UNW Research Report KZN Baseline Survey 19th Mar 2013 .pdf

Research Report: Baseline Study on the Needs of Women in Agriculture in KwaZulu Natal, South
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A Research Report
Baseline Assessment on Situation and Needs of Women in
Agriculture in Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa
February 2013
Prepared by: Christopher Manyamba
Institute for Food, Nutrition and Well Being & Department of Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural
Development, University of Pretoria
For: United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN
Women)-Southern Africa and,
Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs (Kwa-Zulu Natal)

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Baseline Assessment on Situation and Needs of Women in
Agriculture in Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa
February 2013
Prepared by:
1
Christopher Manyamba
Institute for Food, Nutrition and Well Being & Department of Agricultural Economics,
Extension and Rural Development, University of Pretoria
For the
United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN
Women)-Southern Africa and,
Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs (Kwa-Zulu Natal)
1
Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEA) PhD. Dissertation Research Fellow, International Food Policy
Research Institute.

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Acknowledgements
The author and entire survey management would like to express deep gratitude to Zandile Masuku
(Department of Agriculture AND Environmental affairs, KwaZulu Natal) and Ayanda Mvimbi (UN
Women Southern Africa Regional Office) for their untiring efforts in planning, coordination and
implementation of fieldwork and the entire process of analysis and report compilation. The same
applies to the entire Senior Management of the Department of Agriculture and Environmental
Affairs (KwaZulu Natal) and Busi Ngcobo (Independent Consultant) for their role in contributing to
the research design and inputs, and all Senior District Extension Officers who made the survey a
success through their dedication and commitment in implementing the fieldwork processes with
high calibre expertise. The women participants deserve our grateful appreciation for their time and
dedication in the data collection exercise, without which the survey would not have been successful.
The author and entire survey management team would also like to render special thanks Professor
Sheryl Hendriks, Director of the Institute for Food, Nutrition and Well Being and Professor Nic
Olivier, SADC Centre Regional and Development Law and Policy of the University of Pretoria for their
insights and contributions to survey design and valuable comments and contributions. For gender
perspectives and insights the author would like to acknowledge Dr Elaine Saro, Director of the
Institute for Women and Gender Studies of the University of Pretoria and Dr Barbara Van Koppen, a
Gender Specialist of the International Water Management Institute.
We are grateful to the Research teams for their dedication and commitment in conducting
interviews in a rapid appraisal exercise conducted within a period of 3 weeks and covering 11
districts, and students from the University of Pretoria for the quantitative data entry in SPSS. For the
qualitative data analysis the author acknowledges and thanks Alexio Mbereko (University of KwaZulu
Natal- School of Development Studies.
Photo credit: Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs (KwaZulu Natal)

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_________________________________________________________________________
Acronyms
AMCOW African Ministerial Council on Water
CAADP Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme
CASP Comprehensive Agricultural Support System
COGTA Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs
DAFF Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
DoAE Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs
DWCP Department of Women, Children and People with disabilities
DRDLR Department of Rural Development and Land Reform
FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation
ICPD International Conference on Population and Development
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IFSS Integrated Food Security Strategy
ISRDS Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Strategy
LRAD Agricultural Development (LRAD)
MDG Millennium Development Goals
NRWDS National Rural Women Development Strategy
NGO Non-Governmental Programme
RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme
SEDA Small Enterprise Development Agency
USAID United States Aid for International Development
UN Women United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women
UNDP United Nations Development Programme

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Contents
Acronyms.......................................................................................................................................... 4
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................................... 8
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................................... 8
Executive Summary........................................................................................................................... 9
1 Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 12
1.1 Objectives........................................................................................................................ 13
2 Chapter 2 A Contextual Review of Women in Agriculture .................................................... 14
2.1 Women’s Needs in the Agriculture Sector ........................................................................ 16
2.1.1 Access to land and water resources.......................................................................... 16
2.1.2 Access to credit and other support services.............................................................. 17
2.1.3 Agricultural Extension, Research and Technology ..................................................... 17
2.1.4 Agricultural Biodiversity and the Commercialization of Agriculture........................... 18
2.1.5 Empowerment and Access to Decision-making......................................................... 18
2.1.6 Access to Markets .................................................................................................... 18
2.1.7 Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 18
2.2 International Legislation and Policy Frameworks.............................................................. 19
2.2.1 The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
(CEDAW) 19
2.2.2 The African Women’s Decade................................................................................... 20
2.2.3 The Maputo Protocol................................................................................................ 20
2.2.4 The SADC Gender Protocol (2012) ............................................................................ 21
2.3 Legislative frameworks relating to Agriculture in South Africa ......................................... 21
2.3.1 The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa....................................................... 22
2.3.2 The Agricultural policy in South Africa – discussion Document 1998 ......................... 22
2.3.3 Strategic Plan for the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries: 2011/12 to
2014/15 23
2.3.4 Zero Hunger Programme.......................................................................................... 23
2.3.5 Strategic Plan for Smallholder Producers.................................................................. 24
2.3.6 Aquaculture Programme .......................................................................................... 24
2.3.7 Agro-processing Strategic Framework....................................................................... 24
2.3.8 The Land Reform Programme................................................................................... 24
2.3.9 The White Paper on Agriculture 1995....................................................................... 25
2.3.10 The Integrated Food Security Strategy...................................................................... 26

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2.3.11 Proposed National Water Resource Strategy ............................................................ 27
2.3.12 Policy on Agriculture in Sustainable development .................................................... 27
2.3.13 The Green paper on Population Policy 1995 ............................................................. 28
2.3.14 DOAE Annual Performance Plan 2 0 1 2 / 1 3 ............................................................ 29
2.3.15 Rural development and Land Policy.......................................................................... 29
2.3.16 National Rural Women Development Strategy (NRWDS) .......................................... 30
2.3.17 Kwazulu-Natal Ingonyama Trust ............................................................................... 30
2.3.18 The Integrated Development Plans in KwaZulu Natal Province ................................. 30
2.3.19 The National Development Plan Vision 2030 ............................................................ 31
2.4 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 31
3 Chapter 3 Methodology ............................................................................................. 33
3.1.1 Sampling: ................................................................................................................. 33
3.1.2 Study Area................................................................................................................ 33
3.1.3 Fieldwork and Data Collection .................................................................................. 35
3.1.4 Data analysis ............................................................................................................ 35
3.1.5 Limitations ............................................................................................................... 36
4 Chapter 4 Analysis and Results .......................................................................... 37
4.1 Demographics.................................................................................................................. 37
4.2 Education......................................................................................................................... 38
4.3 Needs Gaps...................................................................................................................... 40
4.4 Priority Areas ................................................................................................................... 41
4.5 Possible Solutions to these Problems ............................................................................... 45
4.5.1 Who should intervene? ............................................................................................ 47
4.6 Technology Absorption .................................................................................................... 48
4.6.1 Does the technology available increase production?................................................. 50
4.6.2 Suggested Ways for Improvements .......................................................................... 50
4.7 Physical Capital ................................................................................................................ 51
4.7.1 Ownership of assets ................................................................................................. 53
4.8 Financial Capital............................................................................................................... 55
4.9 Decision Making............................................................................................................... 57
4.10 : Social capital through women’s groups .......................................................................... 58
4.10.1 Community and Leadership skills.............................................................................. 59
4.11 Food Security ................................................................................................................... 59
4.12 Climate Change and Mitigation Issues.............................................................................. 61

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5 Chapter 5 Discussion............................................................................................. 64
6 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 72
6.1 Recommendations ........................................................................................................... 72
7 References............................................................................................................................... 75

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List of Tables
Table1: Population of KwaZulu Natal
Table2: Indicating the needs of women
Table3: Women’s needs according to rank
Table 4: Multiple responses indicating technology transfer
Table 5: Asset Ownership
Table 6: Ownership of means of agricultural inputs
Table 7: Ownership of consumer durables
Table 8: Past 12 months, if any household member has taken loans or borrowed
Table 9: If the respondent wanted to borrow or get loan in the last 12 months but did not
Table 10: Reason for not borrowing why
Table 11: Indicating the person who normally makes decisions
Table 12: Group Membership
Table 13: Speaking in public
Table 14: Household hunger experiences
Table 15: Frequency of lack of food
Table 16: HHS Categorical Indicator
Table 17: Mitigation for climate change factors
List of Tables
Figure 1: Map of KwaZulu Natal
Figure 2: Demographic characteristics
Figure 3: Age and type of farmer
Figure 4: Education levels
Figure 5: Type of produce
Figure 6: Women in Agriculture Kwazulu Natal
Figure 7: Access to technology
Figure 8: Does technology available increase agricultural production?
Figures 9 and 10: Ever heard about climate change and sources of information
Figure 11: Knowledge about climate change issues

