Modules in Ethics_updated (1).pdf

CITY COLLEGE OF SAN JOSE DEL MONTE
School of Education, Arts, and Sciences
Semester 1. Academic Year 2022-2023
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MODULES IN ETHICS
(GE 8)
Name: Semester / S.Y.:
Course: Section:
The module is one of the requirements of GE 8 – Ethics. Hence, students are required to
submit the material(s) with complete answers in partial fulfillment of the course. More
so, it is one’s obligation/responsibility to read the syllabus and/or the course delivery plan
to keep up with the unit or topic intended for each week to follow the course calendar
accordingly.
Please sign on the designated space below if you fully understand the ideas provided.
____________________________
Signature over printed name
(Student)
Date received: ____________________
Date completed / submitted: ____________________
Checked and Received by:
__________________________________
MR. ORLINO D. RABAGO JR.
Professor

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COURSE OUTLINE
Chapter 1 Basic concept of Morality
Unit 1. Moral and Nonmoral standards
Unit 2. Foundation of Morality
Chapter 2 The Moral Agent
Unit 1. Culture and Moral Behavior
Unit 2. Cultural Relativism
Unit 3. The Moral Agent: Developing virtue as habit
Unit 4. Stages of Moral Development
Chapter 3. The Act
Unit 1. Feelings and moral decision making
Unit 2. Reason and impartiality
Unit 3. Moral Courage
Chapter 4. Moral disposition Framework
Unit 1. Virtue Ethics
Unit 2. Kant and Rights theorist
Unit 3. Utilitarianism
Unit 4. Justice and Fairness
Unit 5. State and Citizen: Taxation
Chapter 5. Modern Issues (Ethics through Thick and Thin,
and Ethics & Religion)
Unit 1. Globalization and Pluralism
Unit 2. Challenges of FIllinials
Unit 3. Religion and Ethics

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Module 1
Introductory Activity on Rules
Student Activity: Class discussion (reflect on the following questions and answer them)
1. What are rules?
2. What rules do you find constricting?
3. Why are there rules?
Unit 1. Why should we follow rules?
Rules are created to have a society that is regulated. Not having rules to follow will make our
society chaotic and everybody would do whatever it is that they want to do. For instance, if there are no
traffic rules, there will be no order in our streets and all can go their way. This may lead to accidents and
we may not be able to come to our destination.
Rules are also created to maintain uniformity and facilitate smooth working society. The simple
wearing of IDs and uniform is essential in the security of the students and the entire school. This ensures
that only those who are concerned are inside the school premises. On the other hand, student will just
focus on their uniform if there is no regulation on maintaining their grades. Thus, rules are important
and must be followed to maintain smooth regulation and smooth interpersonal relationship, making way
to equality.
For us to live harmoniously, there is always a tradeoff between our rights and our responsibility.
Since we have an inherited freedom, it allows us to do whatever we want to do. However, our freedom
is incomplete, since if we have complete or absolute freedom it is a possibility that we will get in the way
of the freedom of others.
To appreciate freedom, imagine yourself living in a world without freedom, where you cannot
decide for yourself. Where you cannot eat whenever you are hungry. You may want to become a doctor,
but someone decided that you become a farmer. Imagine you wanted to marry someone but you were
not allowed. Imagine not being able to choose your religion. Not having the freedom to say what we
want to say and the government stopping us another kind of freedom to imagine not having. These are
circumstances where freedom would be essential. Freedom is a matter of life and death.
Having said the following, freedom is essential, but it is necessary to have limitations over it.
Order in different systems is necessary for proper implementation and organized system of
procedures.
Individual Activity:
1. Examine the present rules and regulations in your school.
2. Identify 10 important rules and regulations.
3. Which of the following is considered as essential? Which are not?
4. What would happen if any of the rules were removed?
5. Give the advantages and disadvantages of having these rules?
6. If you are the school administration, what policy or rule would you include, and which
would you remove?

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Assessment:
Recitation: Find out if students recall and understand the nature of rules and why they are
important.
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Meta-Cognitive Report
Name_________________________________ Section____________________
Readings: Are uniforms really needed in Schools
https://opinionfront.com/facts-against-school-uniforms
There is an ongoing debate on the need of uniforms in school. Proponents and opponents, both have
valid points to back their claims on this contentious issue.
1. (3) Things that I significantly learned from the readings
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2. (3) Things that are still unclear to me
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3. I used to think that….
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4. (3) questions that I want to ask about the readings
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Unit 2. What is Ethics?
The term Ethics is often referred to a set of standards of right and wrong established by a group and imposed
on members of that group as a means of regulating and setting of limits on their behavior.
There are two subdivisions of ethics. Theoretical ethics is concerned with appraising the logical foundations
and internal consistencies of ethical systems. Normative ethics are practical guidelines or norms regarding which
actions are right and which are wrong
Theoretical ethics studies why we should act and feel a certain way while normative ethics tells us how we
should act situations.
Determinism claims that all events, including human actions are caused by previous events (predetermined)
and that free will is an illusion. If there is no free will, then of course, there is no such thing as moral responsibility.
Ethical Subjectivism states that what is morally right and wrong is simply a matter of opinion. What may be
right for you may be wrong for others depending on our respective feelings. Ethical subjectivism is not an ethics
of tolerance for individual difference. Tolerance is a universal moral principle and ethical subjectivists reject the
existence of universal moral principles. Ethical subjectivism is not the same as observing that people disagree on
moral issues. The existence of disagreement, does not imply that there is no objective truth.
Cultural Relativism
It is the metaethical theory that morals standards and values are created by groups of people or cultures and
that morality is nothing more than socially approved customs. This is not the same as excusing a behavior or
tolerance for multicultural diversity.
The divine command theory states that an act is moral because God commands it.
Natural Law states that morality is autonomous; that is, it is independent of religion and God’s commands.
Aquinas has had four types of laws:
1. Eternal law is the uncreated reason of God that guides the universe as it moves toward a goal or end.
2. Divine law directs human and other creatures to their supernatural end, which consists of a vision of God
and eternal blessedness.
3. Natural law or moral law is the special way that rational creatures such as humans, participate in eternal
law and are thereby directed toward their earthly happiness.
4. Human law is at the bottom, like legislation and cultural norms.
Conscience provide knowledge about right and wrong, motivates us to do what is right and demands that we
act in accord with it. There are three main forces that shape our conscience; heredity, learning or environmental
factors and conscious moral direction. Conscience involves both moral sentiments and reason.
Lawrence Kohlberg identifies three levels of moral development, each having two stages.
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory. An action is right or wrong depending on the consequences of that
action. The happiness of the community is the proper goal of our actions. The principle of utility also known as
the greatest happiness principles states that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness,
wrong as they tend to produce reverse of happiness. Happiness is identified with pleasure, unhappiness with pain.
The only intrinsic good is pleasure.
John Stuart Mill claimed that the pleasures of being human are of superior quality to the pleasures of being
non-human or animal; because the pleasure of the intellect are superior to the pleasures of the body. Mill believes
that protecting people’s autonomy or liberty rights is the best way of maximizing happiness in a society. Mill’s “no
harm” principle, also known as non-maleficence, prohibits individuals and governments from interfering with
someone’s actions except to prevent harm.
Deontology is a popular approach which believes that for an action to have amoral worth, it must be done
from the sense of duty.
Immanuel Kant wanted to establish a groundwork or foundation for morality that would explain why we ought
to behave morally. He claimed that reason provides the foundation of morality. A hypothetical imperative tells us
that we ought to do something if we want to achieve a certain result. A categorical imperative state that we ought

