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ERAS :
THE ROLE OF
ANESTHESIOLOGIST
S
Susilo Chandra
Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care
Faculty of Medicine Universitas Indonesia
Cipto Mangunkusumo Hospital
“Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) protocols are
combinations of evidence based peri-operative
strategies which work synergistically to markedly speed
recovery after surgery.
ENHANCE RECOVERY
AFTER SURGERY
➤ Decreased
perioperative
complications
➤ Decreased length of
stay
➤ Reduced postop
readmission rates
➤ Early return to daily
living
➤ Reduced healthcare
cost
Pre-Operative
Counselling and Training Reduced fasting and
preoperative carbohydrate
loading
Avoidance of mechanical
bowel preparation
Deep Vein Thrombosis
Prophylaxis
Antibiotic Prophylaxis
High Inspired
Oxygen
Concentrations
Preventive Hypothermia
Goal Directed Intra-
Operative Fluid Therapy
Surgical Approach
and Incisions
Avoidance of Post-
Operative Drains and
Nasogastric Tubes
Short Duration of
Epidural
Analgesia and
Local Blocks
Multimodal
Analgesia
Early post-operative Diet
Early postoperative
Mobilization
Restricted amounts of
Intravenous Fluids
Audit
ERACS
PREOPER
ATIVE
PREOPERATIVE ASSESSMENT
➤ Screening and optimization of comorbidities
➤ Assessment of chronic medication use
➤ Beta-blocker, ACE inhibitor, anti-platelet drugs, anti-
coagulants, anti-diabetic drugs, statins
➤ Education and psychological preparation of the patient
➤ Reduced anxiety and fear
➤ Improved patient satisfaction
PREHABILITATION
➤ Preoperative muscle strengthening
➤ Reduced frailty and disability
➤ Preoperative cardiovascular conditioning
➤ Avoid preoperative dehydration
➤ Nutritional support
➤ Preoperative psychological preparation
PREOPERATIVE CARBOHYDRATE
LOADING
➤ Major surgery induces numerous metabolic changes, including
insulin resistance -> hyperglycemia
➤ Preoperative carb loading modifies insulin resistance,
improves patient comfort and well being, minimizes protein
losses, and improve postoperative muscle function
➤ Key aspect of “enhanced recover” protocols
➤ Does not increase the risk of pulmonary aspiration
➤ Reduced length of stay and complications
PREOPERATIVE LAB TESTS
➤ Routine screening tests = no clinical benefit
➤ Preop period is not for screening asymptomatic disease
➤ Unnecessary tests -> anxiety, increased delays and
cancellations, potential harm, increased costs, false-negative
or false-positive results
➤ Should be guided by clinical status, comorbidity and
invasiveness of surgical procedures
PREMEDICATION : AVOID
BENZODIAZEPINE
➤ Avoid routine preop sedative-hypnotics, include in patients
with significant anxiety
➤ Increased cognitive dysfunction
➤ Increased pharyngeal/laryngeal dysfunction
➤ Midazolam to reduce awareness? No evidence
INTRAOPE
RATIVE
BALANCED GENERAL ANESTHESIA
Unconsciousness/Lack of recall
Hemodynamic stability Muscle relaxation
RESIDUAL EFFECTS OF ANESTHETIC
DRUGS
➤ Delays emergence from anesthesia
➤ Increased PACU stay or ICU admission
➤ Compromises airway patency
➤ Increases pharyngeal dysfunction, aspiration
➤ Decreases ventilatory response to hypoxia and hypercarbia
➤ Increases hemodynamic instability
➤ Increases cognitive dysfunction
NITROUS OXIDE
Advantages
➤ Amnesia and analgesia
➤ Increased circulatory
stability
➤ Facilitates emergence
➤ Decreased persistent
postop pain
Disadvantages
➤ Increased PONV
➤ Expand closed spaces
➤ Influence surgical
conditions
➤ Increased cardiovascular,
pulmonary, thrombotic
morbity
NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKADE
➤ Residual paralysis in postop period is frequent and difficult to
recognize clinically
➤ TOF < 0.9 increases postoperative complications and ICU
admission
➤ Avoid/minimize muscle relaxants
➤ Reverse blockage unless there is unequivocal evidence of
adequate function
➤ Neostigmine dose based on the degree of blockade
OPIOID
➤ Opioid reduce propofol
dose synergistically
(~40-80%)
➤ Ceiling effect
➤ Moderate opioid doses
reduce MAC
synergistically (~75%)
Type to enter a caption.