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Executive Summary
Introduction
The Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs in KwaZulu Natal has a mandate to include
women, including women with disabilities within the agricultural sector. Strides have been made by
the Department to involve vulnerable groups in the agricultural mainstream economy. This has been
witnessed by a number of women who are involved in farming which has been regarded as a male
dominated agricultural sector. One of the programs that have changed women perception towards
Agriculture is Female Entrepreneur in Agriculture Program. This study was jointly conducted with UN
Women from December to February 2013 in order to assess the needs of such women who are
involved agricultural entrepreneurship.
Methodology
The study employed a mixed method of research, where quantitative methods (semi structured
questionnaires) were complemented with qualitative (Focus Group Discussions). The questionnaire
was adopted from the on-going round of United States Agency for International Development
(USAID), the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), and the Oxford Poverty and Human
Development Initiative (OPHI) of Oxford University Women Empowerment in Agriculture Index
surveys. It was customised and translated into IsiZulu to suit the South African context.
A total sample of 250 of the planned 330 target of women was individually interviewed; with a total
of 15 focus groups from the 11 districts which were conducted with groups of 10-12 women.
Quantitative data was analysed in SPSS while qualitative information in form of recordings was
transcribed and analysed in NVivo software.
Results
These results indicate that the women farmers who were interviewed are farmers that have a very
low economic base, producing food for food and food for money at the same time. They are
emerging farmers, mostly new entrants, who are not near being commercial farmers, let alone
subsistent, unless something is done financially, and materially to support them.
Age of Respondents: The median age of the respondents was 50 years while the mean age was 49.6
years, with a minimum age of 19 years and maximum of 76 years. Most of the farmers interviewed
were those who had just started farming activities as an enterprise or those who were intending to
start (53%)2
, followed by smallholder farmers (38.4%), and a few commercial farmers (8.4%).
Education: The majority of the women had secondary (high) school level education attainment, with
those who had just started farming as a business (32.8%), followed by smallholder famers (22%),
and lastly by commercial farmers (4%).
Type of farmers and type of produce: The results indicate that the women in most of the districts in
KwaZulu Natal are emerging farmers involved in gardening as opposed to livestock production.
2
Definitions/categorisations were given out by the Department of Agriculture

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Furthermore, the majority produce low cash value produce (vegetables and green maize (corn), with
3 out of ten indulged in poultry
Needs Gaps
Water: Almost half of the responses (49%) felt that water for irrigation was a challenge with regards
to agricultural production in KwaZulu Natal. They cited specific needs for irrigation pumps,
sprinklers, boreholes and tunnels as lacking for their farming activities
Farm inputs in terms of fertiliser or manure, seeds, and pesticides were the second challenge
mentioned by 4 out 10 women.
Markets: A third (33%) of the responses point out that access to markets is a barrier to agricultural
entrepreneurship among women in KwaZulu Natal. They specifically cited that markets were not
available, and that their produce was regarded of low value (4.3%) and quality to compete in the
existing large markets such as supplying in shops such as Pick and Pay or Shoprite
Transport: The market constraint is further exacerbated the lack of means to transport their
vegetables, crops such as green maize and chicken products to the markets. This has led to low
prices since the produce is sold locally or at times it goes bad because of lack of storage facilities
cited by 3% of the responses
Fencing: A third of the responses (33%) indicated that animals such as pigs and birds usually
destroyed their produce such as vegetables, and there was need for government to provide fencing
around their gardens
Financial capital: One in 5 responses from the women indicated that they lacked money to start up
or enhance their farming activities, which is also linked to land shortage for agricultural purposes
(8.5% responses), and inadequate farming skills among the women (8%).
Extension services: There was inadequate extension services from the government in all the districts,
and the respondents felt that government need to improve on dissemination of information to the
new farmers especially on new technologies. DAFF is embarking on a process of creating a national
policy on extension and advisory services, which among other things, will consider alternative
extension methodologies, possible alternative institutional arrangements for providing extension
services (including the ‘public/private mix’ in the overall extension system), and the creation of a
professional body to help advance the extension profession (DAFF, 2012).
Priority Needs: Machinery and equipment (56.5%), water for irrigation (45.9%) and garden fencing
(36.9%) were the 3 most important/crucial needs for attainment of economic growth through
farming activities. The next 3 important needs were inputs, access to markets and financial support,
while a National Mechanisation Programme was initiated in 2010/11, it is broadly recognised that it
requires an overhaul (DAFF, 2012). The key issues that require further elaboration are: what kind of
institutional arrangements should be responsible with the operation and maintenance of such
implements; how to ensure broader access to mechanisation services on a sustainable basis; and
how to use the Mechanisation Programme as a means of advancing the shift towards agro-ecological
agriculture.

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DAFF’s intends to embark on an Aquaculture Programme and creating a policy and programme on
inland fisheries. The development of inland fisheries involves developing more economic
opportunities around generally existing fish stock within freshwater bodies and rivers; this may serve
the purpose of multiple water use which will benefit small scale farmers in irrigating.
Empowerment: Most of the women in the survey proved to be self-reliant and able to make
decisions that affect their lives, a catalyst for their economic transformation if they are given the
necessary resources to enhance their production.
Food Security: Food security is a constitutional right, hence need for attention to such households,
which may become trapped in a poverty cycle if their situation is unchecked. The majority of women
were food secure (79.8%) while one in five households (21.2%) were food insecure: these results
should be of concern to the Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs, given that these
are women who are involved in agriculture and being trained in agri-business (at least doing
something to earn a living).
Climate Change: There is not much knowledge on climate change issues, only half of the women
indicated having some knowledge of climate change. This knowledge cannot be translated as
comprehensive knowledge that can make an impact to mitigation strategies, hence need for
mainstreaming climate change issues in the agricultural strategies and policies in South Africa.
The implication of these results are that there is need for strengthening the smallholder farmers,
and those just starting the business, by (i) provision of irrigation infrastructure such as sprinklers, or
tunnels to the respective areas (ii) providing adequate tractors to cultivate the land, timely and (iii)
provision of adequate inputs (fertilizer, improved seeds, pesticides) to the farmers. Graduating from
smallholder farming can only be driven through financial support -provision of financial loans to the
women groups (cooperatives). This should be followed by creation of market linkages, which are
strong enough to counter the existing monopolised value chains by the big companies.
This report recommends that strategies and programmes for agriculture and rural development at
country level (South Africa) should be guided by the international legal frameworks, such as the
CEDAW, regional frameworks e.g. the Maputo Protocol and the national initiatives mainly the
National Development Plan-2030 and DAFF Strategies. These should formulate and implement
action plans that take into full consideration the manifold challenges faced by rural women, by
incorporating specific measures for addressing these challenges through interventions that target
rural women.

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1 Chapter 1 Introduction
UN Women is the UN organisation dedicated to gender equality and the empowerment of women. A
global champion for women and girls, UN Women was established to accelerate progress on
meeting their needs worldwide. UN Women focuses its activities on one overarching goal: to
support the implementation at the national level of existing international commitments to advance
gender equality through 4 thematic areas that include enhancing women’s economic security and
rights. This includes tackling its main root: gender inequality. Efforts are multiplied through advocacy
campaigns and partnerships with governments, civil society and the UN system.
South Africa is a middle income country and Africa’s largest economy. Despite this, the country has
high levels of unemployment and is among the most unequal societies in the world with a widening
gap between the rich and the poor. According to UNDP report, 13% of the population live in poverty
and KwaZulu Natal, characterised by high proportion of rural dwellers and amongst the poorest
provinces and the sixth largest of the nine provinces of South Africa.
The Gender Profile report states that socio-economic conditions in KwaZulu-Natal reflect the
legacies of apartheid and are pervasive particularly amongst black female-headed households in
rural areas (Gender Profile Report, 2012). The report further states that feminisation of poverty
significantly defines the social conditions in rural and peri-urban KwaZulu Natal. Women are the
most impoverished group in the province and the majority of them are located in the rural areas
which collectively have a 78% poverty rate compared to urban poverty, estimated as 22%.
The reports points out that in KwaZulu-Natal one in four households is involved in agricultural
production activity. In the context of food insecurity this is significant. The contribution of women to
agriculture is a recognized phenomenon worldwide and particularly in developing countries. The
report concludes by stating that women in KwaZulu-Natal, comprising about 50% of the agricultural
labour force, ought to be able to make a difference in their own lives, as well as the lives of members
of their households if incentivised and existing constraints in the agricultural sector are addressed.
It is against this background, that UN Women and Department of Agriculture in KwaZulu Natal is
supporting this baseline study. The Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs in KwaZulu
Natal has a mandate to include women, including women with disabilities within the agricultural
sector. Strides have been made by the Department to involve vulnerable groups in the agricultural
mainstream economy. This has been witnessed by a number of women who are involved in farming
which has been regarded as a male dominated agricultural sector. One of the programs that have
changed women perception towards Agriculture is Female Entrepreneur in Agriculture Program. This
program is earmarked to expose and empower women who are involved in Agriculture.
This programme also seeks to create a cadre of women in agriculture entrepreneurs who are at a
competitive advantage with their male counterparts. Although this program has been running since
1999, women still experience challenges of growth and development due to
 Limited access and control to land
 Lack of proper infrastructure this include roads ,running water and agro processing plants
 Limited access to credit