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to do something regardless of the consequences. Kant’s categorical imperative states that we should be willing to
universalize moral maxims and that we should never treat a person only to an end.
Virtue ethics emphasizes character or right being over right action. A virtue is an admirable character trait
or disposition to act in a manner that benefits oneself and others. A vice is a character trait or disposition to act
in a manner that harms oneself and others. Virtue is essential to the achievement of Eudaimonia or psychological
well-being and inner harmony.
Aristotle divides the human psyche into the rational and non-rational elements. In a virtuous person,
reason oversees the non-rational elements. Therefore, wisdom is the greatest virtue and ignorance is the greatest
vice.
Aquinas regarded reason as the most important human faculty. However, he thought that we could not
be virtuous without God’s help. Therefore, faith is the greatest virtue and pride is the greatest vice. The doctrine
of the means states that virtue in general, entails moderation or seeking the middle path.
Student Activity: Essay
The Importance of Studying Ethics and its implication in my course.
Unit 3. Moral and Non-Moral Standards
What distinguishes moral from non-moral issue?
Case: A manufacturer of vehicle parts were contracted by military to design, test and manufacture
aircraft brakes. A specification was determined for the aircraft brakes. An external auditor was
contracted to check if specifications are met and write a report for it. Unfortunately, the specification
was not met and did not comply with the specification. The Officers wanted the auditor to falsify the
test data and the reports.
If you are the external auditor, what should you have done?
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Student Activity: Consider the following situations and determine whether the statement is moral or
non-moral
1. Eating while you are having a class.
2. Throwing a garbage in a trash bin.
3. Picking up the balls after the try out.
4. Using you right hand when opening a door.
5. Praying before taking a bath.
6. Removing your shoes while entering the house.
7. Turning the plate around when someone dining is leaving.
8. Returning the cap to the bottle.
9. Wearing black during wake.
10. Waking up a person who is snoring.

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Moral or Non-moral
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Unit 4. Moral vs Non-Moral Standards
Moral standards are norms of actions believed to be right or wrong. These are set of rules accepted by
the society. These standards are values placed on the kinds of objects believed to be good and bad. Something
may be considered as moral depending on what the society says which includes family, friends, school, music,
television and even the social media.
Moral standards involved serious injuries or benefits, like theft, rape, murder, child abuse, assault, fraud,
slander etc. It is moral standards if it is not established by law or legislation. Moral standards rest on the adequacy
of the reasons that are taken to support and justify them. Moral standards are preferred to other interest like if a
person has a moral obligation to do something like telling the truth or do something good for others even if it
conflicts with other non-moral values or self-interest.
Moral standards are based on impartial considerations. If it does not evaluate the interest of an individual
or group. This is based on a universal standpoint in which everyone’s interest is impartially counted as equal. This
is associated with special emotions and a special vocabulary. This means that if you act contrary to a moral
standard you will normally feel guilty, ashamed or remorseful or feels bad about yourself.
Non-moral actions or events are areas of interest where moral categories cannot be applied. For example,
wondering whether one should eat santol, wear a tie of a specific shade of color, or part your hair on the left side
of the head are all usually considered non-moral issues. Yet there are circumstances where such actions could
have moral consequences. But, statements in the sciences (so-called "factual statements") are about nonmoral
issues as well.
Immoral actions or events are those areas of interest where moral categories do apply and such as kind
as to be evil, sinful, or wrong according to some code or theory of ethics. An immoral action then can be defined
as a violation of a rule or code of ethics like telling a lie. Any action could be considered immoral based on one
rule, code, or theory.
On the other hand, to be considered moral or even nonmoral on another rule, code, or theory. Such
examples are common from the point of view of sociological or moral relativism. Though most persons do not
clearly distinguish between morals (descriptive ethics) and ethics (prescriptive ethics), the foregoing is a
compelling reason to do so.
Amoral actions are those areas of interest exhibiting indifference to and not abiding by the moral rules or
codes of society. What may be considered an amoral action by one person could be considered nonmoral (or even
immoral) by a specific society, depending upon the moral code of the society.
If a person tells a lie without concern for the moral concepts of a society of what is good and bad, then he
has acted amorally. We must notice how such a view makes the use of "amoral" intentional. For example,
a sociopath, sometimes called a person without a conscience, and a very young child are called "amoral" because
such people have no feeling or understanding of the concepts of right and wrong.
If a person tells a lie without concern for the moral rules of society and it is a "white" lie and "white" lies
are permissible in that society, then he is acting amorally. Nevertheless, the action is by the rules of that society

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nonmoral or morally permissible. The "white" lie told in a society where such actions are against the moral code
would be considered an immoral action and would be called "wrong."
It should be noted that "amoral" is sometimes used in ordinary language in the same way that "nonmoral"
is used. Many dictionaries indicate the terms are synonymous. E.g., the American Heritage Dictionary (4th ed.
2000) defines "unmoral" as "1. Having no moral quality; amoral. 2. Unrelated to moral or ethical considerations;
nonmoral." In this course, based on the reasons stated above, the distinction between "amoral" and "nonmoral"
is observed.
To summarize "Amoral" in dictionaries is sometimes defined with reference to value-free situations
(neither moral nor immoral). This definition of "amoral" makes it a synonym of "nonmoral." For example, physics
would be an amoral discipline in this sense of the term. Nevertheless, in this course we will not follow this ordinary
language practice. Instead, we will mark a theoretical difference between the two terms as described above.
"Amoral" is also used (in philosophy) in contrast to nonmoral and immoral. Amoral actions would include
nonintentional (but not necessarily unintentional) actions. "Nonmoral" actions would be those actions where
moral categories (such a right and wrong) cannot be applied (such as matters of fact in scientific descriptions). A
nonintentional action such as reflex or an accident would be ordinarily a nonmoral action.
An unintentional action resulting from ignorance is sometimes called "nonmoral" and other times called
"immoral" depending upon the code of the society as to whether a person is morally responsible for knowledge.
From this point of view, amoral actions would be without concern or intention as to moral consequences.
Taking a sip of water can be described as nonmoral as well as amoral in the usual dictionary definitions.
Nevertheless, in this course of study we term such an action "nonmoral." If, however, the water sipped contains
a poison and the subject intentionally sips it with indifference to the wrongness of suicide, then the action would
not be described as nonmoral but would be properly called amoral.
Student Activity: Case of the Samurai
A business man decided to surprise his wife with a gift that is intended to be placed in board of their
bed. He thought it would be nice to place a samurai on it, so he decided to buy one. In time with their
anniversary, he wanted to surprise her wife and went home earlier than usual. He thought her wife is
still away from home and he wanted to place his gift before she comes home. He entered their house
and went straight to their bedroom bringing with him his samurai gift. To his surprise his wife was there,
on top of another man having sexual intercourse. He immediately got the samurai and killed his wife.
What would be his moral obligation to his wife?
Would his action be considered moral or non-moral and why?
What would make his action moral or non-moral?
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Student Activities: List of Basketball Rules
1. Get a copy of basketball rules.
2. Identify which rules are considered as moral and non-moral
3. What makes them moral and non-moral?
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Name_________________________________ Section____________________
Film Viewing: Alive
The movie is a 1993 American biographical survival drama film based on Piers Paul Read’s 1974 book
Alive: The story of the Andes
1. (3) Things that I significantly learned from the movie
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Philosophy literally means love of wisdom. It comes from the Greek words. Philia - meaning love or
friendship and Sophia - meaning wisdom. Is concerned with three areas
1. epistemology – study of knowledge
2. metaphysics – the study of the nature of reality
3. ethics – the study of morality
Metaphysics
The study of what exists, the nature of what exists, cause and effect, freedom, and determinism (the
doctrine or belief that everything, including every human act, is caused by something that there is no real free
will
The study of morality, good, bad, right, wrong, human conduct and behavior in a moral sense, and moral
issues. What are morals? It may be define good, right, and wrong. Goodness – decency, kindness, honesty,
integrity, righteousness. Right – correct, true, accurate, exact, precise. Wrong – incorrect, mistaken, erroneous,
not right, immoral, dishonest, unethical.
The Argument that we should not use people as means. It is wrong to use people as means to other
people’s ends. The Argument from wrongness of Killing
Amorality is having no moral sense or being indifferent to right and wrong. The immoral person
knowingly violates human moral standards, the amoral person may also violate moral standards because he or
she has no moral sense.
Two approaches to the study of morality. The scientific, or Descriptive, approach is used in the social
sciences, and is concerned with how human beings do, in fact, behave. The Philosophical approach is divided
into two parts
a. Normative or prescriptive Ethics – deals with norms or standards