FRONT LOADING OPIOIDS
➤ Not acceptable
➤ Increases post-induction
hypotension
➤ Increases potential for acute
tolerance
MECHANICAL VENTILATION
➤ Optimal lung protective ventilation
➤ Low TV 6-8 ml/kg
➤ PEEP 5-10 cmH2O
➤ Initial respiratory rate 8x/min
➤ Maintain ETCO2 ~ 40 mmHg
➤ Mild hypercapnia will improve tissue O2
➤ Improved respiratory function
➤ Reduced lung and systemic inflammation
FLUID THERAPY
➤ Excessive fluid = increased morbidity and mortality
➤ Avoid fluid administration based upon static indicators
➤ Goal-directed fluid therapy
➤ Follow up postop
MULTIMODAL PAIN MANAGEMENT
➤ Regional analgesic techniques : wound infiltration, peripheral
nerve blocks
➤ NSAIDS/COX-2 inhibitors
➤ Acetaminophen
➤ Adjuvants : dexamethasone, ketamine
➤ Opioids (as rescue)
PONV PROPHYLAXIS
➤ Intraoperative
➤ Dexamethasone 4-8 mg
➤ Ondansetron 4 mg (at the
end)
➤ High risk population (add)
➤ Droperidol 0.625-1.25 mg
(intraop)
➤ Transderm scopolamine
(preop)
➤ TIVA
➤ Postoperative
➤ Promethazine 6.25 mg
➤ Dimenhydrinate 1 mg/kg
➤ Do not repeat
Ondansetron, use
another 5HT3 antagonist
POSTOPE
RATIVE
EMERGENCE CONSIDERATIONS
➤ Primary aim = Washout
inhaled anesthetic, not build-
up CO2
➤ Pressure support ventilation
to maintain FRC
➤ Nasal ventilation is more
superior
➤ Semi-upright (30-40 deg)
position
– Liang Y et al: Anesthesiology 2008; 108: 998
• Semi-upright (30-40o) position
FAST TRACK REHABILITATION
➤ Avoid tubes, catheters, drains, restrictions
➤ Early mobilization and physical therapy
➤ Optimize pain relief
➤ Respiratory therapy
➤ Improve sleep
➤ Early oral feeding
➤ Early detection of complications
SUMMARY
➤ ERAS improves outcomes and
recovery
➤ Involves pre, intra and postop
➤ Anesthesiologists should take
leadership in development and
implementation of clinical
pathway
➤ Communication and team
work
www.erassociety.org
THANK YOU

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Slide ERAS ppt.pptx

  • 1. ERAS : THE ROLE OF ANESTHESIOLOGIST S Susilo Chandra Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Faculty of Medicine Universitas Indonesia Cipto Mangunkusumo Hospital
  • 2. “Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) protocols are combinations of evidence based peri-operative strategies which work synergistically to markedly speed recovery after surgery.
  • 3. ENHANCE RECOVERY AFTER SURGERY ➤ Decreased perioperative complications ➤ Decreased length of stay ➤ Reduced postop readmission rates ➤ Early return to daily living ➤ Reduced healthcare cost
  • 4. Pre-Operative Counselling and Training Reduced fasting and preoperative carbohydrate loading Avoidance of mechanical bowel preparation Deep Vein Thrombosis Prophylaxis Antibiotic Prophylaxis High Inspired Oxygen Concentrations Preventive Hypothermia Goal Directed Intra- Operative Fluid Therapy Surgical Approach and Incisions Avoidance of Post- Operative Drains and Nasogastric Tubes Short Duration of Epidural Analgesia and Local Blocks Multimodal Analgesia Early post-operative Diet Early postoperative Mobilization Restricted amounts of Intravenous Fluids Audit ERACS
  • 6. PREOPERATIVE ASSESSMENT ➤ Screening and optimization of comorbidities ➤ Assessment of chronic medication use ➤ Beta-blocker, ACE inhibitor, anti-platelet drugs, anti- coagulants, anti-diabetic drugs, statins ➤ Education and psychological preparation of the patient ➤ Reduced anxiety and fear ➤ Improved patient satisfaction
  • 7. PREHABILITATION ➤ Preoperative muscle strengthening ➤ Reduced frailty and disability ➤ Preoperative cardiovascular conditioning ➤ Avoid preoperative dehydration ➤ Nutritional support ➤ Preoperative psychological preparation
  • 8.
