2. LIFE CYCLES OF MACROINVERTEBRATES
Biological monitoring,the studyof biological organismsandtheirresponses,isusedtodetermineenvironmental
conditions. Macroinvertebrates are organismsthatare large (macro) enoughto be seenwiththe nakedeye andlacka
backbone (invertebrate).Theyinhabitall typesof runningwaters,fromfastflowingmountainstreamstoslowmoving
muddyrivers.Examplesof aquaticmacroinvertebratesinclude insectsintheirlarval ornymphform, crayfish,clams,
snails,andworms.Most live partor mostof their life cycle attachedtosubmergedrocks,logs,andvegetation. Aquatic
macroinvertebratesare goodindicatorsof streamqualitybecause:
Theyare affectedbythe physical,chemical,andbiological conditionsof the stream.
Theycan't escape pollutionand showthe effectsof short- andlongtermpollutionevents.
Theymay showthe cumulative impactsof pollution.
Theymay showthe impactsfromhabitatlossnot detectedbytraditional waterqualityassessments.
Theyare a critical part of the stream'sfoodweb.
Some are veryintolerantof pollution.
Theyare relativelyeasytosample andidentify.
The basic principle behindthe studyof macroinvertebratesisthatsome are more sensitivetopollutionthanothers.
Therefore,if astreamsite isinhabitedbyorganismsthatcantolerate pollutionandthe more pollutionsensitive
organismsare missingapollutionproblemislikely. Forexample,stoneflynymphsaquaticinsectsthatare verysensitive
to mostpollutantscannotsurvive if astream'sdissolvedoxygenfallsbelow acertainlevel.If abiosurveyshowsthatno
stonefliesare presentinastreamthat usedtosupportthem, a hypothesismightbe thatdissolvedoxygenhasfallentoa
pointthat keepsstonefliesfromreproducingorhaskilledthemoutright.
In goodqualitywaterbodies,there maybe 30 or more differenttypesof macroinvertebratesinasmall area.Their
survival isdirectlyrelatedtowaterquality.Assuch,the life cyclesof macroinvertebratesall revolvearoundwater.From
reproduction-- malemayfliesformaswarmabove the water andfemalesflyintothe swarmtomate.The male grabsthe
passingfemaleswiththeirelongatedfrontlegsandtheymate inflight.The male thenreleasesthe female where she
descendstothe surface of the waterto layher eggs.All macroinvertebrateslaytheireggsinwater.Some speciesof
mosquitoeslaytheireggsone ata time-- andtheybecome stucktogetherasraftsof a hundredormore eggs!The next
stage is larvae or nymph;inthisstage,the larvafeedson the streambeduntil itmatures.The caddisflyformsacocoon
out of silkinthisstage.Then,intheiradultform, the macroinvertebratesswimtowardthe surface.The wingedones
mustwait a fewdayson the surface fortheirwingsto dry.Adultsusuallyliveforaveryshort time-- onlytwotothree
weeks!Theyspendmostof theirtime matingorlayingeggs.
Stonefly
KingdomAnimalia(Animals)
PhylumArthropoda(Arthropods)
SubphylumHexapoda(Hexapods)
ClassInsecta(Insects)
OrderPlecoptera(Stoneflies)
There are 3,500 speciesworldwide,withnewspeciesstill beingdiscovered.Stonefliesare believedtobe one of the most
primitive groupsof Neoptera(wingedinsects)withclose relativesidentifiedfromthe CarboniferousandLowerPermian
geological periods.
Mosquito
KingdomAnimalia(Animals)
PhylumArthropoda(Arthropods)
SubphylumHexapoda(Hexapods)
ClassInsecta(Insects)
OrderDiptera(Flies)
No Taxon("Nematocera"(Non-Brachycera))
InfraorderCulicomorpha(Mosquitoesandmidges)
Family Culicidae(Mosquitoes)
3. There are 2500 speciesof mosquitoes-- 150 inthe UnitedStates.
Mayfly
KingdomAnimalia(Animals)
PhylumArthropoda(Arthropods)
SubphylumHexapoda(Hexapods)
ClassInsecta(Insects)
OrderEphemeroptera(Mayflies)
The firstrecordedmayflynymphsare fromthe late Carboniferousperiod.The highestdiversityof Ephemeroptera
appearsto have beenduringthe Jurassic.Fossilsof nine familieshave beenfoundduringthisperiod. There are 2500
speciesknownworldwide-- 630 inNorthAmerica.
Caddisfly
KingdomAnimalia(Animals)
PhylumArthropoda(Arthropods)
SubphylumHexapoda(Hexapods)
ClassInsecta(Insects)
Superorder:Amphiesmenoptera-- togetherwithLepiodoptera,mothsandbutterflies,whichhave scalesontheir wings.