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b. Meta-ethics or Analytical Ethics – this approach is analytical in two ways (meta- means go beyond).
This analyzes language, the rational foundations of ethical systems, or the logic and reasoning of various
ethicists.
The Philosophical approach is divided into two parts
a. Normative or prescriptive Ethics – deals with norms or standards
b. Meta-ethics, or Analytical Ethics – Looks at the logic of ethical Theorists
There are four aspects related to Morality
1. Religious Morality – is concerned with human beings in relationship to supernatural beings (aka..theists).
2. Morality and nature – concerned with human beings in relationship to nature.
3. Individual morality – concerned with human beings in relation to themselves.
4. Social morality – noted as the most important aspect of morality is concerned with human beings in
relation to other human beings
Where does morality come from?
Objective – that is outside of human beings.
Subjective – strictly within human beings
Or is morality a combination of the two?
There are 3 ways of looking at values when they are taken as being totally objective
They come from Supernatural Beings
There are moral laws somehow embedded within nature itself
The world and objects in it have value with or without the presence of valuing human beings.
The Super natural theories are the belief that values come from some higher supernatural being, or beings,
or principle – the Good (Plato); the gods (the Greeks and Romans); Yahweh or God (Jews); God and His son Jesus
Christ (The Christians); Allah (the Muslims); and Brahma (the Hindus), just to name a few. Think 10
Commandments or the Five Pillars of Islam.
This was criticized by people. Albert Einstein – said “I do not believe in morality of the individual, and I consider
ethics to be an exclusively human concern with no superhuman authority behind it.” It’s possible that supernatural
exists, and this belief is based on faith, with no conclusive proof of the existence of a supernatural being, or
principle. Which of the values from which of these supernatural beings do we use, since there are a variety in
many parts of the world? People are not saying that we should stop searching for truth from these sources, but it
does mean that it is difficult to establish with any certainty that morality comes from this source or sources.
While the natural law believes that morality somehow is embodied in nature that there are “natural laws.”
Tomas Aquinas argued for this Natural Law theory was also central to the ethical theory of Immanuel Kant. Some
hold the theory that values are totally subjective: that morality and values reside strictly within human beings and
that there are no values or morality outside of them. Others believe that the world and the objects in it embody
values whether or not there are any human beings around to perceive and appreciate them.
Values are both subjective and objective, determined by three variables.
1. The first variable is the thing of value, or the thing valued (a car).
2. The second is a conscious being who values, the valuer (the auto-body repairman).
3. The context or situation in which the valuing takes place (on the street, in the showroom, at a car show).
Where does morality come from?
Values, then, would seem to come, most often from a complex interaction between conscious human beings
and “things” in specific contexts. By looking at the origins of the human being and social groups, we can see that
complex interaction start to evolve. As we look at that process we will see that morality has risen largely from
human needs and desires and that it is based upon human emotion and reason.
Morality is not necessarily based on law

