a student veteran arrives on campus they may have already developed a
heightened sense of physical competence, but they lack interpersonal and intellectual
competence. Many soldiers feel inadequate in their academic skills to successfully navigate the
rigors of a college degree. They also have not developed the interpersonal skills necessary to
manage the classroom or group work setting necessary in most college classrooms. The lack of
these skills can cause frustration and depression among student veterans.
Student veterans suffering from PTSD may also have trouble managing their emotions,
which is Chickering’s second vector. The symptoms of PTSD include anger, frustration with
basic tasks, depression, and a general inability to control one’s emotions. These symptoms
clearly describe a person who is struggling through the “Managing Emotions” vector. These
emotions can hinder a student veteran from being successful in the classroom because they may
take offense when questioned in class, or they might get easily frustrated with a classmate on a
group project which could result in lower or incomplete grades.
Another of Chickering’s vectors that can deeply impact student veterans is “Establishing
Identity”. Student veterans tend to struggle with this vector because of the stress of re-
acclimating to civilian society. Their combat experiences have forever transformed the lens
through which they view the world, and many student veterans are forced to re-evaluate their
identities when they step onto a college campus. Many veterans are unsure how to deal with the
negative criticism of the wars that they were part of, and even more unsure of how to cope with
the negative feelings, attitudes, and even actions towards soldiers. Many veterans expect to
return as celebrated patriots and instead find that they are viewed as symbols of unwelcome

10. 10
government interference. Colleges are also traditionally places where the voices against foreign
wars are heard the loudest. In other words, a college campus may be one of the most difficult
places for a veteran to return to. This environment can create a seemingly insurmountable
struggle for a student veteran struggling to establish their identity. Student veterans who are
unable to establish their identity or learn how to cope with the negative attitudes, may find that
they are simply unable to continue pursuing their degree in the hostile college environment.
Student veterans also struggle with the “Developing Integrity” vector. For many of the
same reasons that student veterans struggle to establish their identity, they also struggle to
determine what their personal values and beliefs are. When confronted with negative opinions
and attitudes about their actions over the last several years, veterans are forced to clarify their
beliefs. This is difficult for many veterans because their values and beliefs may be very different
than the popular beliefs of their fellow classmates. Student veterans may also struggle in
developing their integrity because the majority of student veterans are dualistic thinkers when
they first reintegrate back on campus. They have likely been taught one way of thinking their
entire lives, and that way of thinking may have never been tested. A dualistic student veteran
struggling with an assault on their values and beliefs will likely find it difficult to reach their full
potential without support.
It is important for student affairs workers to identity the specific vectors that will likely
impact student veterans the most. Knowing which vectors to pay special attention to, and
knowing the signs of a veteran struggling through a particular vector, will help student affairs
workers accurately assess and support the problem. With this knowledge, specific support
systems can be developed that help aid student veterans through these difficult transitions. Often
times, it will be enough for them to know that they are not alone in their struggles and that there

11. 11
are people willing to help them.
Nancy Schlossberg’s adult student development theory focuses on the ways that adults
cope with the transitions in their lives. This is especially important for veterans as their transition
is the main source of their problems in being successful and persisting through to graduation,
once they return to a college campus. It is important to note that student veterans should not be
considered a “traditional” student. Even though these students may be the same age as their
“traditional” counterparts, their life experiences classify them as a “non-traditional” student.
Understanding that student veterans approach life through a different lens, and that they have
unique struggles is an important component of helping them through their transitions.
Schlossberg’s transition theory addresses four major factors that influence a student’s
ability to cope with a transition: situation, self, support, and strategies. A student’s strengths and
weaknesses in each of the four categories will determine their ability to cope with the transition.
According to Schlossberg “It is not the transition per se that is critical, but how much it changes
one’s roles, relationships, routine, and assumptions. The bigger the change, the greater the
potential impact and the longer it may take to incorporate the transition and move on” (3).
Student veterans face a potentially great impact on their roles, relationships, routine, and
assumptions in their transition from combat zone to college campus.
Looking into the 4S of Schlossberg’s theory, student veterans situation involves a
complete role change. They are moving from combat soldier to peaceful civilian college student.
Some student veterans may also be re acclimating to being parents or spouses which only creates
more of a stark role change. The negative effects of PTSD can weigh heavily on the self aspect
of Schlossberg’s theory. Student veteran’s psychological resources are impacted because of
PTSD and they often find that their quality of life, health, and mental clarity also suffer as a

12. 12
result. The support systems for student veterans on a college campus vary widely from institution
to institution, but can largely be attributed to the level of success student veterans realize.
Student veterans may also receive support from family and friends, but this support may change,
and they may even experience a non event when support they had counted on does not
materialize. Finally, veterans can employ a number of different strategies to cope with the
transition, but their strategies are often limited by the negative effects of PTSD. Veterans may
not be successful at managing their stress because of PTSD, and they may not be able to focus or
to function in social settings that are designed to lend them support.
Student affairs staff should be aware of the 4S’s of Schlossberg’s theory as they assist
student veterans through the transition into college. Being able to accurately assess a veterans
ratio of assets and liabilities in regard to the four factors, will help student affairs staff provide
adequate resources. This assessment will also be helpful in counseling the student veteran and
referring them to the best possible resources for help.
Model Programs
Understanding a problem is important, but putting programs in place to actually mediate
a problem is where real results will be realized. Thankfully, there are numerous programs around
the country that have already been developed with the goal of helping student veterans suffering
from PTSD and other reintegration issues, be successful and persist through to graduation. The
criteria used in identifying the best programs around the country are: alignment with student
development theory, incorporation of psychological, practical, and student services needs, and
ease of use and access through school website.
The first program to meet the established criteria is Trident Technical College’s Veterans
Upward Bound. Veterans Upward Bound is “specifically designed to help veterans refresh their

