1. Farm Offspring, Gendered
Identities and Agricultural
Sustainability in Contemporary
Ireland
Dr. Caroline Crowley
IRCHSS Postdoctoral Fellow
Department of Geography,
University College Cork, Ireland
14 March 2009
University of Copenhagen

2. Introduction
 Following PeterFollowing Peter et al.et al. (2000), this talk assesses social(2000), this talk assesses social
construction of agricultural masculinity and how itconstruction of agricultural masculinity and how it
influences transition to sustainable agriculture byinfluences transition to sustainable agriculture by
exploring farm offspring opinions and behaviour onexploring farm offspring opinions and behaviour on
conventional and organic farmsconventional and organic farms
 Masculinity is a social construct, produced byMasculinity is a social construct, produced by
numerous social contexts [e.g., home, school, work]numerous social contexts [e.g., home, school, work]
and structures [e.g. family, school, community, pub]and structures [e.g. family, school, community, pub]
(Connell, 1995)(Connell, 1995)
 Influence of social contexts and structures onInfluence of social contexts and structures on farmfarm
offspring masculine identities is assessed throughoffspring masculine identities is assessed through
their experiences of farm family, farming communitytheir experiences of farm family, farming community
and agricultural industryand agricultural industry
 Concludes by considering implications for sustainableConcludes by considering implications for sustainable
agricultureagriculture

3. Research Methodology Overview
 Semi-structured interviews with Irish farm
offspring and young farmers aged 18 to 42
in two different farming areas in 2008
 Southeast – Carlow: commercial farming
area of wide land use ranges, regionally
integrated food production and food
processing e.g. cereal mills, meat factories
 Northwest - Leitrim: marginal farming area
of limited land use ranges, history of rural
depopulation & youth outmigration

4. Agricultural Restructuring
 Commercialisation of agriculture via consolidation,
specialisation, intensification → productivist model of
agriculture
 Declining farm numbers and people at work in
agriculture, increasing farm size in Ireland (Crowley et
al., 2008)
 Driven by academic scientific agendas, increasing
association with agri-business, and industrialisation of
agriculture (Feldman and Welsh, 1995)
 Negative externalities – environmental degradation
(biodiversity and habitat loss, water and air pollution,
soil erosion, GHG emissions), pulbic health issues
(BSE, Foot & Mouth, toxins), social inequity, global
trade disputes…

5. Ongoing Agricultural
Restructuring…
‘There was 14 of us from farms in primary school. These
is two of us now who’s full-time farming and I’ve six of
those farms taken. They’re electricians, plumbers,
guards, anything bar farming: handy work, finished 9
to 5, paid at the weekends, good money and then
home’
Conventional farmer in southeast
‘There were about 280 suppliers to the creamery in the
1960s. By the 1980s, only one or two left in the area
that I can remember’
Conventional farmer in northwest

6. Agricultural Masculinities

7. Understanding Masculinities
 PeterPeter et al.et al. (2000) compared interviews of(2000) compared interviews of
conventional farmers with those of farmersconventional farmers with those of farmers
in a conservation farming network in the USin a conservation farming network in the US
 Here, we adopt PeterHere, we adopt Peter et alet al.’s (2000).’s (2000)
Bakhtinian approach to understandingBakhtinian approach to understanding
agricultural masculinitiesagricultural masculinities
 Monologic and dialogic masculinities thatMonologic and dialogic masculinities that
represent Weberian ideal types of farmerrepresent Weberian ideal types of farmer
positions along spectrum of masculinitiespositions along spectrum of masculinities

8. Monologic Masculinities
 Monologic farmer characterised by:Monologic farmer characterised by:
 farming centred on use of machinery andfarming centred on use of machinery and
control over naturecontrol over nature
 strong gender-based division of farmstrong gender-based division of farm
labourlabour
 conventional understandings ofconventional understandings of
masculinitymasculinity
 rigid expectations, strictly negotiatedrigid expectations, strictly negotiated
performances,performances, specific definitions of workspecific definitions of work
and successand success

9. Domination of Nature
‘…‘…there’d be some days when we’re planting [athere’d be some days when we’re planting [a
crop] or something like that and it’s a lovely,crop] or something like that and it’s a lovely,
sunny day. You walk out into the field andsunny day. You walk out into the field and
there’s four machines streaking up andthere’s four machines streaking up and
down the field and work is getting donedown the field and work is getting done
like…you’re taking a natural resourcelike…you’re taking a natural resource
basically and manipulating it to do what youbasically and manipulating it to do what you
want to do…growing something out ofwant to do…growing something out of
nothing really…’nothing really…’
Conventional farmer in southeastConventional farmer in southeast