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There is a relationship because much of our morality has become embodied in our legal codes. Where do
morality and legality part, when is acting illegally moral?
Difference between morality and law
1. Morality provides the basic reasons for any significant laws
2. But even if laws were abolished tomorrow. Most people would not go out and steal, rape, and kill people
3. Law needs morality just as morality needs law
4. Law is a public expression of a society that provides sanctions for social morality
Morality and Religion
Morality need not and should not be based solely on religion alone for the following reasons. It is difficult
to prove conclusively the existence of a supernatural being. Religious people can be immoral, and nonreligious
people can be moral too. It is difficult to provide a rational foundation for religion, which makes it difficult to
provide such a foundation for morality. If religion were to be the foundation of morality, which religion would
provide this foundation and who would decide?
Why should we be moral?
The question focuses not on one individual. But on why human beings (as a whole) should be moral? Various
reasons for why have been posited;
1. Because a supernatural being said we should be moral
2. Enlightened self-interest.
3. To know yourself better
4. Tradition and Law have been given as a reason to be moral
Adhering to morals enables human beings to live their lives peacefully, happily, creatively and meaningfully
as possible. It’s easy to see that if we want to be free from the fear of being mutilated, stolen from, lied to, cheated,
severely restricted or imprisoned we need morals for our society. Not just the individual, but our society!
Student Activity: Identify whether the following are moral or non-moral.
Tick the appropriate circle
Situation Moral Non-moral
1. Placing of curtain in the windows
2. Parking on a non-parking zone
3. Removing of slippers when entering the room
4. Washing of hands before shaking hands with friends
5. Painting the car black
6. Leaving your dog unattended
7. Sorting your dress based on colors
8. Eating avocado at night
9. Wearing black on a summer day
10. Intentionally blocking the door
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Unit 6. Moral Dilemma
Vignette
Theresa Ann Campo Pearson, an infant known to the public as “Baby Theresa,” was born in
Florida in 1992. Baby Theresa had anencephaly, one of the worst genetic disorders.
Anencephalic infants are sometimes referred to as “babies without brains,” but that is not
quite accurate. Important parts of the brain— the cerebrum and cerebellum—are missing, as
is the top of the skull. The brain stem, however, is still there, and so the baby can still breathe
and possess a heartbeat. In the United States, most cases of anencephaly are detected during
pregnancy, and the fetuses are usually aborted. Of those not aborted, half are stillborn. About
350 are born alive each year, and they usually die within days. Baby Theresa’s story is
remarkable only because her parents made an unusual request. Knowing that their baby would
die soon and could never be conscious, Theresa’s parents volunteered her organs for
immediate transplant. They thought her kidneys, liver, heart, lungs, and eyes should go to
other children who could benefit from them. Her physicians agreed. Thousands of infants need
transplants each year, and there are never enough organs available. But Theresa’s organs were
not taken, because Florida law forbids the removal of organs until the donor is dead. By the
time Baby Theresa died, nine days later, it was too late—her organs had deteriorated too much
to be harvested and transplanted.
To read more of the case follow the link
Ref: http://people.brandeis.edu/~teuber/philtheresa.html
Student Activity:
1. Were the parents right or wrong to volunteer their baby’s organs for transplant?
2. What reasons, or arguments, can be given on each side?
3. What can be said to justify the parents’ request or to justify opposing their request?
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Dilemma
A moral dilemma arises when a person must make a decision that may inadvertently go against a personal
view. This may be a situation that questions what a person would do to a temporary situation which may have a
long-term impact. This usually does not give you a lot of time to think for its immediacy, but a choice must be
made.
You will know when you are trapped in a moral dilemma when you are faced with two or more possible
responses, of which you can do. When the choices are both morally correct and that you must choose one, or you
cannot perform all of the possible actions but have to choose which of the said actions to perform. And since the
choices that you have, have moral implications you cannot choose all. This follows that no matter what you
selected as your action will make you compromise a moral standard. In short, there will always be someone or
something that will suffer no matter which course of action you select.
One dilemma put forward is usually happening when there is a hostage crisis. When the hostage takers
would say they would kill one and let others be free. The question is, is it right to save many people and kill one?
There has been a long debate on the said because it is a situation that is contrary to the morality of murder and
salvation.
Moral dilemmas are ever where, it is found in workplace especially those that involves lives, like military,
doctors, drivers etc. These people are in a way handling the lives of others and or determines if people shall live
or not on a regular basis whether intentional or unintentional. Nevertheless, moral dilemmas are also found at
lesser degrees in the schools where students will have to choose one from another that may question their moral
actions.
We must note that moral choices are temporary, these are fluid and changeable. That the problem may
only occur if the person must repeatedly make a choice. Again, moral dilemma is a situation where one
experiences internal conflict when one has to choose between a set of actions and have moral reasons for these
actions. This is a situation in which you cannot find any action you choose to be right and wrong at the same time
and find it difficult to choose.
What if you found out that a thief is stealing the money of a very rich drug lord, so he can feed his family.
How would you react? You know that stealing is wrong and that you can rattle him out. But you know that he
stole the money from a bad person and that this person is greedy. And that not stealing from him will not make
him very poor. And what he may be doing may not really make him that rich. That he is just doing it for his family.
If you are in this situation, how would you react and decide on the choice that each of the character might make.
It cannot also be taken for granted that a moral dilemma can be a conflict between what a person wants
and what a person thinks he should do. This goes back to a famous question on who you should save when your
mother and you wife is drowning. So, who should you save?
Student Activity: Study the following dilemma and discuss your justification with your answers
1. The Mining Crew. Gregorio is part of a four-person mining expedition. The four of them are trapped in
the mine. One of the crew got injured and he will die without medical attention. Greg were able to
contact the rescue team and learned it will be 36 hours before the first drill can reach the place they
are trapped in. Greg calculated that they have just enough oxygen for three people to survive for 36
hours, but not enough for four people. One must be sacrificed for them to survive. What should Greg
do to save the majority if not all of them?
2. Antonio is a doctor. One of his patients, was diagnosed with HIV. He is about to receive a blood
transfusion prior to being released from the hospital. He has told Ken, in the confidence of their doctor-
patient relationship, that after he gets his transfusion, and his medicine from Ken, he intends to infect
as many people as possible with HIV starting that evening. Anton is bound by doctor-patient

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confidentiality, there is no legal way to stop this man from carrying out his plan. Anton even warned
the police, but they would not be able to arrest him, since his medical information is protected. What
would you do if you are Anton?
3. Rudy is on board a ship, when suddenly there is a fire on board, and the ship must be abandoned. The
lifeboats are carrying many more people than they were designed to carry. The lifeboat he’s in is sitting
dangerously low in the water – a few inches lower and it will sink. The seas start to get rough, and the
boat begins to fill with water. A group of old people are in the water and ask Rudy to throw them a
rope, so they can come aboard the lifeboat. It seems to Rudy that the boat will sink if it takes on any
more passengers. Should Rudy refuse to throw the rope to save himself and the other lifeboat
passengers?
Rationalization:
1. ___________________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________________
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2. ___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
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3. ___________________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________________
Freedom as Foundation for Moral Acts
Student Activity: The Boy Atheist
A fifteen-year-old boy became an atheist because he did not believe anymore that God existed. He was sad
that life was meaningless, and that death would mean the end of him forever. For a while, he was consoled by
the thought that because there was no God, there also was no moral law and he could do anything he wanted.
The ironic thing he discovered was that nothing seemed to be worth doing anymore.
Write for a few minutes on what you think of this teen’s experience.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
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Student Activity: Answer the following:
1. What is true freedom?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the difference between freedom of indifference and freedom of excellence?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
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3. What is the relationship between moral action and freedom?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
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Unit 7. Freedom of Action
Morality can only be meaningful when people are able to act freely and voluntarily. When one is devoid
of freedom based on their choices doing morally good does not make sense. To say that an act is morally good or
not, one must freely choose the act. If it is not a product of choice, then if would be difficult to judge the action.
One thing that makes us different from animal is our capacity to think. That also makes us different from robots
that are now being introduced as part of our daily activities. But robots do not think and therefore cannot think
freely and make own decision. Since they cannot act freely they are not responsible for their own action. Actions
can only be judged as morally good or right if the actor has control over his action, if he acts on his own volition.
But since humans has the capacity of choice he must be responsible for his actions in a world governed by laws
on hereditary and environmental factors.
To illustrate, let us consider the security guards in a bank who were charged with negligence after
preventing a bank robbery. They came up in defense saying that the robbers came in so fast, that they were unable
to get their ammunition. The robbers have accomplices inside the bank, who distracted them that made moving
in of the robbers easy. The guard stated that they were doing the routines but were unable to prepare for the
inside man. The robbers threatened to kill then and then tied them and placed them inside the stockroom. They
were not able to call for help because they were secluded. They said that they tried everything in their capacity
to prevent the robbery, but they were helpless.
If the guards did all the precautionary measures, it would not be fair to hold them responsible for the
robbery. The blame could not be pinned on them because under the circumstances, they have no power to ignore
the threat they are at. They could not do what a security guard could have done if they have seen it coming. They
did not have the freedom to act since they were secluded.