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 Lack of markets in rural areas
 Lack of business skills which inhibits growth and development
Rural women are very rich in indigenous knowledge systems that are there in the rural communities
that they reside in but these resources are not harnessed to their potential and it is diminishing.
Another challenge is climate change and global warming which affects ploughing season and derail
the whole value chain. Due to vastness of the province it is cumbersome to combine all rural women
in Agriculture in one venue to discuss their challenges and needs hence this exercise of a baseline
study in districts was undertaken between December and January.
1.1 Objectives
The objectives of the study were to:
 Map out the situation of women in agriculture and identify districts with the most need for
support;
 Establish baseline of needs of rural women in regard to agricultural productivity and
sustainable livelihoods including access to land;
 Develop a capacity development strategy to assist women in Agriculture to grow and
leverage them from subsistence to more sustainable agribusiness enterprises.
The data and results of this research report will highlight the needs gaps of the rural women in
regard to agricultural productivity and sustainable livelihoods including access to land. It will provide
an insight of women’s access to agricultural input, credit, markets, technology and equal treatment
in land and agrarian reform and land resettlement schemes. These results are crucial as they also
serve as a benchmark for follow ups and future Department of Agriculture and Environmental
Affair’s assessment of women in agriculture, or for monitoring and evaluation purposes.
Furthermore, the survey results may provide proxy information relevant to 3
Article 14 of the CEDAW
report for South Africa, and also input into the African Women’s Decades indicators on women.
3
CEDAW Article 14 requires States to take into account the “particular problems faced by rural women and
ensure they participate in and benefit from agriculture and rural development

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2 Chapter 2 A Contextual Review of Women in Agriculture
Women constitute not only the major agricultural labor force but they are often also the farm
decision-makers. With the feminization of agriculture and men’s growing migration to the highly
gender-segregated urban labor markets, women also become more often the farm decision-makers
in formerly male-managed fields (Van Koppen et al, 2005). Such women’s empowerment is defined
as “the capacity of women to be economically self-sufficient and self-reliant with control over
decisions affecting their life options and freedom from violence” (Rao and Kelleher, 1995:70); cited
in Mahabub., and Jaim., (2011). The economic empowerment of the majority of women through
water-based farming is only feasible if the range of conditions for profitable, women-controlled
enterprises is addressed in a holistic way. Women’s access to land and forward and backward
linkages are as important as women’s access to water (Van Koppen, 2001).
Studies from throughout Africa demonstrate that women are disadvantaged in both statutory and
customary land tenure systems (Lastarria-Cornhiel 1997; Kevane 2004). Even when legislation aimed
at strengthening women’s property rights is enacted, women often lack the legal know-how or
enforcement mechanisms to ensure these rights are maintained. (Meinzen et al, 2012).
Furthermore, gender differences matter in farming systems throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, with
ownership and management of farms and natural resources by men and women being defined by
culturally specific gender roles (Meinzen-Dick et al, 2012). Van Koppen et al, (2005) states that in Sub
Saharan Africa the land cultivated by women may be given to them by their husbands (or other male
relatives) to cultivate in order to ensure household food security, but they do not have the title of
the land. This insecurity of land tenure makes women reluctant to make investments to increase
farm productivity because they are afraid that their husband may then decide to take back the
improved land in exchange for an unimproved and infertile land. Coupled to the land title, water
supply services and infrastructure as economic activities have contributed in women’s lack of rights
to land and water, as well as on development efforts, have often negatively affected their livelihoods
(AMCOW, 2010).
Furthermore, women’s empowerment in agriculture is an important component of inclusive growth,
and women’s roles and engagement in numerous areas of the agriculture sector is key not only in
economic growth but also in household food security (USAID et al, 2012). The role of agricultural
growth in reducing poverty and triggering overall economic growth has been thoroughly studied and
has led to wide consensus in the international development community and academia that
agricultural growth has been the engine of overall economic growth and poverty eradication
elsewhere in the world and can potentially become so in Africa (World Bank 2003; IFAD 2001) cited
in Van Koppen (2005).
Women suffer from different types of powerlessness in social and economic sphere of life. The lack
of power or disempowerment reflects in their less education level, less income, less control over
their own income, less bargaining power in selling their own produce and labour, less participation in
decision making body, less access to production inputs and resources and employment opportunity
than men (Mahabub and Jaim , 2011). Furthermore, women are generally excluded from informal
and formal fora in which rules and practices about water distribution are set and implemented. To
enhance the participation of farmers in irrigation management, strengthen their use rights and

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transfer responsibilities to them, there is need for more insight in women’s current role in irrigated
farming and their water rights (Van Koppen et al, 2001).
There is literature evidence that women are income earners and guardians of household food
security since they play a crucial role in the distribution of the food and non-food household
resources that determine the food security of the household. They play significant roles in planting,
weeding, postharvest processing, food preparation, and so forth (Schultz 2001; Meinzen-Dick et al,
2010; cited in Meinzen et al, 2012). The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
states that although female farmers are primary contributors to the world’s food production and
security, they are “frequently underestimated and overlooked in development strategies (Peterman
2010).
There is literature evidence that empowering women in agriculture ultimately reduces poverty and
food insecurity. Studies from throughout Africa have found that women routinely have less access to
agricultural extension than their male counterparts. Women are also disadvantaged with respect to
labor because they have less access to labor-saving technology and to the hired labor needed for
lucrative labor-intensive cultivation (Meinzen et al, 2012). Furthermore, women are disadvantaged
with respect to access to important technological resources, such as fertilizer, improved seed,
irrigation, pesticides, and mechanical power. Peterman, et al., (2009) found out that when input
indicators were provided, 79 percent found that men had higher mean access and 21 percent found
that women had higher mean access to the given technology. Poverty and hunger cannot be
conquered without meeting the specific needs of poor women. Like poor men, they lack the assets
and income necessary to exit poverty, but chronically poor women and girls are also subject to a
confluence of gender-based vulnerabilities that keep them trapped in poverty (Ambler et al, 2007).
Interventions to improve the lives of women should seek to build both women’s assets and their
societal status in order to transform gender roles (Ambler et al, 2007). A study in Mali demonstrated
that building women’s economic assets improves their social status and a study in Bangladesh
demonstrated that strengthening the women’s status can promote asset development (Ambler et
al,. 2007).
A gender-balanced agricultural growth is critical to successful agricultural programming and, in turn,
to reducing poverty and attaining the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). It is documented that
recognizing the importance of women in food production and in the provision of water for domestic
use has increased in the past decades (Roda, 1991; Davidson 1993; Cleaver and Jobes, 1996; cited in
Bastidas, 1999). However, lack of gender disaggregated data makes it difficult for programme design
and intervention since the women’s contribution to agriculture is poorly understood in most
countries. Mainstreaming gender in programming can bring long term benefits and change in
agriculture (Government of Denmark, 2008).
Enabling women to access productive resources to the same extent as men would increase yields on
their farms by 20–30 percent. This could raise total agricultural output in developing countries by
2.5–4 percent, which could in turn reduce the number of hungry people in the world by 12–17
percent. In recent years, the combined food, climate and financial crises have led to a renewed
attention to the roles women play in producing food and in agricultural production (FAO, 2012c).
The above international body of evidence points out to the fact that women have little power over
decisions on household agricultural productivity are less empowered economically but contribute to