10. Hegemonic Farming Masculinities
 Associated with productivist agriculture:
 continuous expansion and technology adoption
 distanciation from traditional farming practices
 reduction of female involvement in farm
production and management (e.g. eggs and
dairy)
 disconnect from local farm community labour
and machinery exchange networks
 To this list, Ní Laoire (2002: 19) adds ‘land-‘land-
ownership or control over land, fatherhood within aownership or control over land, fatherhood within a
stem family system, control of inheritance,stem family system, control of inheritance,
performance of outdoor work and adherence toperformance of outdoor work and adherence to
Catholic morality and Irish nationalist ideals’Catholic morality and Irish nationalist ideals’

11. Getting beyond Symbols of
Hegemonic Farming Masculinities
‘…‘…the longer I’ve been at it, the more I realised that all themthe longer I’ve been at it, the more I realised that all them
dumpers and diggers are no good unless the crops are. It’sdumpers and diggers are no good unless the crops are. It’s
all about the crops really, you know’all about the crops really, you know’
Conventional farmer in southeastConventional farmer in southeast
‘…‘…there is a thing in the psyche here that if you lower yourthere is a thing in the psyche here that if you lower your
numbers of stock that you’re nearly going down or you’renumbers of stock that you’re nearly going down or you’re
going out of it, you know that sort of mentality, a sign you’regoing out of it, you know that sort of mentality, a sign you’re
not progressing anyway. But I wasn’t afraid to go backnot progressing anyway. But I wasn’t afraid to go back
down the numbers…and since I done that, farming is a lotdown the numbers…and since I done that, farming is a lot
more fun that it was a few years ago when you were tryingmore fun that it was a few years ago when you were trying
to keep too much on land that wasn’t fit for it…an awful lotto keep too much on land that wasn’t fit for it…an awful lot
of them hasn’t learned that lesson yet’of them hasn’t learned that lesson yet’
Conventional farmer in northwestConventional farmer in northwest

12. Dialogic Masculinities
 Dialogic farmer characterised by:Dialogic farmer characterised by:
 more openness to change and criticismmore openness to change and criticism
 willingness to admit mistakes, express emotionswillingness to admit mistakes, express emotions
 less controlling attitude to machines andless controlling attitude to machines and
environmentenvironment
 more interactive and holistic outlookmore interactive and holistic outlook
 acknowledges environment and needs of othersacknowledges environment and needs of others
in society – less individualisticin society – less individualistic
 broader understanding of what it is to be a manbroader understanding of what it is to be a man
→→ potential for adopting alternative agriculturalpotential for adopting alternative agricultural
pathways (organics, biodynamics, permaculture)pathways (organics, biodynamics, permaculture)
and thus more sustainable agricultureand thus more sustainable agriculture

13. Acknowledging Environment
Regarding interest in putting wind turbines on his hillRegarding interest in putting wind turbines on his hill
farm…farm…
‘…‘…maybe up high in the poorer end of it…but notmaybe up high in the poorer end of it…but not
where you have a view. They kind of spoil thewhere you have a view. They kind of spoil the
natural view, I think meself’natural view, I think meself’
Conventional farmer in northwestConventional farmer in northwest
Another nearby conventional hill farmer said…Another nearby conventional hill farmer said…
‘‘If they weren’t environmentally-friendly I wouldn’t beIf they weren’t environmentally-friendly I wouldn’t be
on for it at all now…not that I’m a do-gooder oron for it at all now…not that I’m a do-gooder or
anything like that, but I’d like to think I’d beanything like that, but I’d like to think I’d be
middling reasonable, like’middling reasonable, like’

14. Open to Change and New Ideas
‘…‘…Dad’s very open-minded about, aboutDad’s very open-minded about, about
farming, like and willing to take onfarming, like and willing to take on
opinions…if he wasn’t that sort of a person,opinions…if he wasn’t that sort of a person,
he wouldn’t be organic farming now…’he wouldn’t be organic farming now…’
Organic farmerOrganic farmer
‘‘They’d have gone into REPSThey’d have gone into REPS [Irish agri-[Irish agri-
environmental scheme]environmental scheme] anyway…they wereanyway…they were
always quick to go for something like that,always quick to go for something like that,
they weren’t afraid to change, ever…’they weren’t afraid to change, ever…’
Conventional farmer in northwestConventional farmer in northwest

15. Agricultural Sustainability

16. Understanding Sustainability
 Agricultural sustainability – contested and complexAgricultural sustainability – contested and complex
concept (Cobbconcept (Cobb et al.,et al., 1999; Buttel, 2006)1999; Buttel, 2006)
 Key principles: ecological integrity, economicKey principles: ecological integrity, economic
viability, social equity [and cultural awareness]viability, social equity [and cultural awareness]
 Reprioritisation of local over global knowledgeReprioritisation of local over global knowledge
(Feldman and Welsh, 1995), where:(Feldman and Welsh, 1995), where:
 Local knowledge - farmer know-how built upLocal knowledge - farmer know-how built up
through working specific farm over multiplethrough working specific farm over multiple
generationsgenerations
 Global knowledge - external expertise developedGlobal knowledge - external expertise developed
far beyond the farm gatefar beyond the farm gate