16
Student Activity:
1. Cite a situation when you are unable to do what you wanted to do
2. Recall the reason why you were prevented from doing such
a. I wanted to play _______________________________________ but
____________________________________________________________.
b. I would have love to see the movie
_______________________________________last night but
_________________________________________________.
c. I would like to eat ______________________________________ but
____________________________________________________________.
d. I wanted to buy ________________________________________ but
____________________________________________________________.
e. I tried to ______________________________________________ but
____________________________________________________________.
Student Activity:
Burumchara, Bangladesh – Mubarra Khatum is too poor to own a radio, so he had no warning last
week that a cyclone would rip through his small town, destroying his home and wiping out his family.
By the time he and his wife realized how high the tide had risen, they had no way to escape except by
climbing onto their roof. But as the water surged, the roof gave way under their weight, dumping Mr. Khatum,
his wife and three sons into the current.
His wife clutching their 18 month old son, was quickly swept away. The two other boys, 3 and 5, clung
to Mr. Khatum’s neck.
“They were holding me so tightly I could not breath,” he said, choking back tears. “Finally, I had to
remove their hands so I could live.”
“Oh God,” he wailed, “I killed my own sons, I killed my own sons”
Mr. Khatum, a salt merchant, survived by wrapping his legs around a coconut tree.
If you are in the position of Mr. Khatum, what should you have done?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
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17
Unit 8. Freedom of choice
Student Reading: Mistaken Identity
A special police group was instructed to do the raid in a place. The intelligence was conclusive
that in a house, the drug operators were manufacturing and packing the drugs. They have been assured
of the place and what time to do the operation. The instruction was to eliminate everyone inside the
house. When they got to the place, they did as instructed; killing everyone inside the house.
The following day the police learned that those inside the house were innocent farmers who
were just asked to sleep over the house to guard it. The police said that should they have known, they
should have disregarded the instruction.
This case shows the additional component of freedom. Since the police were given wrong
information about what they were doing, they have no absolute freedom on what to do. There were no
chance to decide given the situation since they were misled by information which they thought were
accurate. In most cases our freedom to choose is hindered by inaccurate or misleading information.
Activity Reading: Brothers playing to death
Two brothers were playing around. One is 6-year-old and the other is 3-year-old. While playing, the 6-
year-old boy carried his brother holding his younger brother upside down and accidentally broke the
neck of his younger brother. This caused the death of the younger boy. Will the 6-year-old boy be
responsible for his action? Who is to blame? What is the extent of his responsibility?
Freedom of choice also means consideration of the mental capacity. If a person lacks the capacity
to decide then he may not be considered responsible for all his actions. Like for example, children who
cannot fully understand the consequences of their actions may not be responsible for their actions,
hence they have no moral responsibilities for what they do. The appreciation of once action is necessary
to cover responsibility. This also means that a person with intellectual disabilities (formerly called mental
retardation) may not be responsible for their actions and therefore should always be guided by
guardians. That is why in the Philippines, minors are not imprisoned and are not held liable for their
actions, but they are placed in an institution who could help them be guided in their social roles. Children
or persons with mental disabilities and other psychological limitations are not held responsible for their
choices for they lack maturity to decide or judge the moral significance of their actions.
However, freedom of choice can be reversed and even reduced by compulsive forces or undue
influence. For example, a teen-ager who is influenced by his parents via persuasion or pressure to commit
an immoral or illegal action should not be held responsible for their actions.
There are two components of human agency. One is the freedom to choose and the other is the
freedom to act. The freedom to choose indicates will and personal choice or own volition. Freedom to
act involves power and capacity that corresponds to action. We should understand that choice and
actions are two crucial components of human agencies.

18
Student reading: I unintentionally killed my son
Father and son were playing and horsing around. While the father is carrying his son on his
shoulder, he suddenly slipped off making him imbalanced. This resulted to the falling of his son which
resulted to his son’s death.
1. Is the father responsible for the death of his son even if it is unintentional?
2. Who or what should be blame for the circumstance?
3. What is the degree of the responsibility?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Name_________________________________ Section____________________
Film Viewing: The Purge
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19
Module 2. The Moral Agent
Unit 1. Culture and Moral Behavior
"Culture is the sum of all the forms of art, of love, and of thought, which, in the course of centuries, have
enabled man to be less enslaved." ~ Andre Malraux
Vignette: Pakidala o pasalubong
A family in the Philippines was puzzled when the coffin of their deceased mother arrived from the US sent
by their sister. The tiny corpse was jammed so tightly into the box that their mother’s face was flattened against
the glass lid. When the family opened the coffin, they found a letter pinned to their mother’s chest.
Dearest Brothers and Sisters,
I am sending you our mother’s remains for burial there. Sorry I could not come along as the expenses
were so high.
You will find under Mama’s body 12 cans of Libby’s corned beef and 12 cans spam. Just divide these
among yourselves. On Mama’s feet is a brand-new pair of Reeboks (size 8 for Junior). There are four pairs of
Reeboks under Mama’s head for Miloy’s sons. Mama is wearing six Ralph Lauren T-shirt, one for Manong Roy and
the rest for my nephews. Mama is wearing one dozen Wonder Bras and two dozens Victoria’s Secret panties to be
distributed among my nieces and cousins. Mama is also wearing eight pairs of Dockers pants. Kuya, Diko, please
take one each and give the rest to your boys. The swiss watch Ate Asked for is on Mama’s left wrist. Auntie Sol,
Mama is wearing the earrings, ring and necklace you asked for. The six pairs of Chanel stockings that Mama is
also wearing are for the teen age girls. I hope they like the color.
Your loving Sister,
Nene
Ref: Malaya, May 7, 2002 by Dahli Aspillera
Student Activity: Lessons learned from the Pakidala o pasalubong
1. What motivated the sister Nene to include packages in the corpse?
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. What is the cultural implication of such action?
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. What value system operates on this situation?
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
4. Is this action absurd or practical? Why?
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
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20
Culture’s Influences to Moral Behavior
What invisibly ties people is their culture. This refers to the pattern of human activity. The art, literature,
language, and religion of a community represent its culture. Our cultural values and beliefs manifest themselves
through our lifestyle. Our moral values represent our culture. The importance of culture lies in its close
association with the ways of thinking and living. Differences in cultures have led to a diversity in the people from
different parts of the world.
The development of our attitude is related to culture and how we approach our lives is influenced by our
cultural values. Behaviorist have defined culture as the ultimate system of control where people screen their
norms. Our cultural values serve as the founding principles of our life. They shape our thinking, behavior, and
personality.
As the famous saying goes “Culture affects perception, it influences our behavior, it shapes our
personality”. Research has shown that our culture does play a role in the way our brain processes information and
reacts to stimuli. Culture affects perception, and perceptions drive behavior. That's one reason why culture is so
important. Whatever culture we belong to or associated with has a direct impact on our behavior. Our behavior
is shaped by our environment which has a cultural influence.
In the Philippines and other Asian countries, males are discouraged from crying and it is an odd gesture.
We have been thought to respect the elders and giving them away to nursing institution is a taboo. We have been
educated to respect religious objects and so we do. So, if the values of a certain culture do not teach men to
respect women, it will naturally reflect in their behavior. Like some beliefs that women are of weaker sex and that
they are incapable of facing tough dilemma. This implies that what culture teaches us affects the way we socially
interact. While some person in other culture are found to be more open in communicating even if to some
strangers, some are not. The difference between ideologies their cultures have, are thus evident in their social
behavior.
People’s expectations from us define our culture, we shape our behavior and personality to suit the
cultural expectations. Our religion, traditions, customs, are all part of our culture and play a major role in shaping
our personalities. We conceive things depending on how we learned to react to situation as dictated by our
culture- these are closely linked to our cultural values. It is also noted that our education and our nature play an
important role in the development of our personality. Thus, it is not surprising that people who were brought in
the same culture are often found to share certain personality traits.
Our value system also greatly influences our personalities. Thus, we Filipinos are taught to be collective in
our decisions and actions. We all based our decisions on what the family decides and follow a patriarchal system.
Filipino children are dependent to parents and we see the superiority of a father figure. Thus, it is not surprising
that it is deeply inculcated in us the idea that boys and girls are not treated equal. Which in this modern world
should not anymore be the belief, since no person is superior that others, for we are created equal. It is also
because of our machismo culture that person with different sexual orientation or the LGBT groups are not as much
as accepted. We may have tolerated them but most parents you ask would not want as much as possible to have
an LGBT child. Again, this belief should NOT anymore be embraced for we are all created by GOD no matter what
orientation we are in.
John Rawls suggested that that we may possess an analogous moral capacity that accounts for our
competence in deploying moral rules. James briefly reviews Eliot Turiel's work on the ability of kids to distinguish
between conventional rules, which must be learned, and moral rules, which might come built in. It is said that
children across wide spectrum of background, exhibit the ability to distinguish moral from the conventional rules.
It may also be possible that children learn rules from their environment.
It could be noted that there is a variation of moral development across culture and time. One culture’s
good can be other culture’s evil. Like cannibalism, which has been practiced by several groups in every part of the
globe. Anthropologist Peggy Reeves Sanday has found that 34% of cultures in one cross-historical sample. Blood
sports which may cause killings, were watch by many people with excitement. Killing for pleasure has also been
documented among head hunting cultures in which decapitation is considered as recreation. Many societies
practice extreme form of public torture and humiliation as seen in Europe in the late 17th
century. While other
culture is engaging in painful form of body modification, such as genital infibulation, scarification or even foot
binding -which involves the deliberate and excruciating crippling of girls in China which was practiced for over a
thousand years. The differences are not limited to this but is also paralleled in attitudes towards sex and marriage.
Anthropologist has found out that over 80% permit polygamy, arranged marriage and early marriage.