**The amphiesmenopterasuperorderprobablyevolvedinthe JurassicPeriod,divergingfromthe extinctNecrotaulide--
whichdivergedfromthe insectorderMecoptera(Scorpionflies) somewherebetweenthe Permianandthe Triassic
periodsandwere extinctbythe Cretaceous.Caddisfliesare ancientrelativesof mothsandbutterflies!
OrderTrichoptera(Caddisflies)
Caddisfliesare small,mothlike insects,butitisintheirlarval stage that theyprove theirprowessasarchitects.According
to NorthCarolinaState University,all caddisflylarvae are aquatic,andsome of themlive withinprotective casesthat
theybuildfromtheirownsilkandwhatevermaterialstheyfindlyingaround, usuallygravel,twigs,leaf fragments,and
otherdebris.Caddisflylarvae will scavenge forbuildingmaterialsfromwhateverisavailable intheirenvironment.
Caddisfliesinmosttemperateareascomplete theirlife cycle inone year.
FOSSILS
Fossilsare cluestothe past-- theyare rockscontainingthe preservedremainsof once-livinganimalsorplants.Fossilsare
formedwhenananimal or plantisburiedinsediment.Usually,the softpartrotsaway,but the hardestpart remains.
Thisis why mostfossilsconsistof bonesorshellsof animals;the leavesof woodypartsof the plants.Fossilsare foundin
sedimentaryrocks-- rocksthatare formedbythe depositionof material atthe earth'ssurface andwithinbodiesof
water-- especiallylimestone andshale.Dowe have shale inourwatershed?Yes!We are part of the Mancos Shale
Formation-- 200 millionyearsago,CrestedButte waspartof the Mancos Sea.Many fossilsare of plantsand animals
nowextinct-- likedinosaurs!Whyare fossilsinterestingforscientiststostudy?Theyprovide avaluable recordof the
plantand animal life andenvironmental conditionsfrommillions--evenbillions-- of yearsago! Fossilshave alsobeen
createdby bogs,volcanicash,amberand asphalt.Whatwe'll be findingalotof here are brachiopods-- marineanimals
that have hard shellsonthe upperandlowersurfaces.There are still 300 livingspeciesof brachiopods.Brachiopods
were extremelyabundantduringthe PaleozoicEra-- 541 millionto252 millionyearsago.Theydiversifiedintoanumber
of differentmorphologiesandparticipatedinthe buildupof ancientreefs.Atthe endof the PaleozoicEra,theywere
decimatedinthe worstmassextinctionof all time-- when90to95 percentof marine animalswere wipedout.
More on the PermianExtinction: The PaleozoicEra(fromthe Greekpalaios,"old"andzoe,"life",meaning"ancientlife")
isthe earliestof three geologicerasof the Phanerozoic Eon,spanningfromroughly542to 251 millionyearsago(ICS,
2004). It is the longestof the Phanerozoiceras,andissubdividedintosix geologicperiods;fromoldesttoyoungestthey
are: the Cambrian,Ordovician,Silurian,Devonian,Carboniferous,and Permian. The Permianperiodischaracterizedby
diversificationof earlyamniotesintoancestral groupsof mammals,turtles,lepidosaurs,archosaurs;worlddominatedby
single supercontinentPangaeasurroundedbyglobal oceanPanthalassa;Carboniferousrainforestsgone;vastdeserts
coveredwesternPangeaduringthe Permianasreptilesspreadacrossthe face of the supercontinent. The Permian–
4. Triassicextinctioneventisthe mostsignificantextinctioneventinthisplotformarine generawhichproduce large
numbersof fossils.90%to 95% of marine speciesbecame extinct,aswell as70% of all landorganisms.Itisalso the only
knownmassextinctionof insects.
More on trilobites: Trilobites (meaning"three lobes") are awell-knownfossil groupof extinctmarine arthopods that
formthe classTrilobita.Trilobitesformone of the earliestknowngroupsof arthropods.The firstappearance of
trilobitesinthe fossilrecorddefinesthe EarlyCambrian period(521millionyearsago. Trilobitesfinallydisappearedin
the mass exctinction atthe endof the Permianabout 250 millionyearsago.The trilobiteswere amongthe most
successful of all earlyanimals,roamingthe oceansforover270 millionyears--there were over17,000 speciesof
trilobites.All trilobitesare thoughttohave originatedinpresentday Siberia,withsubsequentdistributionandradiation
fromthislocation. Trilobitesappeartohave beenexclusivelymarine organisms,since the fossilizedremainsof trilobites
are alwaysfoundinrockscontainingfossilsof othersalt-wateranimalssuchasbrachiopods,crinoids,andcorals. The
closestextantrelativesof trilobitesmaybe the horseshoe crabs orthe cephalocarids.