17. Organics not Universal Solution
‘I’m not organic, like, or more than likely
never will be because the land isn’t
good enough for it around here…if
you’ve good land you’ll adapt to it but
you won’t with bad land because the
rushes will take over the place and it’ll
grow nothing’
Conventional farmer in northwest

18. Dominant Productivist Paradigm

19. Productivist Discourse
 Gives rise to patriarchal form of capitalist agriculture
where hegemonic masculinities are linked with
external expert who ‘knows best’ and the
‘progressive’ farmers who most readily act on their
instruction
 Progressive farmers lie in stark contrast to those
who do not readily adopt new inputs and practices -
‘laggards’
 Exacerbates farm family disharmony by the resultantExacerbates farm family disharmony by the resultant
‘(c)onflict in attitudes and outlook between older and‘(c)onflict in attitudes and outlook between older and
younger generations’ (Commins and Kelleher, 1971:younger generations’ (Commins and Kelleher, 1971:
118)118)
 Undermines small-scale farmingUndermines small-scale farming
 Marginalises women’s involvement in farmingMarginalises women’s involvement in farming

20. Implications for Masculinities
Alters location of farming knowledge and thus
authority
FROM
Farmers with intimate knowledge of local natural and
cultivated capital passed down through
generations of family farming and their ‘role as a
teacher and transmitter of a craft’ (Commins and
Kelleher, 1971: 118)
TO
external scientific and engineering experts in private
and public sector, sales people and extension
agents, with global technical expertise in farm
inputs and practices required to use them, trained
in urban-based universities and research centres
removed from farm location

21. Implications for Sustainability
Productivism alters valued knowledge
FROM
Intimate local knowledge of soil characteristics, land
capacity, seasonality and weather patterns, where
the farmer’s goal is to pass on the farm in good
working order to the next generation
TO
Generalised external expertise based on research
with limited range of animal breeds and crop
varieties (often non-native species), and on better
quality land, where the farm industry’s goal is to
maximise short-term profits

22. Inappropriate Global Knowledge
‘If you’re going to survive farming around here, you’re
going to have to accept the limits of the land.
That’s one of the awful problems with Teagasc
[Irish Food and Agriculture Authority]…like when I
hear Teagasc people, I do have to adjust
everything down to me own land because if you
think that you’re going to do what they’re talking
about in Meath or in Tipperary or wherever, it’s
not going to happen. You’re going to be out, it’s
just going to go wrong on you’
Conventional farmer in northwest

23. Implications for Marginal and Small-
Scale Farms
 The productivist paradigm undermines
farming where:
 farmers less able to expand farm and
adopt technology – local land market,
low capital
 commercial practices unsuitable - soil
quality and drainage, topography
 Increasingly combine farming with off-farm
job to supplement low income → signals
unsuitability of productivist agriculture in
marginal areas and on small-scale farms

24. Emergence of Alternative
Agricultural Pathways
 Development and diffusion of small-scale and family-Development and diffusion of small-scale and family-
based organic farming, artisanal food production, andbased organic farming, artisanal food production, and
re-localisation of food economy led by back-to-the-re-localisation of food economy led by back-to-the-
land urbanites, foreigners, and hobby farmersland urbanites, foreigners, and hobby farmers
 Limited uptake by indigenous farm families in spite ofLimited uptake by indigenous farm families in spite of
growth in organic market, premium prices for organicgrowth in organic market, premium prices for organic
and artisanal products, government incentivesand artisanal products, government incentives
 Suggests inhibiting factors operating withinSuggests inhibiting factors operating within
conventional and/or traditional agricultural sectorconventional and/or traditional agricultural sector
 For example, PeterFor example, Peter et al.et al. (2000: 216) argue that ‘the(2000: 216) argue that ‘the
conventional masculinity of most male farmers hindersconventional masculinity of most male farmers hinders
the transition from industrial to sustainable agriculture’the transition from industrial to sustainable agriculture’

25. Adherence to Productivism 1
 Burton (2004) describes the symbolic
significance of productivist behaviour in
farmers’ identity as ‘good farmers’
 It follows that failure to adhere to productivist
processes may lead to identity crisis among
conventional farmers
 Yet, men with low income farms may face
another identity crisis as they experience loss
of control and power through their weakened
breadwinner status (Ní Laoire, 2001)
 Solution: 67-80% farmer income now derived
from off-farm jobs (Connolly et al., 2005)