21
If there are differences on morals among culture, there are also similarities. Cultures would not last long
if there is the promotion of attacks among neighbors or discouragement of procreation. However, there are also
groups, who may have prohibit attacking the next hut but encourages attack on the other village. Some
encourages selective infanticide, use of corporal punishment and physical labor or sexual slavery. These difference
and similarities are demanding explanation. If morality is objective should we also have consensus are people.
A possible theory that we can account for is the five-foundations theory of Jonathan Haidt, that aims to
account for the dimension of the differences in morality and helps explain cross-cultural regularities in moral
judgment as well as moral disagreement. However, this does not try to establish a natural capacity to correct
judgment. The idea that morality is culturally-conditioned response implies moral relativism. Prinz tries to clear
up what he sees as misconception about moral relativism. People often resist relativism because of the thought
that its implication is unacceptable.
As a response to the belief that relativism entails that anything goes. Prinz says that relativist concedes
that to promote values, those should be true to those who possessed them. But if we trained our children to be
ruthless killers, they might kill us or get killed. A self-destructive value cannot last.
Another allegation is that relativism entails that anything goes. As a response to this, Prinz says that
relativists concede that if you were to inculcate any given sets of values, those values would be true for those who
have them.
Another accusation is that relativism entails that we have no way to criticize Hitler. As a response, Hitler’s
actions were partially based on false beliefs, rather than values like racism, moral absolutism and the likelihood
of world domination. Hitler’s values were not that his values were false, but they are pernicious. Relativism does
not entail that we tolerate tyranny or murder, because we have the moral obligation to protect ourselves.
Another assertion is that relativism demands that moral debates are senseless; since everyone is right. As
a reaction to this misconception, one cannot prevent appealing to moral common ground. Another claim is that
relativism does not allow moral progress. As a reaction to this, we may say that it is partially correct in the sense
that moral values do not become truer; some sets of values are more consistent and more conducive to social
stability.
Student Activity: Filipino Pamahiin
Enumerate several Filipino Pamahiin and cite its implication to moral standards or ethical practices.
Pamahiin
1. ____________________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________________
4. ____________________________________________________________________
5. ____________________________________________________________________
6. ____________________________________________________________________
7. ____________________________________________________________________
8. ____________________________________________________________________
9. ____________________________________________________________________
10. ____________________________________________________________________
Implication
1. ____________________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________________
4. ____________________________________________________________________
5. ____________________________________________________________________

22
6. ____________________________________________________________________
7. ____________________________________________________________________
8. ____________________________________________________________________
9. ____________________________________________________________________
10. ____________________________________________________________________
Student Activity: Cultural Artifacts
Bring any cultural artifacts (objects, food specialty, artworks, etc.) especially from your region and
state its significance in you culture and practices.
1. Describe the origin of the artifact.
2. Explain its significance to one’s culture.
3. How does this artifact influence how you behave?
Unit 2. Cultural Relativism
Morality differs in every society and is a convenient term for socially approved habits.
Ruth Benedict, PATTERNS OF CULTURE (1934)
Examine the different practices in different countries
1. CZECH REPUBLIC: smacking women with a special whip at Easter. On Easter Monday men go
from house to house lightly whipping the women with braided willow branches called
'pomlázka' ('korbáč' in Slovak) to, apparently, imbue them with fertility
2. NETHERLANDS: congratulating the entire family on someone's birthday. In Dutch tradition, you
congratulate the relatives on someone's birthday, as well as the person whose birthday it is.
And for the birthday party, everyone sits in a giant circle for tea and cake.
3. POLAND: applauding when the plane lands. Nobody seems to know exactly why this is a
characteristic peculiar to Polish people. Maybe it's just because the ground is pretty awesome.
4. JAPAN: Following a giant penis through the streets. The festival of Kanamara Matsuri dates back
to the 17th century. Revellers dress as penises, eat penis-shaped sweets and create giant iron
penises to carry through the streets of Kawasaki. It honours the legend of a woman who had a
demonic toothed vagina that ate men's penises, and it remained undefeated until a metal-
worker built a metal penis that broke the demon's teeth.
5. SCOTLAND: Wearing skirts and reciting poetry once a year. On 25 January people all over
Scotland (and in other parts of the UK) tune up their bagpipes and get gussied up in their finest
tartan to celebrate Burns Night, which commemorates the life of legendary Scots poet Robert
Burns. Festivities include ceilidh (pronounced "kaylee") dancing, and platefuls of haggis (offal
in sheep intestine, in case you were wondering).
6. AUSTRIA: Pulling fingers. In Austria, Fingerhakeln - or competitive finger-pulling - is a serious
sport, with very strict rules. Finger-athletes aim to drag their opponent across the table by just
the finger. Fingerhakeln is also played in Bavaria in Germany.
7. DENMARK: Throwing cinnamon at single people. If, by the time you turn 25, you're unmarried,
you can expect your friends to ambush you with a cinnamon shower all day. That's bad enough,
but if you're still single at 30, they cover you in pepper.
8. GERMANY: following a sock-garland to your birthday party. if you reach 25 without getting
married in Germany, your friends will string a garland of socks from your house to the venue of
your birthday, and every few socks you'll be encouraged to have an alcoholic drink.

23
9. RUSSIA: having a sit-down before leaving on a trip. Whether it's a family excursion or just one
person's journey, entire Russian households will sit down for a few minutes before the trip to
ward against bad luck (also a good idea if you're prone to leaving your keys at home).
10. FRANCE: buying funny hats for your unmarried friends. 25 November is St Catherine's Day in
France, and all unmarried 25-year-old women (or "Catherinettes") are given elaborate green
and yellow hats, which they must wear all day.
Ref:https://www.buzzfeed.com/robynwilder/bizarre-national-customs-from-around-the-
world?utm_term=.ukpwBNgbR#.mwMXMqzRy
What do you think contributed to the differences in the practice?
Name_________________________________ Section____________________
Readings: Cultural Relativism
1. (3) Things that I significantly learned from the selection
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Student Activity: Sharing Diversity
Share into class the different beliefs of your region or country. Do you have similar or contrasting
beliefs? (For instance, have you eaten a dog? Is it morally acceptable to eat one?)
There no such thing as universal truth in ethics; there are only various cultural codes and nothing more. It
challenges the belief in the objectivity and universality of moral truth. There are five propositions as Rachels
espoused that are independent of one another which some of them may be true while others are false. The
following claims have all been made by cultural relativists:
1. Different societies have different moral codes.
2. The moral code of a society determines what is right within that society; that is, if the moral code of a
society says that a certain action is right, then that action is right, at least within that society.