  • 9. PREOPERATIVE CARBOHYDRATE LOADING ➤ Major surgery induces numerous metabolic changes, including insulin resistance -> hyperglycemia ➤ Preoperative carb loading modifies insulin resistance, improves patient comfort and well being, minimizes protein losses, and improve postoperative muscle function ➤ Key aspect of “enhanced recover” protocols ➤ Does not increase the risk of pulmonary aspiration ➤ Reduced length of stay and complications
  • 10. PREOPERATIVE LAB TESTS ➤ Routine screening tests = no clinical benefit ➤ Preop period is not for screening asymptomatic disease ➤ Unnecessary tests -> anxiety, increased delays and cancellations, potential harm, increased costs, false-negative or false-positive results ➤ Should be guided by clinical status, comorbidity and invasiveness of surgical procedures
  • 11. PREMEDICATION : AVOID BENZODIAZEPINE ➤ Avoid routine preop sedative-hypnotics, include in patients with significant anxiety ➤ Increased cognitive dysfunction ➤ Increased pharyngeal/laryngeal dysfunction ➤ Midazolam to reduce awareness? No evidence
  • 13. BALANCED GENERAL ANESTHESIA Unconsciousness/Lack of recall Hemodynamic stability Muscle relaxation
  • 14. RESIDUAL EFFECTS OF ANESTHETIC DRUGS ➤ Delays emergence from anesthesia ➤ Increased PACU stay or ICU admission ➤ Compromises airway patency ➤ Increases pharyngeal dysfunction, aspiration ➤ Decreases ventilatory response to hypoxia and hypercarbia ➤ Increases hemodynamic instability ➤ Increases cognitive dysfunction
  • 15. NITROUS OXIDE Advantages ➤ Amnesia and analgesia ➤ Increased circulatory stability ➤ Facilitates emergence ➤ Decreased persistent postop pain Disadvantages ➤ Increased PONV ➤ Expand closed spaces ➤ Influence surgical conditions ➤ Increased cardiovascular, pulmonary, thrombotic morbity
  • 16. NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKADE ➤ Residual paralysis in postop period is frequent and difficult to recognize clinically ➤ TOF < 0.9 increases postoperative complications and ICU admission ➤ Avoid/minimize muscle relaxants ➤ Reverse blockage unless there is unequivocal evidence of adequate function ➤ Neostigmine dose based on the degree of blockade
  • 17.
  • 18. OPIOID ➤ Opioid reduce propofol dose synergistically (~40-80%) ➤ Ceiling effect ➤ Moderate opioid doses reduce MAC synergistically (~75%) Type to enter a caption.
  • 19. FRONT LOADING OPIOIDS ➤ Not acceptable ➤ Increases post-induction hypotension ➤ Increases potential for acute tolerance
  • 20. MECHANICAL VENTILATION ➤ Optimal lung protective ventilation ➤ Low TV 6-8 ml/kg ➤ PEEP 5-10 cmH2O ➤ Initial respiratory rate 8x/min ➤ Maintain ETCO2 ~ 40 mmHg ➤ Mild hypercapnia will improve tissue O2 ➤ Improved respiratory function ➤ Reduced lung and systemic inflammation
  • 21. FLUID THERAPY ➤ Excessive fluid = increased morbidity and mortality ➤ Avoid fluid administration based upon static indicators ➤ Goal-directed fluid therapy ➤ Follow up postop
  • 22. MULTIMODAL PAIN MANAGEMENT ➤ Regional analgesic techniques : wound infiltration, peripheral nerve blocks ➤ NSAIDS/COX-2 inhibitors ➤ Acetaminophen ➤ Adjuvants : dexamethasone, ketamine ➤ Opioids (as rescue)
  • 23.