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over 50% of agriculture production, and that empowering the women in agriculture promotes
economic empowerment and improves their well-being.
There are regional and national legal frameworks and policies that support the aim to empower
women and increase their productivity in agriculture so as to increase their economic growth, in so
doing reducing hunger and child malnutrition.
The African Women’s’ Decade (AU, 2009) states that goal of the decade is to cascade, in concrete
terms, the execution of commitments on gender equality and women’s empowerment from the
grass roots, national and regional to continental level. South Africa is a one of the states that have
signed and ratified the Maputo Protocol, which calls for countries’ commitment in ensuring the
rights of women, which are necessary for agricultural growth, economic empowerment, and
household food security.
It is encouraging to note that the South African National Development Plan 2030 (NPC, 2012)
acknowledges that there is need to increase the economic base of women and proposes to do so by
making land accessible with guaranteed land rights and increasing the rural women’s access to
financial services, including savings, credit, insurance and domestic payment services. The report
states that the government will ensure that national laws and policies guarantee women’s right to
land, including after divorce and separation, and their rights to inheritance in both customary and
statutory systems. Furthermore, and more encouraging is the fact that the government recommends
adoption of gender-responsive participatory approaches to technology transfer (e.g. by ensuring
women’s participation in the early stages of development of the technology) to increase uptake,
taking into account the knowledge that rural women already hold. This means that in South Africa
the policy and strategy frameworks recognise the gender gap that exists in terms of economic
empowerment, and that the gap could be reduced by if gender responsive programmes are in place.
2.1 Women’s Needs in the Agriculture Sector
In practice, women farmers tend to rely on rain-fed agriculture, and have poor access to inputs
(fertilisers, seeds and water), to extension (most extension agents are men), to credit, and to
markets for their products. They either own small pieces of land or have no land at all. Women also
bear the brunt of the burden of providing social protection services both to vulnerable people within
the immediate family and those in their community. This limits their potential as agricultural
producers.
International literature has identified five main gender issues that have emerged as being of
particular significance in the agriculture and rural development sector. These are inter-linked and all
require social change which needs to have substantial political support, if the limits to growth are to
be overcome.
2.1.1 Access to land and water resources
Strengthening women’s access to, and control over, land is an important means of raising their
status and influence within households and communities. Improving women’s access to land and
security of tenure has direct impacts on farm productivity, and can also have far-reaching
implications for improving household welfare. Strengthening land ownership by women in Nepal, for
example, is linked with better health outcomes for children (Allendorf, 2007; FAO, 2012a, FAO,
2012b)

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Agricultural services are being commercialised and land tenure arrangements are under threat,
reducing the amount of good land available to small farmers as the better land is allocated to cash
crops. These small farmers, most frequently women, are increasingly pushed on to marginal plots
that are dispersed, remote and usually less fertile. Women also need to be actively involved in
policies, programmes and projects in the water and sanitation sector (Commonwealth secretariat,
undated; FAO, 2012a).
2.1.2 Access to credit and other support services
Limited access to financial services can severely constrain smallholder investment. Evidence shows
that credit markets are not gender-neutral. Women generally have less control over the types of
fixed assets that are usually necessary as collateral for loans (FAO, 2012a). When women do own or
have access to land they often have a limited access to agricultural support services, such as credit
with which they can purchase inputs, and to advice and training in agricultural technology. This
limited access may arise from a range of factors, including legal restrictions (such as the need for a
male signatory); lack of collateral (e.g. land title); lack of information about credit availability; and
lack of small-scale services such as micro-credit schemes (Commonwealth secretariat, undated).
Institutional discrimination by private and public lending institutions often either ration women out
of the market or grant women loans that are smaller than those granted to men for similar activities
(Fletschner, 2009; World Bank, FAO and IFAD, 2009). Access to credit and insurance are important
for accumulating and retaining other assets
Women’s access to financial services is conditioned by their legal, social and economic position
within the community and household. A large body of evidence shows that lending to women helps
households diversify and raise incomes and is associated with other benefits such as increased
livelihood diversification, greater labour market participation, more education and better health. It
does not necessarily empower women, however, if they do not control the assets that are built or
increased (Garikipati, 2008).
2.1.3 Agricultural Extension, Research and Technology
Extension services encompass the wide range of services from communication to education
activities provided by experts in the areas of agriculture, agribusiness, health and others and
designed to improve productivity and overall wellbeing of rural populations. Agricultural
extension services, can lead to significant yield increases yet women are again found to be
lagging behind in exploiting the benefits of extension services.
Much has been written about the past failures of government extension services to reach women
farmers and the cultural bias which has, in many countries, prevented women from active
participation in group training, extension meetings and, most importantly, access to inputs such as
fertiliser and credit. The key problem faced by governments and donors is how to improve the
interchange of information between the farmer, the researcher, and the extension agent
(Commonwealth secretariat, undated, FAO, 2012a, FAO, 2012b).
Technology is as crucial in agriculture as for any other productive activity. Technology must be
intended broadly and can range from machines and tools to advanced genetic resources,
biocides and management techniques that help farmers make their work more productive and

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more efficient. A number of constraints lead to gender inequalities in access to and adoption of
new technologies as well as usage of purchased inputs (Peterman, 2010)
2.1.4 Agricultural Biodiversity and the Commercialization of Agriculture
The poorest farmers living in remote areas tend to be ill-served by market-driven changes. Amongst
these are many women who in most developing countries have very little access to cash, since they
are limited to producing household and food crops. Often, because of the marginal environments in
which they live, these people also have the most complex needs (Commonwealth secretariat,
undated, FAO, 2012a; FAO, 2012b). There is a need for both government and the NGO sector to pay
attention not only to production but also to marketing and the creation of businesses based on
agriculture and natural resources. These will need to involve women to be successful in processing
and marketing.
2.1.5 Empowerment and Access to Decision-making
In the agricultural sector, gender-awareness in decision-making is needed at a number of levels: in
the field, in technical positions in government and NGO agencies, in government departments such
as agriculture, fisheries and forestry and at the level at which macro-economic and other macro-
level decisions are made. At the macro-level, however, changes are coming slowly and will depend
on a more favourable gender balance at all levels of the power structure, from Ministers of
Agriculture to agricultural researchers and field assistants (Commonwealth secretariat, undated;
FAO, 2012a, FAO, 2012b).
Given the extensive participation of women in all aspects of agricultural production, the
mainstreaming of gender into the agriculture sector is a key strategy not only for the promotion of
equality between men and women, but also for sustainable agricultural and rural development and
economic growth in Commonwealth countries.
2.1.6 Access to Markets
Dercon and Singh (2012) and Böber (2012) found that good access to roads and proximity to markets
was significant determinants of levels of agricultural investment by smallholders in Ethiopia and
Nepal, respectively. Governments can play a more active role in leveraging private-sector
participation in value chain development for export and domestic markets to the benefit of
smallholders. Promoting investment by smallholders requires consideration of how they are linked
to markets. Improving access to markets depends largely on publicly funded investments in rural
infrastructure, market institutions and education.
2.1.7 Conclusions
The International literature provides enough evidence that there is lack of attention to gender in
agricultural development which contributes to lower productivity, lost income, and higher levels
of poverty as well as undernutrition. The above global development literature also asserts that
women farmers are consistently underestimated and overlooked in development policies and
strategies, and that this limits the ability of development programs to achieve their objectives. The
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) states that although female farmers are
primary contributors to the world’s food production and security, they are “frequently
underestimated and overlooked in development strategies” (UN News Center, 2010). In 2012,
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon highlighted the potential of rural women to improve the well-being

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of entire societies if given equal access to resources and set free from the discrimination and
exploitation that hold them back.
“Countries where women lack land ownership rights or access to credit have significantly
more malnourished children. By empowering rural women we could end the hidden
development tragedy of stunting, which affects almost 200 million children worldwide” (UN
News Centre 2012).
Integration of women in agricultural programmes can be achieved by specifically including women as
a target in all major agricultural components, such as credit, technological skills and other training,
delivery of extension and inputs, access to expanding markets, agricultural research and education
and price support of agricultural products.
Many countries in sub Saharan Africa, including South Africa are trying as much as possible to put in
place programmes that are aimed at enabling women in accessing productive resources to the
same extent as men would increase yields on their farms, so as to increase agricultural production.
During the 56th session of the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) at the United Nations
South Africa prioritised the empowerment of rural women through the mainstreaming of gender as
part of a Comprehensive Rural Development Programme (CRDP). Elements include providing access
to funding, training, transfer of technology, building partnerships, ensuring food security, access to
land as well as monitoring inequality in the redistribution of land. To support this national
commitment the National Development Plan 2030 and other policy documents in South Africa have
a focus on integrating women in agricultural programmes although the implementation in the
absence of an enabling environment and a stronger political may take long to achieve significant
results.
Climate change has recently become a critical cross cutting issue in agricultural production especially
among women. As highlighted by the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Rural
Development ahead of COP17, climate change impacts on women are quiet visible especially on
women living in rural areas. Natural disasters and climate change can undermine the health,
education and livelihoods of rural women, differently to men. Since women are powerful agents of
change, there is need to ensure active participation and consultation of women in environmental
planning, financing, budgeting and policymaking processes.
2.2 International Legislation and Policy Frameworks
The following section highlights selected international and regional legal framework/policies that
aim at promoting women in achieving economic growth and improving their well-being.
2.2.1 The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
(CEDAW)
Agricultural policies should aim to redress gender inequalities, to ensure that development
interventions in the agriculture sector are effective and can achieve enduring positive impacts on the
lives and economic potential of rural women, men, girls and boys. One powerful instrument for
promoting realization of the rights and potential of rural women and girls is the Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). There are legal provisions in the
documents that may specifically guide policies that aim in promoting economic growth of women in
agriculture.