RIPARIAN VEGETATION
Streamor riverbanksare riparianareas,and the plantsthat grow there are calledriparianvegetation. Riparianzones,
especiallythose inheadwaterstreamsystems suchas Coal Creek,are importantforwildlife habitat, streamecology,
microclimaticdevelopment,migrationcorridorsandforprotectingwater quality.Alsoasanimportant landscape
component,riparianzonesexchange nutrientsandfoodenergywiththe associated stream.Additionally,riparianzones
are valuable tohumans forrecreationaswell asthe reductionof the powerof floods.
Bank stabilizationand water qualityprotection The roots of ripariantreesand shrubshelpholdstreambanksinplace,
preventingerosion.Riparianvegetationalsotrapssedimentandpollutants,helpingkeepthe waterclean.
Food chain support Salmonandtrout, duringthe freshwaterstage of theirlifecycle,eatmainlyaquaticinsects.Aquatic
insectsspendmostof theirlife inwater.Theyfeedonleavesandwoodymaterial suchaslogs,stumpsandbranchesthat
fall intothe waterfromstreambanks.Standingriparianvegetationishabitatforotherinsectsthatsometimesdropinto
the water,providinganotherfoodsource forfish.
Thermal cover Riparianvegetationshieldsstreamsandriversfromsummerandwintertemperatureextremesthatmay
be verystressful,orevenfatal,tofishandotheraquaticlife.The coverof leavesandbranchesbringswelcome shade,
ensuringthatthe stream temperature remainscool inthe summerandmoderate inthe winter.Cooler,shadedstreams
have lessalgae andare able to holdmore dissolvedoxygen,whichfishneedtobreathe.
COAL CREEK: The Coal Creekwatershedispredominantlyasubalpinespruce-firforestwithdrier,primarily southfacing
slopesbeingdominatedbysagebrushsteppe and grasslands.The riparianzones are dominatedbywillowsandalders
withsome active andabandonedbeaverponds,along withwetmeadows.There are manywetlandplantsinthe narrow
ripariancorridorthat are not foundindriersoilsfoundupslope.Asaresultandistypical of most riparianareas,wildlife
use of these wetlandsishighwhichcontributestolocal biodiversityandhighplantandanimal productivity. Mostof the
springsinthe watershedare onthe southside of Coal Creek.Beaverpondshave alsoalteredlongsectionsof Coal Creek
withthe fine sedimentstrappedbehindthe ponds creatingsedge (Carexspp.) meadowswhenthe beaverpondsare
ultimatelyabandoned.
There are alsoa varietyof lentic(=standingwater) habitatsfoundwithinthe Coal Creekwatershed.The MountEmmons
Iron Fenisa wetlandcomplex consistingof forestedwetland,sedge fen,andapond,all underlainbypeatenrichedwith
ironoxide (limonite).The unusual geologicalconditionsassociatedwiththe MountEmmonsIronFenproduce a
combinationof mineral richwatersanda verylow pH (~3-4).This rare combinationalsomakesforhabitatof the
roundleaf sundew(Droserarotundifolia)andtwounusual speciesof dragonfly(Leucorrhineahudsonicaand
Somatochlorasemicircularis).These characteristicsledtothe designationof 75acres in a State of ColoradoNatural Area
whichprovidessome degreeof protectiontothiswetlandcomplexandits associatedripariancommunity.The outflow
of thisfenwasalteredbythe constructionof a ditchwhichdivertsthe outflow awayfromitwetlands
5. and intoa separate drainage.Since thiswaterdrainedtoaslope above aroad that causedslumping,thisdiversionwas
constructedto reduce roadmaintenance costs.More typical lentichabitatsare foundatthe highelevationlakesof
CopleyLake,GreenLake andLilyLakesthat all have associatedriparianzones.
SLATE RIVER:Wetland vegetationinthe Middle Slate RiverValleyisdominatedbygeyerwillow,mountainwillow,and
beaked sedge.Othermajorvegetationtypesinclude submergedaquaticvegetationinbeaverponds,lakesandslow-
movingstreams,grass,andherb-dominatedwetmeadowsandpeatlandcommunitiesatseepsand springsandonlake
and pondedges.The abundantwater createsunique ecosystemsthatprovide some orall of the followingfunctions:
1. water qualityenhancement
2. fishand wildlife habitat
3. ground waterrecharge
4. floodwaterretention,detentionandstorage
5. shore line anchoring
6. sedimenttrapping
7. foodchain support
8. placesfor active andpassive humanrecreation
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11. The Permian–Triassic extinction
event, labeled "End P" here, is the
most significantextinction event in
history.
The world in the Permian period
was dominated by single
supercontinent Pangaea
surrounded by global ocean
Panthalassa;Carboniferous
rainforests gone, instead vast
regions of arid desert.