  • 24. PONV PROPHYLAXIS ➤ Intraoperative ➤ Dexamethasone 4-8 mg ➤ Ondansetron 4 mg (at the end) ➤ High risk population (add) ➤ Droperidol 0.625-1.25 mg (intraop) ➤ Transderm scopolamine (preop) ➤ TIVA ➤ Postoperative ➤ Promethazine 6.25 mg ➤ Dimenhydrinate 1 mg/kg ➤ Do not repeat Ondansetron, use another 5HT3 antagonist
  • 26. EMERGENCE CONSIDERATIONS ➤ Primary aim = Washout inhaled anesthetic, not build- up CO2 ➤ Pressure support ventilation to maintain FRC ➤ Nasal ventilation is more superior ➤ Semi-upright (30-40 deg) position – Liang Y et al: Anesthesiology 2008; 108: 998 • Semi-upright (30-40o) position
  • 27. FAST TRACK REHABILITATION ➤ Avoid tubes, catheters, drains, restrictions ➤ Early mobilization and physical therapy ➤ Optimize pain relief ➤ Respiratory therapy ➤ Improve sleep ➤ Early oral feeding ➤ Early detection of complications
  • 28.
  • 29. SUMMARY ➤ ERAS improves outcomes and recovery ➤ Involves pre, intra and postop ➤ Anesthesiologists should take leadership in development and implementation of clinical pathway ➤ Communication and team work

Editor's Notes

  1. Protokol ERAS pertama kali diperkenalkan oleh Profesor Henrik Kehlet di Denmark pada tahun 1990. Penerapan lanjutan protokol ini telah berkembang lebih jauh pada operasi abdomen, thorax dan vaskular. Protokol ERAS telah dievaluasi dan terbukti dapat menurunkan lama waktu perawatan hingga 30 persen, dan menurunkan angka komplikasi hingga 50 persen. ERAS mencakup berbagai protokol panduan tatalaksana perawatan perioperatif, dirancang untuk mencapai perbaikan pasca operasi yang cepat, dengan cara menjaga fungsi organ perioperatif dan mengurangi respon stress pasca operasi. Faktor utama dalam protokol ERAS mencakup konseling pra operasi, optimalisasi pemberian nutrisi , pemberian analgesia dan anestesia yang baku, serta mobilisasi dini. Melalui penerapan protokol ERAS, diharapkan dapat dicapai kualitas kesembuhan pasien yang baik, penurunan angka kejadian komplikasi pasca operasi, pemendekan lama rawat pasien (length of stay) dan penurunan biaya perawatan pasien.
  2. Seiring dengan perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan pengobatan bersadarkan kepada bukti (evidence based medicine), dikembangkanlah protokol tatalaksana pasien dengan harapan meningkatkan kualitas hasil pengobatan pasien, terutama terkait dengan penilaian kualitas hidup dan pembiayaan pengobatan lanjutan. Pendekatan ERAS dalam evaluasi preoperatif ditujukan untuk menurunkan angka komplikasi perioperatif, mengurangi lama perawaran, menurunkan angka readmisi, meningkatkan waktu pulih pasien dan menurunkan cost perawatan di rumah sakit.
  3. Pendekatan ERAS dimulai sejak kunjungan praoperatif. Berbagai penilaian risiko dilakukan sejak dini yang bertujuan untuk mengoptimalkan keadaan pasien sebelum operasi. Persiapan juga dilanjutkan menjelang operasi dengan puasa yang cukup dan pemberian loading karbohidrat Sebelum operasi. Tatalaksana intraoperatif yang baik juga membutuhkan kerjasama yang baik antara dokter spesialis anestesiologi dan dokter bedah.
  4. Terdapat berbagai macam metode dalam menilai risiko pembedahan perioperatif. Hal ini dapat dikaitkan dengan jenis pembedahan ataupun pasien sendiri mengenai risiko serta outcome yang dapat dinilai dalam tindakan operasi elektif. Faktor risiko terkait jenis pembedahan termasuk prosedur pembedahan itu sendiri dan apakah prosedur tersebut dilakukan dalam keadaan elektif atau darurat. Penggunaan obat-obatan kronik sebaiknya dilakukan pencatatan dengan baik. Hal ini terutama pada pasien geriatri dengan polifarmasi, dimana dapat ditemukan interaksi obat antara satu dengan yang lainnya. Penggunaan obat kronik harus dicatat dengan baik dalam rekam medik pasien untuk mengurangi risiko interaksi obat. Edukasi dan persiapan psikis pasien juga sebagiknya dilakukan semenjak penilaian preoperatif. Hal ini dimaksudnya untuk mengurangi rasa cemas dan takut pasien dan pada akhirnya meningkatan kepuasan pasien terhadap prosedur yang akan dilakukan.