24
3. There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one society’s code as better than another’s. There
are no moral truths that hold for all people always.
4. The moral code of our own society has no special status; it is but one among many.
5. It is arrogant for us to judge other cultures. We should always be tolerant of them.
History tells us that the Greeks believed it was wrong to eat the dead, whereas the Callatians believed it
was right to eat the dead. Which implies, eating the dead is neither objectively right nor objectively wrong. It is
merely a matter of opinion, which varies from culture to culture. Another is that the Eskimos saw nothing wrong
with infanticide, whereas Americans believe infanticide is immoral.
Which implies that, infanticide is neither objectively right nor objectively wrong. It is again merely a matter
of opinion, which varies from culture to culture. Clearly, these arguments are variations of one fundamental idea.
From her we can derive that different cultures have different moral codes. Thus, there is no objective truth in
morality. Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and opinions vary from culture to culture.
Ethics aims at a doctrine that could be universal. However, those who believe that there are universal,
cross-cultural standards for what is right and wrong cannot agree among themselves. People are different from
one another and people of one part of the world often seem very different from other parts of the world.
Philosophers wonder the extent of our differences as due to socialization, conditioning, environment and
education. And how similar are we alike at birth (Blocker, 1999).
The recent sensitivity to cultural relativism and evils of ethnocentrism cause us to rethink our moral
systems. Cultural relativism does not mean that we give up morality (Pojman, 2000). Cultures differ; however,
we must be cautious in condemning the unfamiliar (Pojman, 2000 and Mahler, 2013). Let us look at some different
worldviews and how these shape people’s choices in determining what ought to be moral and why.
Relativism does tell us, however, that we are mistaken when we think we are in possession of the one
true morality. We can try to pursue moral values that lead to more fulfilling lives, but we must bear in mind that
fulfillment is itself relative, so no single set of values can be designated universally fulfilling. The discovery that
relativism is true can help each of us individually by revealing that our values are mutable and parochial. We
should not assume that others share our views, and we should recognize that our views would differ had we lived
in different circumstances. These discoveries may make us more tolerant and more flexible. Relativism does not
entail tolerance or any other moral value, but, once we see that there is no single true morality, we lose one
incentive for trying to impose our values on others.
Name_________________________________ Section____________________
Film Viewing: My Name is Khan (Bollywood)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

25
Cultural Relativism is the belief that ethical system varies from culture to culture. These are all equally
important and that no system is superior than the other. This is based on the idea that there is no ultimate
standard for good and evil. This means that any opinion with regards to morality is subjective based on each
person’s cultural perspective. Thus, there is no one moral or ethical perspective that is absolutely right or wrong.
Pluralism, Tolerance and acceptance are all term associated with cultural relativism. This made it possible
for almost anything to be justified on the grounds of relativism. Like standing on top a tall building, which gives
you a perspective of the view from the top that taken another step may mean your death. This perspective clarifies
in us why certain actions are considered as ethically right or wrong for a particular culture.
For instance, modern women love wearing black choker – usually black lace worn on neck. But would you
still wear it if you have known that it is previously a symbol of prostitute? Most people before would call it strange
or even oppressive, but women today may call in fashion.
What Cultural Relativism have taught us?
We may have seen in previous readings that cultural relativism may have its limitations for there are some
disagreements which may result to your rejection of the theory. But there are several points to consider in dealing
with cultural relativism. It is safe to say that cultural relativism has taught us that there is no absolute standard in
the practices from different cultures.
Some cultural conventions are peculiar to norm. While some group of people find it shocking for family
members to eat the flesh of their dead, but some would consider it as saying that the spirit of the dead dwell in
them. This practice is a product of the culture agreed upon by the members of a group. Similarly, today, we may
say that a woman should not display their breast in public, but we see in tv while watching halftime show of a
super bowl in 2004 we see Justine Timberlake ripping off the costume of Janet Jackson exposing her breast in
front of millions of audiences. Again, in some culture it is more appropriate to for women not to wear upper
garments exposing their breast.
Another more controversial issue that involves cultural relativism is the practices of marriage. In
monogamous marriage, our society dictates in us that the ideal is to fall in love and be married to only one – and
that we are expected to live together faithfully with each other. Columnist Dan Savage advice in his column the
negative consequences of monogamy. He said that it causes boredom, despair, lack of variety, and even sexual
death which results to persons not experiencing happiness which is the goal of marriages. Some practices a more
radical from of marriage which is polyamory, the practice of having a more than one long term partner. But most
people on our society would disapprove this form of deviation.
In understanding relativism, we must keep an open mind. We must understand that there are types of
acceptable behavior that we may find outrageous and some even challenging. Our history would prove that we
have considered homosexuality as immoral that some have developed homophobia or that they feel
uncomfortable being with gays. It is now gradually being engrave in our system that the LGBT people are just like
ordinary human beings, that there is nothing wrong with being gay. Cultural relativism has helped us understand
that they are just people who happens to be attracted with the same sex. This does not make them a lesser human
being.
As exhibited in the film “My name is Khan”, Sharuk Khan was taught that there are only two types of
people. They are not distinguished by race, sex, socio economic status, age or even governmental position. They
are only distinguished as good or bad, nothing else. We may have the belief that what we have been brought up
with is the best culture. Cultural relativism would help us realize that this can broaden our mind.

26
Student Activity: Try to look at these pictures. What do you see?
Do you see an old lady or a young lady? Do you see this as half full or half empty?
In the pictures above, what do you see? We may be looking at the same thing, but we see it differently.
This means that we subjectively interpret an objective stimulus. People see objects in different perspective ang
that we may be interpreting. The interpretation of what we see is based on how we see objects in our own
perspective and no one can say that what we see is wrong, probably how we see it is. Like having to look at it
upside down not knowing it was, may have a different perception.
In the example above, one may see an old lady, and another the young one. Some may see both, but
others may see none. Sometimes you must direct them for them to see what you are pointing out. Sometimes it
is a matter of viewpoint where others may see the glass half empty while others my see it half full. Most of the
time people who are optimistic see the glass half full while the pessimist would see it half empty.
This may imply that we see things based on which lens we are using. If you are using the lens of mother
you may see a situation different, while assuming the lens of a daughter or son, you may also see it in another
perspective. And there is no one correct way of looking at things.
Sometimes societies observe distinct practices, because they find themselves in unique
circumstances or they hold different beliefs about the world (Blocker, 1999). Slavery in the past might
be beneficial to the ruling class; but not to the slaves.
Ethics aims at a doctrine that could be universal. However, those who believe that there are
universal, cross-cultural standards for what is right and wrong cannot agree among themselves. People
are different from one another and people of one part of the world often seem very different from other
parts of the world. Philosophers wonder the extent of our differences as due to socialization,
conditioning, environment and education. And how similar are we alike at birth (Blocker, 1999).
Every society will have its conventions, whether as customs, manners and morals. How can we
justify one set of conventions as opposed to others? In this chapter, we will see the various views about
what is ethical based on different theories. For this chapter, we shall look at the cultural aspects shaping
the moral agent such as their views about the world.
The recent sensitivity to cultural relativism and evils of ethnocentrism cause us to rethink our
moral systems. Cultural relativism does not mean that we give up morality (Pojman, 2000). Cultures
differ, however, we must be cautious in condemning the unfamiliar (Pojman, 2000 and Mahler, 2013).
Let us look at some different worldviews and how these shape people’s choices in determining what
ought to be moral and why.