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Article 14 requires States to take into account the “particular problems faced by rural women and
ensure they participate in and benefit from agriculture and rural development”. Specifically, under
this article States Parties shall ensure that rural women have the right to obtain access to credit,
markets, technology and equal treatment in land and agrarian reform and land resettlement
schemes. Article 13(b), which requires States Parties to ensure that women have the same rights to
financial credit as men, and directly supports Article 14’s provision (g) on rural women’ s access to
agricultural credit and loans.
How far the CEDAW is enforced through the government departments and policies is questionable,
since most policies do not interconnect their visions and goals with this important international
legislative framework.
2.2.2 The African Women’s Decade
This is a regional document that presents a renewed opportunity for further realization and
improvement of women’s participation in various spheres of economic activities, e.g. farming as a
business opportunity. It states that the recognizing the barriers to achieving gender goals, the
decade will be utilised to encourage inclusive participation of stakeholders to boost the performance
of the decade by drawing on the experience, knowledge and creativity of men and women for
developing innovative gender balancing strategies that will enhance gender equality and women
development across the continent.
The goal of the decade is to cascade, in concrete terms, the execution of commitments on gender
equality and women’s empowerment from the grass roots, national and regional to continental level
(AU, 2009).
It is worth noting that one of the activities for the African Women’s Decades by states include
conducting benchmark survey on status of women at national level, so as to benchmark indicators
necessary for monitoring and evaluation and assessing the progress of women over time. This
research report will go a long way informing the status of women not only in KwaZulu Natal province
but also proxy nationally results in the absence of a national survey.
2.2.3 The Maputo Protocol
The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the rights of Women in Africa
commonly referred to as The Maputo Protocol was adopted in Mozambique on July 11, 2003. It
went into effect in November 2005 after 15 of the 53 African Union member states ratified it.
The Maputo Protocol came out of the realization that women's rights in Africa were often
marginalized especially in the context of human rights and thus the need for an international binding
instrument addressing and protecting their rights. The protocol among others requires African
governments to eliminate all forms of discrimination and violence against women in Africa, and to
promote equality between men and women. Member States are obliged to integrate a gender
perspective in their policy decisions, legislation, development plans, and activities, and to ensure the
overall well-being of women.
South Africa is a one of the states that have signed and ratified the Maputo Protocol, which calls for
countries’ commitment in ensuring the rights of women, which are necessary for agricultural
growth, economic empowerment, and household food security. The question is whether how far

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such protocols are implemented by the state, and if at all there are endeavours to do so (Nepad,
2005).
2.2.4 The SADC Gender Protocol (2012)
South Africa is a signatory of the SADC Gender Protocol, which among other issues seeks to promote
women statuses in all spheres of life. This document supports international literature that women
lack a say in the decisions that affect their lives:
“Whether in the bedroom or the board room, women are effectively rendered voiceless, with little
say for example, in the use of male condoms so essential to preventing the spread of HIV and AIDS.
Women's lack of “voice” reflects in the media, where the proportion of women sources remains
stubbornly at 19% of the total”.
There is also acknowledgement of the issue that women still struggle to access credit and land,
where a studies in Zimbabwe and Botswana are cited. The document further notes that most
government Gender Policies and Action plans date back several years; they have not been aligned
with the targets of the Protocol nor has their implementation been costed. Furthermore, Baseline
data obtained this year shows that women account for only 21% of environmental affairs and
sustainable development ministries.
It also highlights some of the challenges in constitutional and legal rights that may affect women in
agriculture. These ranges from the contradictions between customary law and statutory law abound
even where outlawed by the Constitution. This has crucial implications on agricultural production
among women farmers especially in KwaZulu Natal areas where land ownership is communal. The
other issue highlighted is that the proportion of women in local government declined by 1% - from
24% to 23%. International literature states that planning for women and formulating strategies and
policies requires the women themselves to be involved in the process, above all there should be a
representative proportion of women in local government to make decisions that affect fellow
women agriculturalists e.g. the use of tractors in KwaZulu Natal which does not take into
consideration women’s’ rights and concerns (SADC, 2012)
The document also takes into consideration climate change issues with respect to gender. It states
that most policy frameworks on climate change are largely gender blind although recently
momentum has mounted for an Addendum to the Protocol on Gender and Climate Change - a
principle accepted by gender ministers in the lead up to COP 17 hosted by South Africa in 2011.
The above regional policy frameworks aim at providing not only gender sensitive but gender
responsive frameworks on which governments should use in planning and implementation if
programmes that aim at promoting economic growth among women in an effort in achieving the
Millennium Development Goals 3: promote gender equality and empower women. However, the
challenge is the gap between the countries’ signing and ratifying of protocols and treaties and the
actual implementation, which could apply in KwaZulu Natal provincial government.
2.3 Legislative frameworks relating to Agriculture in South Africa
The following literature review will be based on relevant documents that provide policy direction in
dealing with women in general and their involvement in economic activities. Specifically, agricultural
policy, environment policy and programme documents will also be examined to guide baseline

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assessment as targets of see whether the policies have translated into reality to the women of
Kwazulu Natal.
2.3.1 The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa
The supreme guidelines of all policies and rights in South Africa are the Constitution of the Republic
of South Africa Act number 108 of 1996. The founding provisions of Constitution specifically provide
for its supremacy and values of respect for human dignity and freedoms; non-racialism and non-
sexism; and responsiveness and openness.
Section 3 of the Constitution provides that all citizens in South Africa are equally entitled to the
rights, privileges and benefits of citizenship; and equally subject to the duties and responsibilities of
citizenship. The bill of rights in the Constitution provides for the equality of all people in South Africa
regardless of inter alia, race, sex gender and marital status. In addition everyone has a freedom to
trade, occupation and profession. The other rights provide therein are: the right to property, access
to sufficient food, water, social security and information.
Schedule 6 of the Constitution agriculture is a provincial function. Therefore, one policy implication
thereof is that the Departments of Agriculture at national and provincial levels must develop their
own agricultural policies (White Paper on Agriculture, 1995). Therefore, the Constitution in essence,
broadly safeguards and guarantees the rights of all people i.e. including women in all sectors of life
including agriculture; hence anything to the contrary or inconsistent to the Constitution may be
declared invalid.
2.3.2 The Agricultural policy in South Africa – discussion Document 1998
The vision of agriculture in the Agricultural policy in South Africa, discussion document 1998 by
Ministry for Agriculture and Land Affairs is to improve the productivity of rural people who are
mostly impoverished in agriculture (Department for Agriculture and Land Affairs, 1998). The
objective is to help all the citizenry engaged in small and medium-scale commercial farming on
family-managed farms to largely produce for the market, investing in their land, using improved
inputs and hiring labour (Department for Agriculture and Land Affairs, 1998:2). The vision for
agriculture is for all poor rural citizens engaged in agriculture; therefore, it has no emphasis on
women or any preferential treatment to them.
The policy perspective recognises that the past policies distorted the sector as follows:
a. By emphasising the contribution of large scale farmers thereby neglecting the importance
smaller and medium-scale agriculture (Department for Agriculture and Land Affairs,
1998).
b. By perpetrating inequality and insecurity in landownership (Department for Agriculture
and Land Affairs, 1998).The policy reforms have generally been in the areas of land,
marketing and finance (Department for Agriculture and Land Affairs, 1998).
The current policies in land have introduced market-based land redistribution, restitution of land
and grants and technical assistance programmes to the landless to deal with the ills of racially
discriminatory laws (Department for Agriculture and Land Affairs, 1998). The Government has
restructured rural financial markets and control of agricultural market to prove equal access to all.