  5. Konsep prehabilitasi diperkenalkan untuk meningkatan kekuatan otot preoperatif. Hal ini ditujukan untuk menurunkan disabilitas pascaoperasi. Selain melatih sistem muskuloskeletal, prehabilitasi juga dilakukan pada sistem organ lain, termasuk sistem kardiovaskular. Nutrisi pasien juga diperbaiki sebelum pasien menjalani operasi sehingga pasien berada dalam kondisi paling optimal Sebelum dilakukan operasi.
  6. Konsep prehabilitasi dilakukan dengan berbagai cara : latihan fisik, perbaikan status nutrisi, suplementasi protein, dan teknik mengatas ansietas. Data menyebutkan bahwa prehabilitasi dapat memperbaiki kapasitas fungsional pada pasien yang menjalani bedah kolorektal. Grafik di atas menunjukkan bahwa pada pasien yang dilakukan prehabilitas sebelum operasi dapat kembali ke keadaan dasar sebelum dilakukan prehabilitas pada 8 minggu pascaoperasi. Sedangkan pada pasien yang tidak mendaptkan prehabiliasi belum dapat kembali ke baseline pada 8 minggu setelah operasi.
  7. Proses pembedahan menyebabkan respon stres yang dapat mengakibatkan berbagai perubahan hormonal dan metabolik, termasuk salah satunya resistensi insulin. Hal ini dapat menyebabkan hiperglikemia yang reaktif terhadap stres pembedahan. Protokol ERAS memperkenalkan konsep pemberian loading karbohidrat 2 jam preoperasi. Pemberian karbohidrat ini dalam bentuk cair yang dapat dikonsumsi pasien Sebelum operasi. Loading karbohidrat dapat memodifikasi resitensi insulin, meningkatkan rasa nyaman dan keamanan pasien, mengurangi hilangnya protein intraoperatif dan meningkatkan fungsi otot. Loading karbohidrat ini disebut sebagai salah satu bagian penting dari protokol ERAS. Pemberian loading karbohidrat ini merupakan
  8. Pemeriksaan penunjang merupakan hal yang cukup rutin dilakukan sebelum tindakan operasi. Bahkan banyak pemeriksaan penunjang yang sering dilakukan berulang kali walaupun tidak ada tanda dan gejala klinis yang mendukung. Protokol ERAS menyebutkan bahwa pemeriksaan skrining rutin tidak memiliki keuntungan yang bermakna. Selain itu disebutkan bahwa pemeriksaan preoperatif tidak ditujukan untuk penyakit asimptomatik. Pemeriksaan penunjang yang berlebihan menambah ansietas, meningkatkan delay dan angka pembatalan serta menyebabkan “harm”. Selain itu pada pasien dengan jaminan kesehatan tentunya pemeriksaan penunjang yang berlebihan menyebabkan biaya yang sangat besar. Hasil false negative atau false positive juga dapat mempengaruhi persiapan preoperatif. Permintaan pemeriksaan preoperatif sebaiknya dilakukan sesuai dengan kebutuhan, status klinis dan komorbiditas pasien berdasarkan anamnesis dan pemeriksaan fisik. Selain itu tidakan operasi yang akan dilakukan juga dapat menjadi dasar pemilihan pemeriksaan penunjang.
  9. Pasien yang akan menjalani pembedahan pada umumnya mengalami kondisi anxietas. Kondisi ini memiliki korelasi terhadap intepretasi dan persepsi nyeri pasca operasi. Pemberian obat-obat anxiolisis dapat dipertimbangkan melalui penialaian praoperatif. Pemberian anxiolitik dan anallgesia dengan waktu paruh singkat dapat diberikan untuk memfasilitasi tindakan regional anestesia dan insersi jalur intravena. Pemberian benzodiazepin kerja singkat harus dihindari pada pasien usia lanjut/geriatri. Pemberian sedasi dan opioid dg paruh waktu lam harus dihindari karena dapat mengganggu penyembuhan, memperlama mobilisasi pasca operasi,menyembabkan pemanjangan waktu rawat pasien.