27
“When in Rome do as the Romans do.” is a version of ethical relativism that considers action as
morally right within a society because they are approved by law, custom or other conventions of a certain
society. There are arguments against this view concerning human rights, public good, duties to respect
people and virtues (Martin and Schinzinger, 2005). The contrasting view is ethical absolutism that asserts
that what is morally true in one situation is acceptable or true everywhere else. This view fails on many
variables and one of them could be justified exceptions.
This unit looks at ethical rationalism or contextualism, terms borrowed from Martin and
Schinzinger (2005). According to this view, moral judgments should be made in relation to factors that
vary from situation to situation that makes it difficult to formulate rules that are simplistic nor absolute.
Moral judgments are contextual in that they are made in relation to comprehensive factors such as
customs of cultures. This is also associated to ethical pluralism, the view that there is more than one
justifiable moral viewpoint. Some interpretations of ethical pluralism are crucial in asserting cultural
diversity with respect to legitimate differences among individuals and groups.
Without abdicating that there are moral truths, principles belonging to core morality, it is reason
that can discover these principles. We are to judge right or wrong based on the best reasoning we can
bring forth, with empathy (Pojman, 2000).
Student Activity: Debate
1. Boys should be required to be circumcised.
2. Girls should NOT be circumcised?
Unit 3. The Filipino way
There is always a way on how we see things. This is dependent on the paradigm that we are looking at.
The way we see things is dependent on how we were raised. This influenced how we view our lives and ho we
view our selves. Many people are claiming that Filipinos have no sense of personal identity since our origins are
from different people practically around the globe. This goes with our culture and our sense of uniqueness.
I still remember when adults used to ask children, me not exempt from it, on what do we want to be when
we grow up. Many parents are telling their children to study so they could get a good job or go abroad. While my
half-Chinese friends are being told to study hard because they will soon be handling the business of their family.
This is two perspectives of two different culture on how we view our future. That is why many Filipinos have
relatives abroad or those living in the provinces have relatives in Manila affecting the mobility of people in the
country. This in way affected our values and what we consider as important or not.
Filipinos are accommodating and very much hospitable. We show our guest the best of what we have. I
remember in our home, whenever there are visitors, they would get the best of what we have. Brand new
porcelain and other kitchen wares is used by the visitors, they will eat the best food and use things that we as
member of the family rarely use. We always get our comfort from food, that we usually eat in practically every
occasion, like wedding, birthdays, graduation, wake and even when an individual is just leaving for abroad. That
we only drink liquor for three reasons. One is when we are happy, two is when we are sad and the third is any
other reasons.
We have also already established our values in the field of work. That we start every activity late or the
Filipino time. This is counterproductive in the sense that it is considered as a waste of time of another person,
which is disrespect to others. Filipinos also have established a negative perception of our identity and some
include “palakasan”, crab mentality and back stabbing.
Palakasan refers to work or job referral known as padrino system. This is considered as corrupt way of
getting a job, since this is having jobs without hassle, and not really considering the qualifications for a job. That
you also get promoted not because of your qualities but because you have someone to back you up. But in this
modern time, this practice is gradually diminishing for seekers of employees are objectively looking on the
qualification and basing their decisions on assessment, interviews and character investigation.
Another is crab mentality, a metaphor that refers to a basket of crab that pulls each down. Like work
place, when one is pulling each other down just to get ahead of others. Some may see this negatively, but other

28
may see the positive in it. Like one being assertive and trying his best to be the best version of himself every day.
Some may see this positive in a sense that crabs are not really pulling each other down but they are pulling others
up sacrificing their own welfare for others. This is built on the idea that we always try to help other.
Gossiping is another known trait of Filipinos because we love to chit chat and communicate with another
person. This would sometimes lead to talking about the lives of another person which may lead to slander and
belittling other people. We must respect each other’s privacy especially that whatever is happening to someone
else has nothing to do with our improvement. Talking about another person’s life would not help us improve who
we are.
Student Activity: Response to Negative Filipino traits.
a. List down negative traits of Filipinos.
b. List down ways on how to deal with the negative traits.
a. List down negative traits of Filipinos.
1. ______________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________________________
6. ______________________________________________________________________
7. ______________________________________________________________________
8. ______________________________________________________________________
9. ______________________________________________________________________
10. ______________________________________________________________________
b. List down ways on how to deal with the negative traits.
1. ______________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________________________
6. ______________________________________________________________________
7. ______________________________________________________________________
8. ______________________________________________________________________
9. ______________________________________________________________________
10. ______________________________________________________________________
Although others see the negative traits of Filipinos, it cannot be denied that we are also known for quite
several positive traits, that Filipinos exhibit with pride.
One is our being hospitable, we are usually friendly and welcoming to our guest. We treat them in our best
abilities. As mentioned earlier we even give them the best of whatever we have. Our ability to speak English is an
advantage in communicating with the foreigners. We are also resilient in a lot of sense. It is only in the Philippines
that we react positively to negative situations. Here you can see someone using his jet ski amidst flood, or even a
floating drinking session. This shows how respond to situation that seemingly negative. As the only Christian
country in Asia, we are known to be faithful. We get our strengths from the supreme being and our lives center
around Him. This in a way regulate our actions and help us act accordingly.
Another is the Bayanihan spirit, we may not need to carry a house together and transfer it to another place,
but it may be exhibit in another way. Like being united in times of crisis and being able gather help when someone

29
is needy. And the most practical way to see it is when a person rides on a jeep, when the passenger pays for his
pay, he would ask another passenger to help him pass his fare to the driver. We are also known for being thrifty,
as much as possible we try to recycle everything, from the dress that the elder siblings wore that would be passed
to younger siblings, to being committed to buy bulk for a cheaper price.
Student Activity: Response to Positive Filipino traits
A. List down positive traits of Filipinos.
1. ______________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________________________
6. ______________________________________________________________________
7. ______________________________________________________________________
8. ______________________________________________________________________
9. ______________________________________________________________________
10. ______________________________________________________________________
B. List down ways on how to improve positive traits.
1. ______________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________________________
6. ______________________________________________________________________
7. ______________________________________________________________________
8. ______________________________________________________________________
9. ______________________________________________________________________
10. ______________________________________________________________________
Student Activity: Circumcision: Good or not?
In many places outside of the Philippines, circumcision is NOT practiced for it is seen as disgraceful and
emasculating for a man to have his foreskin removed; yet the Philippines has such a different point of view.
We view it as the entry to manhood and a symbol of manliness.
1. What is your opinion on this practice?
2. Should we require boys to undergo this practice?
3. What is the implication of circumcision in our culture?
4. Would you support this or not?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________

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