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In the area of women in agriculture in rural areas the policy notes that small scale black women
farmers are the worst hit by poverty and food security. Therefore, the current policy reforms the
past policies which contributed to rural impoverishment in particular to women. The policy notes
that female-headed households are the most impoverished group out of the estimated 16 million
South Africans who are living in poverty (Ministry for Agriculture and Land Affairs, 1998:4). Some 52
per cent of female-headed households spent less than US$140 per month in 1996, while the
corresponding figure for male-headed households was 35 per cent (Koch, 2011).
The current agricultural policy is addressing the levels of poverty in rural agricultural areas by
increasing the production of small scale farmers. A large proportion of the small scale farmers
comprise the rural black population consists of women outnumbering men (Ministry for Agriculture
and Land Affairs, 1998:5). The female –headed households are mostly the worst stricken by poverty.
The current agricultural policy, therefore, stresses the need to examine all programmes to ensure
that women at least have equal access to opportunities and that programmes are targeting at them
specifically (Department for Agriculture and Land Affairs, 1998).
2.3.3 Strategic Plan for the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries: 2011/12
to 2014/15
In support of government’s New Growth Path, focus areas to be achieved by the Department of
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) are large-scale employment creation, food security,
support to initiate and drive competitiveness and the intensification of key actions to enhance
sustainable development.
The documents states that the department will continue to make South Africans aware of the
important role that the agriculture, forestry and fisheries sector plays and could play in providing
food security and safety, sustainable employment creation, economic growth and rural
development.
The Strategic Plan will guide the DAFF to achieve government’s priorities in the following manner:
(i) Consolidation of agrarian reform programmes to ensure food security through skills
development, inputs, implements, extension and technical support to agrarian reform beneficiaries
to ensure their viability and sustainability.
(ii) Streamlining inputs and implementing support programmes to ensure access and
affordability for the new entrants into the sector, and
(iii) Implementation of agro-ecological agriculture will be promoted as a way to ensure that food
is produced in a sustainable way and the environment benefits positively throughout the productive
cycle.
Examining this strategy, shows that there is very little emphasis on planning for gender responsive
initiatives, and the “plans for the general population” could be disadvantageous to women, let alone
those emerging in agricultural activities.
2.3.4 Zero Hunger Programme
The Zero Hunger Programme seeks to link subsistence producers and smallholder
producers/producers to government institutions such as government schools (i.e. to supply the
School Nutrition Programme), public hospitals and prisons, and in the medium term also be a
conduit through which food produced by smallholders can be used to meet the nutritional needs of
low-income individuals and households in communities at large. As such, the Zero Hunger

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Programme seeks to provide a boost to existing smallholder producers/producers, and an
opportunity through which subsistence producers can start generating a sustainable income through
farming, and thereby become smallholder producers in their own right. While Zero Hunger has not
been adopted yet as a formal policy, its implementation is already being tested and refined through
the collaboration of DAFF and the provincial departments of agriculture and by means of linking it to
the Comprehensive Agricultural Support Programme (CASP) (DAFF, 2012). However, the programme
has very little gender integrated approaches, which is a challenge if the government has to eliminate
hunger for the majority of the population has to be food secure.
2.3.5 Strategic Plan for Smallholder Producers
The Strategic Plan for Smallholder Producers is a broader initiative that seeks to improve support to
smallholder producers and in doing so increase the number of smallholder producers. It will do this
by means of better aligning—and where necessary adjusting – what are in effect a large number of
distinct functions, e.g. extension, cooperatives development, marketing, mechanisation, financial
services, spatial planning, etc (DAFF, 2012).
2.3.6 Aquaculture Programme
The Aquaculture Programme is presently being implemented by means of fish production projects
around the country, in partnership with the Department of Trade and Industry. The programme is
guided by the National. Aquaculture Strategic Framework, which is undergoing final consultation.
While presently focusing on primary production, the programme is attentive to the upstream and
downstream parts of the value chain. DAFF has established an Aquaculture Development Zone in the
Eastern Cape, through a partnership with the East London Industrial Development Zone. Two further
identified zones are undergoing EIA processes. DAFF has completed the establishment of an
Aquaculture Demonstration Centre in partnership with Free State Agriculture and the Chinese
government. To date, DAFF has facilitated the establishment of at least 10 fish farms.
2.3.7 Agro-processing Strategic Framework
DAFF has initiated the elaboration of its Agro-processing Strategic Framework, covering the period
2012 to 2016. Agro-processing is one of the sectors identified in both the IPAPs and NGP as
potentially capable of creating jobs on a large scale. This is validated by the fact that agro-
processing—and in particular food processing— is one of the sectors with the highest employment
multipliers in the economy. The NGP forecasts the creation of 145 000 jobs in agro-processing by
2020. The central challenge that remains is how the potential that has been identified can be
realised in practice. The Strategic Framework, which will be finalised in the first half of 2012, is a
contribution towards the efforts of the rest of the economic cluster departments in terms of how
the agriculture, forestry and fisheries sectors could be supported to achieve the agro-processing job
creation and related government priority targets.
2.3.8 The Land Reform Programme
According to an analysis of South African agricultural policies by the OECD, the South African Land
Reform Programme is implemented through three main programs:
• Land restitution: targeting people who lost their land in the past by racially discriminatory
legislation.
• Land redistribution: providing the poor and disadvantaged with land to improve their
livelihoods, to resettle or to establish farming enterprises.

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• Land tenure reform: ensuring security of tenure by strengthening the rights of residents on
privately owned farms and state land and by enabling individuals to benefit from their
property.
While agricultural development may play a role in addressing poverty and inequalities, South Africa’s
relatively scarce natural resources (arable land and water) suggest that only a limited number of
people may secure fair living standards from agriculture alone. A more comprehensive response will
require the provision of social security, education and training as well as health care, and adequate
infrastructures in rural areas.
With regards to communal tenure of land, the Constitution refers to “tenure which is legally secure
or to comparable redress” as a solution without confinement to a particular form of tenure. A prime
consideration is that sustainable development of the land in these areas must still recognize the
communal character, as opposed to individual landholdings. Undoing the legacies of the past
necessarily include the completion of the task to institute a predictable, certain and legally secure
tenure form or forms for communal land. The previous attempt to address this was through the
Communal Land Rights Act, No 11 of 2004 (“CLaRA”).
The constitution protects property rights and prevents confiscation of property without due
compensation, but also provides a legal, political and moral basis for redress measures such as land
reform. The White paper on land allows for land redistribution, land restitution and tenure reform.
However, the NPD-2030 indicates that overall progress has been slow since 1994 and in 2011 only
4.1% of land had been redistributed, most of which was state land.
The above summary on land reform indicates that the main challenge is that of entrenched vested
interests, in both commercial and communal land spaces and the main constraint is the poor
capacity of organs of state to deliver on mandates. Yet undoing the social, economic and cultural
effects of centuries of discrimination and exclusion, on the basis of race, will take time and an
enduring national political effort. The failure to protect the rights and security of tenure of farm
workers and dwellers is the main challenge in implementation of land reform programmes, and
women in agriculture in areas where communal land ownership is practiced will remain constrained
in terms of guaranteed rights and land for collateral when applying for loans.
2.3.9 The White Paper on Agriculture 1995
The white paper on agriculture is mandated by Constitution of the Republic of South Africa to
establish a new policy for Agriculture. The white paper emphasises the role of agriculture in the rural
community.
The policy stipulates seven agricultural policy priority areas, namely: production, marketing,
sustainable utilisation of natural agricultural resources, agricultural financing, institutional
infrastructure, information and agricultural technology, research, extension and training (White
paper on agriculture, 1995). One of the key points in the mission statement is that services to
farmers will be rendered in an equitable manner which discourages existing and potentially
discriminatory practices. The services must also allow the benefits of development to be more
widely distributed, taking into account that access to resources, scale of production, use of
purchased inputs and volume of marketable produce differ from farmer to farmer.

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On marketing the policy states that special attention should be given to the needs of small-scale
farmers and there must be equitable access to the market especially. The Government pledges
assistance to local communities and private enterprises that it will create an environment where
small-scale farmers have access to services at an affordable cost.
The policy also provides a framework for equal access to information, training and technology. One
of the general principles in the Addendum ‘A’ to the Agricultural policy 1995 advocates affirmative
action programmes to South Africans with a low income who were previously denied access to
opportunities in agriculture to ensure access to agricultural resources, credit and farmer-support
services. Social subsidy programmes are also recognised in the policy in so far as they do not
jeopardise the realisation of the economic viability of the agricultural sector.
From the afore-mentioned premises it is clear that the policy targets all the vulnerable groups of
people who were marginalised in the apartheid era. The targeted vulnerable groups include women
but within the general context of the marginalised.
2.3.10 The Integrated Food Security Strategy
The Department of Agriculture rolled out an Integrated Food Security Strategy (IFSS) as one of the
policy mechanisms for redressing apartheid agricultural policies. The IFSS’s approach is broad
development rather than a narrow approach on food security (Department of Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries, 2002). It focuses mainly on household food security, without overlooking national
food security, although South Africa is food-secure (Koch, 2011). The issue of technology in
agriculture is also central in the IFSS (Agriculture and rural development, 6-7). One of the
mechanisms to deal with inequalities in this area is Black Economic Empowerment (BEE).
The IFSS looks at bringing growth and development benefits to all citizens (Koch, 2011:9). The IFSS is
aimed at improving access to productive assets, including credit; increasing access to technologies,
including food processing; supporting agriculture extension services; and improving infrastructure
and trade regulations. The policy actions seek to help certain targeted populations, such as specific
vulnerable groups, for example, female-headed households, young people, and the disabled; small-
scale farmers, emerging farmers and commercial farmers (Koch, 2011).
The nutritional programmes in the IFSS support vulnerable groups in food safety. The vulnerable
people are: children under six years of age; at-risk pregnant and lactating women; primary school
children from poor households; people suffering from chronic diseases of lifestyle or communicable
diseases; and at-risk elderly persons (Koch, 2011).
In addition, the IFSS has a component of social grants through the South African Social Security
Agency (SASSA). The target groups are: children and child-headed households; orphaned children;
people with disabilities; female-headed households; and HIV/AIDS-infected and affected households.
The IFSS has helped a lot to translate broad policy principles into reality in South Africa however; it is
still argued that it has not achieved many of its goals due the challenges that still exist towards
women (Koch, 2011). The evidence is by the fact that still Some 52 per cent of female-headed