  10. Komponen penting yang disebutkan dalam protokol ERAS untuk intraoperatif adalah balanced anesthesia. Komponen yang termasuk didalamnya Adalah stabilitas hemodinamik, ditandai dengan pemeriksaan monitoring yang sesuai standar, relaksasi otot, serta lack of recall, yang ditandai dengan monitor kedalaman anestesia.
  11. Salah satu isu yang menjadi masalah pasca anestesia umum adalah adanya efek residu dari obat anestesia. Residu obat dapat menyebabkan waktu pulih sadar yang lebih lama dari prosedur anestesia yang dapat menyebabkan durasi waktu pulih di PACU atau readmisi di ICU lebih tinggi. Residu obat anestesia yang berlebihan juga dapat mengganggu patensi jalan nafas, meningkatkan disfungsi faring dan risiko aspirasi. Selain itu hal ni juga dapat menyebabkan penurunan respons ventilasi terhadap adanya hipoksia atau hiperkarbia. Hal ini tentunya akan mengakibatkan instabilitas hemodinamik pasien pascaoperasi.
  12. Penggunaan pelumpuh otot pada tindakan pembedahan dalam protokol ERAS mendapatkan porsi perhatian tersendiri. Penelitian terbaru pada teknik pembedahan laparoskopik menyebutkan penggunaan pelumpuh otot bertujuan untuk mejaga kedalaman anestesia dan menciptakan kondisi yang optimal untuk pembedahan. Namun, penggunaan NMB dalam jumlah besar dimana tidak terdapat sediaan sugamadex, dapat meningkatkan risiko terjadinya paralisis residu. Pada pasien yang menjalani pembedahan terbuka abdomen, penggunaan pelumpuh otot tidak terlalu dibutuhkan. Pencapaian level analgesi yang adekuat lebih mampu memberikan kemudahan untuk mendapatkan lapangan pandang operasi yang lebih baik.
  13. Penilaian kondisi bebas pelumpuh otot pada akhir pembiusan penting untuk dilakukan karena paralisis otot residual dapat menyebakan ketidakcukupan perspirasi, hipoksia, aspirasi hingga distres nafas. Pada khirnya dapar menyebabkan gangguan mobilisasi dini. Hipotermia terbukti juga dapat mempengaruhi lama metabolism obat pelumpuh otot dan menyebabkan pemanjangan lama kerja obat dan waktu pulih dari pelumpuh otot. Beberapa penelitian menunjukkan bahwa uji klinis dan penilaian kuantitatif fungsi neuromuscular (TOF, simulasi tetani) tidak cukup dan tidak dapat diandalkan untuk mendeteksi rekurarisasi residual, bahkan ketika digunakna sugamadex sebagai agen reversal.
  14. Penggunaan opioid juga sebaiknya diberikan dengan pertimbangan sesuai kebutuhan pasien. Opioid terbukti dapat menurunkan dosis propofol dan MAC gas secara sinergistik. Opioid disebutkan memiliki ceiling effect yang menjadi salah satu hal yang unik dalam pemberian opiod.
  15. Salah satu konsep yang disebutkan adalah mengenai pemberian opioid dosis tinggi di awal untuk mengurangi nyeri pascaoperasi. Namun hal ini ternytaa tidak sesuai. Front-loading opioid ternyata dapat menyebabkan hipotensi pascainduksi yang meningkat serta dapat menyebabkan potensi toleransi akut opioid.
  16. Pada pasien yang membutuhkan ventilasi mekanik maka hal yang perlu diperhatikan untuk proteksi paru yang optimal adalah pemberial TV 6-8 ml/kg, PEEP 5-10 cmH2O dengan initial respiratory rate 8x/min. Salah satu hal yang disebutkan juga adalah mengenai hiperkapnia ringan (~40 mmHg) yang ternyata dapat meningkatkan oksigenasi jaringan dan meningkatkan fungsi respirasi.