13. 13
academic skills so that they can can prepare for and successfully complete the postsecondary
education of their choice. ”(7). This program matches prospective student veterans with full-time
staff as well as faculty who can assist them in getting the necessary resources to meet their
academic goals. The intriguing aspect of this program is that it is specifically designed to help
veterans before they begin college. Their academic counselors help veterans strategize their plan
of study, explore their college options, and evaluate the best school for them. Their staff can also
help veterans complete college applications and complete the financial aid and veterans benefits
applications process. You can also take refresher courses in basic academic skills and access
tutoring services for even more specialized instruction. There are also professional counselors on
hand for psychological counseling as well as referrals to other outside professional veterans
counseling resources. You can even meet with a career counselor who can help you find the best
college program to align with your career goals.
The Veterans Upward Bound program does a good job of applying student development
theory to the problem of veterans reintegrating into college. The program recognizes that
students may have competency deficiencies in intellectual and social skills and has created
services to develop those competencies. By providing psychological counseling resources the
program also recognizes that veterans can benefit from these services, especially those suffering
from PTSD, and that these services can be an integral part of a successful transition into college.
The next program that meets the outlined criteria is the Florida State University’s
Veterans Center. Their center “serves as the focal point for all campus veteran support services,
from transition assistance, to VA benefit certification, to educational assistance. The Center also
promotes awareness of...veteran related issues to campus and alumni populations alike”(8). The
FSU Veterans Center is currently undergoing a complete overhaul including hiring additional

14. 14
staff, creating a new mission and vision, and building a state of the art facility. When completed,
the Center will facilitate connections and offer social support for veterans, veteran’s dependents,
active duty personnel, Guard and Reservists, and ROTC cadets. They will administer a new
student veteran orientation program which supplements existing orientation programs. They will
assist student veterans with accessing, understanding, and applying for VA benefits. They also
will provide advice and guidance regarding readjustment services such as specialized classes or
workshops as well as provide academic support for student veterans (8).
The FSU Veterans Center has the admirable vision of helping “make FSU the most
veteran-friendly public university in the United States”(8). This vision, and the services offered
by the Veterans Center, reflect a firm understanding of the theoretical principles behind the
unique readjustment issues faced by student veterans. They recognize that the best way to
support student veterans is to make their transition as easy as possible. By having a “one stop
shop” for all veteran support services on campus, FSU Veterans Center has established itself as
one of the leading programs in the country.
The final program identified was the Beck PRIDE Center within Arkansas State
University. Their mission is to “provide combat wounded veterans with first class educational
programs and services at Arkansas State University. These include...resources for counseling,
personal rehabilitation, advocacy, and financial assistance(9)”. The Beck PRIDE Center is a non-
profit organization located within a partnership on Arkansas State’s campus. This partnership
allows the PRIDE Center to provide educational services including scholarship opportunities,
career advising, career testing, disability accommodation services, tutoring, and mentoring
services. They also offer personal rehabilitation programs including speech-language therapy and
physical therapy programs. Mental health services offered include individual, family, and group

15. 15
counseling services, support groups, and substance abuse treatment. They also offer a combat
veterans support group and have information regarding veteran’s benefits, employment services,
and housing referral assistance.
The Beck PRIDE Center provides all of the necessary resources to adequately assist
student veterans in their transition to college, but it does an exceptional job of accommodating
the mental health and medical needs of the student veteran community. Student veterans
suffering from PTSD have an excellent resource staffed with professionals who understand their
unique struggles, and have experience in helping similar cases. The university and mental health
center partnership is an excellent model that meets or exceeds all of the readjustment needs of
returning student veterans. Student development theory is evident in the pairing of these two
entities.
Concluding Thoughts
Low retention rates among student veterans suffering from Post Traumatic Stress
Syndrome is a major problem on college campuses today. This problem will only get worse as
the numbers of student veterans increase with the drawdown of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.
College administrators needs to make changes to the support structures for student veterans on
their campuses to better service the unique needs of this population. Using student development
theory you can clearly see patterns in the cognitive, psychosocial, and adult transition
development of the above mentioned student veterans. Using these theories, student affairs
practitioners can help advocate for positive change to aid in the difficult transition for student
veterans. An academic approach to creating student affairs programs will provide a much more
focused support system for the unique struggles of student veterans.
Numerous programs across the United States provide resources and support for student

16. 16
veterans suffering from PTSD and other readjustment issues. The best programs align with
student development theory, and serve as a “one stop” for all veterans resources. Programs for
veterans should continue to spring up on college campuses as student veteran populations
increase, and the issue of low retention rates becomes even more important. Identifying the
problem now, and being proactive in creating these programs will help alleviate the added stress
that student veterans face in their transition from combat to college.
References
1. http://www.ptsd.va.gov/public/pages/how-common-is-ptsd.asp
2. Transitions: Combat Veterans as College Students
3. Old Friends and New Faces
4. Inside Higher Ed: Suicide and Student Veterans
5. Enhancing Veteran Success in Higher Ed
6. Considering Student Veterans on a College Campus
7. TCT Veterans Upward Bound - www.tridenttech.edu/vub.htm
8. FSU Veterans Center - veterans.fsu.edu
9. Beck PRIDE Center - www2.astate.edu/cpi/beckpride/