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households spent less than US$140 per month indicating the levels of marginalisation of women
(Koch, 2011).
The observation is that policy has not mentioned the measures that will be taken to target women
particularly or how it will specially deal with the vulnerable groups. The policy is silent on whether
the targeted action towards women will be in form affirmative action / preferential treatment or
not.
The policy broadly deals all inequalities for all the citizenry in poor rural areas involved in agriculture
regardless of gender. Therefore, it is a most considered view that the policy position will be slow to
address the problems of women in rural area who are at the bottom of the index in poverty.
This is observation is in tandem with the observation that was made in 2003 that the economic
redistribution of wealth accrued to wealthier households, and is not expected to narrow in the near
future towards the rural households (The Roles of Agriculture Project, 2003). Therefore, the wording
and spirit of agricultural policy can be construed as fostering equality, empowerment to all gender in
rural areas despite different levels of poverty and vulnerability.
2.3.11 Proposed National Water Resource Strategy
The NWRS-2 sets out the strategic direction for water resources management in the country over
the next 20 years, with a particular focus on priorities and objectives for the period 2013 – 2017. It
provides the framework for the protection, use, development, conservation, management and
control of water resources for South Africa, as well as the framework within which water must be
managed at catchment level, in defined water management areas. It is binding on all authorities and
institutions exercising powers or performing duties under the National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998)
(DWA, 2012).
The document gives a highlight of water and agriculture and states that about 8.5 million people are
directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture for employment and income (GCIS, 2011). The sector
contributes about 3% to the GDP and 7% to formal employment. The agricultural sector is made up
of commercial farmers and subsistence farmers: about 1.3 million hectares are irrigated. Irrigated
agriculture is the largest single use of water in South Africa (60%) and it has a huge potential socio-
economic impact in rural communities. Water is the major limiting factor to the growth of this sector
and poor water quality has a negative impact on agricultural exports and associated foreign income.
The only area where women are mentioned in the proposed strategy is where enhancing indigenous
knowledge systems to meet the challenges of globalization, focusing on the role of women and the
youth is stipulated as a core value. Since this is a proposed strategy, there is need to revisit it and
streamline women concerns and gender issues in the planning, implementation, monitoring and
evaluation of the programmes.
2.3.12 Policy on Agriculture in Sustainable development
The policy coordinates earlier policies in agriculture inter alia, the white paper on agriculture 1995
and the policy discussion document of 1998. The policy on sustainable development in agriculture
provides that food, security, poverty, unemployment, health and equity should be prioritised when
dealing with social challenges (Department of Agriculture (Draft 8) 1995).

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One of the strategies to achieve the targeted priorities is by improving access to production
resources like land, finance, agricultural inputs, and information to a broader section of the
population (Department of Agriculture (Draft 8) 1995). The development of programmes aimed at
providing poor people with opportunities for generating income is also a strategy to help in poverty
reduction.
In terms of equity the policy calls for the development of programmes aimed at empowering
women, youth and the disabled at all levels. It states categorically that, policies and programmes
must promote women’s equal access to full participation in decision-making at all levels
(Department of Agriculture (Draft 8) 1995).
A new Food Security strategy is being finalised and uses the Bill of rights as the foundation: Section
27 (1b) right to access to food and water, Section 28 (c) every child has the right to basic nutrition,
shelter, basic health care and social services, Section 35 (2e) detained person and sentenced
prisoner right to nutrition. The document is silent on women or female headed households.
2.3.13 The Green paper on Population Policy 1995
The Green Paper on Population Policy was intended to open up debate about how population issues
relate to development issues in South Africa including gender inequalities.
The Green paper on population policy stated that by October 1994, 6 321 891 females who were in
the active population segment of 14, 297, 048 urban people were unemployed as compared to men
which were totalled 7,975, 157. Therefore , the percentage of unemployed economically active
population in urban areas was 32,6% and female represented 40,6% as to compared to men who
were at 26,2%. While in the rural or non-urban the percentage of the unemployed economically
active population was 27,8% out of 32,4% was women and 24,4% males ( Green paper on
population policy, 1995). The population policy recognises gender equality especially women’s
empowerment as an essential component of any effective development policy whether or not it
explicitly takes account of population trends.
The policy mentions the ICPD programme of Action as a focused initiative which provides specifically
for a range of government activities to improve women's status. These activities include (Green
paper on population policy, 1995):
Education; involvement of women in the political process and public life; Eliminating
discrimination against women and assisting women in realising their rights including in
relation to the workplace by enacting laws and Implementing programmes to enable
employees of both sexes to balance Their family and work responsibilities; improving
women's ability to achieve
Economic self-reliance; eliminating violence against women in general; making it possible
through laws, regulations and other measures, for women to combine the roles of child-
bearing, breast-feeding and child-rearing with participation in the workforce; ensuring
women have equal rights to land, credit and inheritance; investing in measures to lessen the
daily burden of domestic responsibilities, the greatest share of which falls on women;
encouraging the expansion of grass -roots groups for women which should be the focus of

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national campaigns to foster women's awareness of the full range of their legal rights,
including their rights within the family, and to help women organize to achieve those rights.
The population policy noticed that the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) were still
investigating the challenges facing South Africa to empower women and the mechanisms for sector
collaboration towards this goal. The Green paper highlighted some of the question to be tackled in
relation to women empowerment. One of the questions to be considered is whether there must an
overarching policy on women to influence women's position in society or to leave women to
empower themselves without an overarching policy.
The question shows that the framers of the green paper on population policy saw a problem in the
implementation of policies towards women empowerment as we will discuss later in the National
Rural women Development Strategy.
2.3.14 DOAE Annual Performance Plan 2 0 1 2 / 1 3
The State of the Province Address by Dr Zweli Mkhize the Premier of the Province of KwaZulu-Natal
in February, 2012 commended the progress made in the province. However, the Premier quoting
President Jacob Zuma’s 2012 State of the Nation Address pointed out that the triple challenge of
unemployment, poverty and inequality persisting and mostly affecting Africans, women and the
youth (Annual performance plan 2012/13, 2012).
The annual performance plan 2012/13 states that higher growth and job creation to reduce and
ultimately eradicate poverty and inequality are solution to the triple challenge. The annual plan
includes a comprehensive strategic plan with agricultural mechanism to address the triple challenge.
The socio economic profile of Kwazulu Natal shows the poverty levels and restates the high
inequalities in the distribution of income in the population and subgroups (Annual performance plan
2012/13, 2012). However, a thorough reading of the document shows that disparities in income
distribution between women and men have not yet been quantified.
The strategic plans for the province articulate actions to be taken to enhance rural economic and
agricultural growth. The plans specifically provide for a whole infrastructure and framework that is
conducive for economic growth in the province. However, the programmes and actions refer
broadly to all citizens in the province. Direct projects for women have not been articulated therein
despite mentioning women as one of the vulnerable groups.
2.3.15 Rural development and Land Policy
The strategies focusing on rural development between 1994 and 2001, for example, the
Rural Development Strategy of the Government of National Unity of 1995 highlighted the need for
mechanism to deal with women in relation to land (Gwanya, 2010:7). The strategy focused on rural
people and rural women in particular as the one who bear the largest burden of poverty and
suggested that such inequalities should be changed to facilitate productivity in rural areas.
The Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Strategy (ISRDS) were introduced in 2001 to
coordinated rural development activates (Gwanya, 2010). The overlooked District Municipalities
were included in rural development to increase the participation of communities in the matters
affecting them. The rationale was to involve the local communities, targeting vulnerable groups such