  17. Tujuan dari terapi cairan perioperative adalah untuk menjaga hemostasis cairan, mencegah kelebihan cairan dan hipoperfusi organ. Pemberian cairan pra, intra dan pasca operasi harus didasarkan kepada respon masing-masing pasien dan kebutuhan secara klinis, dan bukan terpaku kepada rekomendasi tertulis. Pemberian cairan pra operasi pada pasien yang menjalani pembedahan elektif lebih dipilih melalaui jalur enteral dibandingkan dengan parenteral. Namun harus tetap mempertimbangkan kebutuhan dan kondisi klinis pasien, jenis cairan, dan kemungkinana aspirasi terutama pada pasien dengan masalah perlambatan waktu pengosongan isi lambung. Pemberian cairan intra operatif dengan menggunakan cairan kristaloid bertujuan untuk menggantikan kekurangan cairan yang lebih didasarkan kepada hemostasis air-garam. Hal ini berbeda dengan kondisi resusitasi yaitu pemberian cairan kristaloid dengan teknik bolus yang bertujuan untuk menggantikan volume cairan ketika dijumpai kondisi dengan tanda hypovolemia, sehingga dapat memperbaikan volume intravascular dan aliran sirkulasi. Pemberian terapi cairan intraoperative harus merujuk kepada target balans cairan seimbang (hampir nol) dan harus dihindari peningkatan masa tubuh substansial hinggal 2.5 kg. Pemberian cairan intraoperative dapat menggunakan perkiraan basal rerata infus kristaloid 2-3 ml/kg/jam (pendekatan restriktif), dengan mengacu kepada komplikasi kelebihan pemberian cairan kristaloid dapat mengakibatkan risiko komplikasi pulmoner, prolong ileus, dan memanjangan waktu pulih. Cairan kristaloid isotonic seimbang menjadi pilihan utama dibandingkan dengan cairan salin 0.9%. Penggunaan cairan salin 0.9% dihubungkan dnegan peningkatan risiko hiperkloremia dan gangguan renal , pemanjangan waktu perawatan, dan peningkatan angka mortalitas dalam 30 hari perawatan. Pemberian terapi cairan intraoperative harus diberikan dengan teknik bolus yang berdasarkan kepada bukti klinis kondisi hypovolemia. Goal-directed fluid therapy (GDFT) bertujuan untuk menjaga kondisi normovolemia pasien untuk tetap pada kurva Frank-Starling mereka masing-masing, dengan mengandalkan pengukuran perubahan isi volume sekuncup (stroke volume) melalui teknik pemantauan cardiac output dengan teknik minimal invasif.
  18. Standar tatalaksana nyeri pada pasien pasca operasi harus multimodal, evidence-based dan menggunakan regimen analgesia dengan prosedur spesifik dengan tujuan utama mendapatkan kondisi analgesi yang optimal dengan efek samping minimal dan untuk mencapai target pencapaian ERAS antara lain mobilisasi dan asupan oral dini.
  19. Infus kontinu anestesi lokal pada luka operasi (Continuous wound infusion, CWI) pad apasien yang menjalami pembedahan abdomen terbuka terbukti dapat memberikan analgesia pasca operasi yang adekuat dan mengurangi konsumsi opioid namun pengaruhnya pada pemulihan fungsi saluran cerna masih belum diketahui. Penggunaan CWI dibandingkan dengan TEA pada pasien yang menjalani pembedahan abdomen per laparoskopik menunjukkan bahwa intensitas nyeri pasca operasi pasien pada kedua kelompok relative sama. Walaupun demikian, masih terdapt beberapa hambatan dalam penerapan teknik ini, terutama dalam hal cara pemberian. RESULTS: All three groups had similar VAS scores during the first 48 h after surgery. Group CWI and group EA, compared with group PCIA, had lower morphine consumption (P < 0.001), less postoperative nausea and vomiting (1.20 ± 0.41 vs 1.96 ± 0.67, 1.32 ± 0.56 vs 1.96 ± 0.67, respectively, P < 0.001), earlier extubation (16.56 ± 5.24 min vs 19.76 ± 5.75 min, P < 0.05, 15.48 ± 4.59 min vs 19.76 ± 5.75 min, P < 0.01), and earlier recovery of bowel function (2.96 ±1.17dvs3.60±1.04d,2.80±1.38dvs3.60± 1.04 d, respectively, P < 0.05). The mean length of hospitalization after surgery was reduced in groups CWI (8.20 ± 2.58 dvs 10.08 ± 3.15 d,P < 0.05) and EA (7.96 ± 2.30 dvs 10.08 ± 3.15 d,P < 0.01) compared with group PCIA. All three groups had similar patient satisfaction and wound healing, but group PCIA was prone to higher sedation scores when compared with groups CWI and EA, especially during the first 12 h after surgery. Group EA had a lower mean arterial pressure within the first postoperative 12 h compared with the other two groups. CONCLUSION: CWI with ropivacaine yields a satisfactory analgesic effect within the first 48 h after open gastrectomy, with lower morphine consumption and accelerated recovery.
  20. PONV merupakan salah satu kondisi pasca operasi yang paling tidak nyaman dirasakan oleh pasien. Tatalaksana dan pencegahan kejadian PONV saat ini masih sangat rendah, walaupun telah di lakukan berbagai penelitian dan ulasan serta perkembangan penggunaan obat-obatan untuk tatalaksana PONV. Faktor predisposisi untuk terjadinya PONV sangat banyak. Sistem penilaian telah dikembangkan oleh Apfel dkk dengan menggunakan 4 faktor risiko, yaitu jenis kelamin wanita, riwayat gangguan keseimbangan dan PONV sebelumnya, tidak ada riwayat merokok sebelumnya dan penggunaan opioid pasca operasi. Pendekatan berbagai sisi tatalaksana PONV dalam ERAS mencakup penggunaan antiemetic dan anestesis intravena total menggunakan propofol dibangding dengan penggunaan agen anestesi volatile. Penggunaan nitrit oksida juga dihindari. Teknik regional anestesia dan penggunaan obat NSAID dalam tatalaksana nyeri pasca operasi menjadi salah satu upaya pencegahan PONV
  21. Hal yang menjadi esensial saat proses emergens Adalah washout dari seluruh anestetik inhalasi dan menurunkan jumlah CO2 dalam tubuh. Perlu diingat bahwa residu obat anestesia dapat menyebabkan tingginya morbiditas pascaoperasi maka perlu diyakinkan bahwa pada saat tindakan selesai maka tidak ada residu obat yang masih ada. Untuk menjaga Functional Residual Capacity maka dibutuhkan ventilasi dengan pressure support untuk menjaga ventilasi terjaga dengan baik. Salah satu jurnal menyebutkan bahwa penggunaan nasal ventilation lebih superior dibandingkan combined oral nasal ventilation pada saat anestesia umum. Posisi yang ideal pasca emergens Adalah dijaga semi-upright position.
  22. Nyeri dan penggunaan drain menjadi salah satu pengambat mobilisasi. Oleh karena itu, idealnya terdapat tim tatalaksana nyeri khusus dalam menjalankan protokol ERAS. Analgesia epidural mampu memberikan kecukupan analgesia yang optimal setelah tindakan pembedahan abdominal atau thorakal namun memiliki hubungan yang erat dengan kejadian hipotensi dan kelemahan anggota gerak bawah. Terdapat tendensi bahwa pasien yang menjalani tirah baring lama akan mengalami hipotensi orthostatic, dan penggunaan epidural dianggap sebagai salah satu faktor yang dapat memicu. Namun, penggunaan epidural lebih sedikit menyebabkan kejadian hipotensi orthostaik dibandingkan dengan penggunaan opioid sistemik. Mobilisasi dini merupakan salah satu komponen program ERAS dalam upaya menjaga fungsi otot, mencegah komplikasi akibat tirah baring lama, serta mengikutsertakan pasien secara aktif dalam proses penyembuhan pasca operasi.
  23. Berikut adalah salah satu rangkuman dari protokol ERAS yang diterapkan di Johns Hopkins Hospital yang dilakukan pada pasien yang akan menjalani pembedahan kolorektal.
  24. Protokol ERAS memiliki berbagai kelebihan yang signifikan dibandingkan praktik rutin/konvensional Protokol ERAS membutuhkan komitmen dan kerjasama dari berbagai pihak (staf pre-admisi, dietisien, perawat, fisioterapi, petugas sosial, hingga dokter)
  25. Informasi lebih lanjut mengenai protokol ERAS dapat di akses melalui website www.erassociety.org