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as the youth, women and the disabled. However, Gwanya (2010) observed that the project failed at
implementation level because it still left out the key stakeholders, the community by only
considering them as beneficiaries of government programmes (Gwanya, 2010).
2.3.16 National Rural Women Development Strategy (NRWDS)
The main objective of the NRWDS is to facilitate the promotion and attainment of the rights of rural
women as enshrined in the Bill of Rights. The NRWDS sets out an overarching principles and
development process that will enhance participation of rural women. The purpose of the policy is to
achieve integrated sustainable and equitable development and poverty eradication in so far as rural
women are concerned.
The policy acknowledges that despite well-known linkages between gender and sustainable
development, yet to date, many Departmental policies and programming in South Africa have not
necessarily been gender responsive, let alone rural women sensitive (NRWRDS, 2012).
The NRWDS recognises that the South Africa’s vision for women equality is already well articulated
in detail in the National Policy Framework for Women Empowerment and Gender Equality (Gender
Policy Framework). However, the policies have not been implemented at departmental level
(NRWDS, 2012). The policy also recognizes that women meet innumerable problems in rural areas
due to stereotyping. There is also family level discrimination on property rights. The policy also
provides for women living with disabilities as it is estimated by the 1996 computed micro-data that
11.04% of rural women live with disabilities and the highest number is in KwaZulu-Natal Province
(NRWDS, 2012).
The policy takes cognizance of the guidance of international instruments on the protection of
women and also the Millennium Declaration and the Millennium Development Goals (2000) which
requires states to report progress of the goal of promotion of gender equality and empower women.
The level of implementation of this policy and its alignment to other policies in Agriculture and rural
development need be harmonised for a common goal-achieving economic growth in agriculture
among rural women engaged in agriculture.
2.3.17 Kwazulu-Natal Ingonyama Trust
The Ingonyama Trust was established under this Act. It makes provision for certain land to be held in
trust and to be transferred to affected communities. The affairs of the Trust are administered by the
Ingonyama Trust Board.
This trust was established under Act No. 3kz of 1994 and owns the land on behalf of the
communities in the pre-1994 Bantu areas, and deals with the land issues in accordance with Zulu
indigenous law or any other applicable law. This means that land rights in these areas belong to the
Amakhosi (King) and women who are practising agriculture only have communal rights. This type of
ownership has implications on accessing of loans, where collaterals are sought and such land could
be used (Government Gazette, 2004).
2.3.18 The Integrated Development Plans in KwaZulu Natal Province
A snapshot of a sample of IDPs in some of all the district municipalities indicate that almost of them
are similar is context and do not integrate women’s needs at all, let alone emerging women farmers.
Furthermore, there is no coordination and planning between the department of Rural Development

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and Land Reform (DRDLR), the Local Municipalities and the department of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries (DAFF) to ensure coherent delivery of land reform, rural development and agricultural
programmes for women farmers.
2.3.19 The National Development Plan Vision 2030
The vision of the NDP seeks to eliminate poverty and reduce inequalities among the population BY
2030. The plan is to change the lives of millions of people especially the youths, and mentions that
“it is possible to eliminate this poverty and sharply reduce the inequalities by 2030. The document
has several areas that will address disparities among women and men specifically in agriculture, and
outlines several alternatives that will be undertaken in implementing programmes. This is
commendable in light of the need for the government to integrate gender issues as stipulated in the
CEDAW (art. 14) if poverty is to be effectively eliminated and if inequalities are to be effectively
reduced. However, these are proposed plans and strategies that require an enabling environment
for women in rural areas such as KwaZulu Natal with regards to infrastructure and market linkages,
as well as the political will from the government.
2.4 Conclusion
The different levels of policy analysed herein show the existence of broad principles towards
addressing inequalities in the society. The different vulnerable groups, including women have been
identified. Programmes to address the inequalities have been designed generally and mostly
benefiting all groups rather than addressing the problems of the vulnerable (The Roles of Agriculture
Project, 2003).
The recent NRWDS though in draft form now will mandate various actors in the economy, including
the agricultural sector to have focused and direct interventions towards women when it becomes a
full policy (NRWDS, 2012). The NRWDS acknowledges that the policies for women are almost in
every sector, despite the fact that they have not been implemented. Therefore there has been a gap
between the policies for women and implementation plan for actions necessary to alleviate their
suffering. In this regard, when the NRWDS becomes operational as a policy it will mandate the
agricultural sector to take deliberate affirmative action towards women in rural areas.
The land reform discussion paper (2012) outlines one of the objectives of land reform as to “Ensure
that all South Africans, especially the poor, women, youth have a reasonable opportunity to gain
access to land with secure rights, in order to fulfil their basic needs for housing and productive
livelihoods”, but does not mention how the women will gain ownership in communal lands such as
KwaZulu Natal where land ownership is communal.
The documents reviewed in this section are just a cross section of some of the government policies,
strategies and programmes, but they have not necessarily been gender responsive, let alone rural
women sensitive. Although the National Development Plan-2030 and several others such as the
recent Agricultural Strategy 2012/13, the Zero Hunger, and the Final Draft Food Security Strategy
have tried to be gender sensitive and responsive, the challenge is that most strategies (including
those not reviewed in this report) have little emphasis on women. Some provincial strategies are A
repeat and cut and paste of previous a strategy without reviewing and incorporating gender issues
from a regional and international perspective. Furthermore, if women are included in the

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programmes, there could be a problem in the implementation, since the problems are still there
among the women, in this case among women farmers in KwaZulu Natal.
It is encouraging to note that the South African National Development Plan 2030 (NPC, 2012)
acknowledges that there is need to increase the economic base of women and proposes to do so by
making land accessible with guaranteed land rights and increasing the rural women’s access to
financial services, including savings, credit, insurance and domestic payment services.
Lastly, the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry should continue to work on improving
its policies and legislation in order to support rural development, land reform and land
administration services; in addition it must integrate women’s needs and concerns with regards to
agricultural productivity. Such policies should be linked to the National Development Plans -2030 as
well as regional and international conventions, (aligning their action plans to the SADC Gender
Protocol and cost its implementation) protocols and legislation pertaining to women. The national
policies in the agriculture sector should inform provincial strategies, as well as district and municipal
strategies, with linkages and synergies across relevant Departments (e.g. lands, rural development,
water etc.) to avoid duplication of efforts.

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3 Chapter 3 Methodology
The following section outlines the methods and approaches that were used in this baseline study
Research Design. .
It is worth mentioning at this point that a needs assessment is the process of systematically
collecting and analysing information in order to identify who is at risk, why, and what can be done
(UN, 2005) about the situation. The research design used a combination of qualitative and
quantitative research methods since they complement each other. The qualitative approach
provided detailed descriptions of particular social settings under investigation and also recognised
that people construct meaning within a socio-cultural environment in which they lived. The
descriptive survey was used to quantify the data.
The following section briefly describes the approaches that were used in this exercise, starting with
the sampling strategy:
3.1.1 Sampling:
A non-probability sampling method, namely purposive or judgemental was used to identify the study
areas and the sample for the study. The method of selection was based on the judgement of the
Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affair’s predetermined target group and the available
financial resources and time frame. The target group was women in agriculture in 11 Districts of
KwaZulu-Natal (N=22,000). To ensure a representative sample the survey planned for N=330, which
is statistically significant, at 95% Confidence Interval (z=1.96) and would yield a margin of error of 6-
7 percent, which in this case would be acceptable to infer to the general population of KwaZulu
Natal. However, the total sample covered was 250, representing 76% response rate.
3.1.2 Study Area
The survey was conducted in all the districts of KwaZulu Natal including the metro, namely:
Umkhanyakude, Uthungulu, Zululand, Umgungundlovu, Amajuba, Umzinyathi, Ilembe, Uthukela,
Sisonke, Ugu, and Ethekwini. The map below was edited to show the actual areas visited by the
survey teams (circled).

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Figure 1: Map of KwaZulu Natal
Source: Department of Health (http://medicine.ukzn.ac.za)
KwaZulu-Natal is located in the south-east of South Africa bordering the Indian Ocean. It also
borders on the Eastern Cape, Free State and Mpumalanga provinces as well as Lesotho, Swaziland
and Mozambique. The “Garden Province” of South Africa stretches from the lush sub-tropical east
coast washed by the warm Indian Ocean, to sweeping savannah in the east and the majestic
Drakensberg mountain range in the west.
It covers an area of 92 100km2, the third-smallest in the country, and has a population of
approximately 10.8 million, making it the second most populous province in South Africa. The capital
is Pietermaritzburg. The largest city is Durban. Other major cities and towns include Richards Bay,
Port Shepstone, Newcastle, Estcourt, Ladysmith and Richmond. According to UNDP report, 13% of
the population live in poverty. Kwazulu-Natal is characterised by high proportion of rural dwellers
and amongst the poorest provinces and the sixth largest of the nine provinces of South Africa.

UNW Research Report KZN Baseline Survey 19th Mar 2013 .pdf

UNW Research Report KZN Baseline Survey 19th Mar 2013 .pdf

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