26. Adherence to Productivism 2
Working off-farm job that provides most income
↓
 facilitates Irish farmers in marginal areas and onfacilitates Irish farmers in marginal areas and on
small farms adhere to unviable productivist farmingsmall farms adhere to unviable productivist farming
‘‘They had [farming] and they had their [construction]They had [farming] and they had their [construction]
job and they didn’t really worry whether the farm wasjob and they didn’t really worry whether the farm was
balancing the books or not…’balancing the books or not…’
 Allows farmers on unviable farms maintain theirAllows farmers on unviable farms maintain their
monologic agrarian masculine identitiesmonologic agrarian masculine identities
 Sustains conventional farming ideologySustains conventional farming ideology
 Therefore unsustainability of productivist model ofTherefore unsustainability of productivist model of
agriculture remains unchallenged in farming family,agriculture remains unchallenged in farming family,
community and industrycommunity and industry

27. Inhibition of Transition to more Sustainable
Forms of
Agriculture

28. …Via Farm Family
 Agrarian ideology and farmer identities are reproduced and
restrained in families through:
 Patriarchy - ‘the father’s direction of the enterprise coincides withPatriarchy - ‘the father’s direction of the enterprise coincides with
his dominant, controlling role as parent and adult; the boy learnshis dominant, controlling role as parent and adult; the boy learns
work as he learns manhood’ (Arensberg; 1937: 56-57)work as he learns manhood’ (Arensberg; 1937: 56-57)
 Patrilineal inheritancePatrilineal inheritance - land ownership and thus power is passed
to one successor, almost always male (O’Hara, 1998)
 Leads to ‘performance of masculine identities…often grounded inLeads to ‘performance of masculine identities…often grounded in
material interests’ (Nmaterial interests’ (Níí Laoire, 2002: 17)Laoire, 2002: 17)
 Reproduction of patriarchal ideology ensured by farmersReproduction of patriarchal ideology ensured by farmers
experiencing patrilineal succession as a personal success (Priceexperiencing patrilineal succession as a personal success (Price
and Evans, 2006)and Evans, 2006)
 Thus, traditional and/or conventional farmers may be slow toThus, traditional and/or conventional farmers may be slow to
engage in alternative agricultural pathways, such as organics, notengage in alternative agricultural pathways, such as organics, not
yet proven to maintain multi-generational family farmingyet proven to maintain multi-generational family farming
 In turn, young people wary of embracing alternatives becauseIn turn, young people wary of embracing alternatives because
change must be agreeable to older landowner with power tochange must be agreeable to older landowner with power to
bequest land asbequest land as hehe sees fitsees fit → monologic masculinities→ monologic masculinities

29. Authority of Father
‘…a lot of my friends who are working on
farms…basically seem to be over the barrel
of a gun by their fathers saying to them ‘oh,
you be a good boy for the next couple of
years and I’ll give you the farm’
Conventional farmer in southeast

30. Authority of Father
But not for this next conventional farmer in
partnership with his father in southeast
‘No, there’s no-one the boss. That’s the rule, you
have to if you’re going to farm a partnership,
there’s no-one bosses…you all have equal
rights…’
However, when asked if the future of the farm has
been discussed, he reveals…
‘Well, I was told I would never get it till he’s finished
with it…Yeah, someday when he’s six feet under
I’ll have it…No…we know where we stand, like.
It’s all signed over and that, but it’ll never be mine

31. …Via Farming Community
 Deference to ancestral ways and tradition
overseen by second layer of authority - the
farming community and leaders in farming
organisations
 Farmer agency kept in check by keen sense of
not wanting to stand out among peers or be
ridiculed – monologic masculinities
 Community social control achieved via
formidable gossip networks that ensure effective
spread of information (Salazar, 1996) and being
judged through hedgerow farming (Burton, 2004)
 Choice between conformity to conventional
agriculture or social isolation from farming
neighbours and the broader farming community

32. Valuing the Opinions of Other Farmers
‘Going away to a market sale and you have
good quality [livestock] with you, it’s a good
feeling, and then you meet the farmers…
from other counties…and they talk about
your good quality’
Conventional farmer in northwest

33. Social Control by Other Farmers
‘…and they tell me that we’re not farmers, ya
know, because…we grow [flowers]. “Wha?
Flower farmers?” Which disappoints me, ya
know, like farming is farming and you
should respect somebody who’s doing
something well and grows good crops…it’s
sad, in a way, that some farmers in the
area wouldn’t respect you because of what
you do…’
Conventional farmer in southeast

34. …Via Farming Industry – Inhibition of
Transition to Alternative Agriculture
 Adherence to productivist agricultureAdherence to productivist agriculture
directed by agents of the state and industrydirected by agents of the state and industry
e.g., government inspectors, agriculturale.g., government inspectors, agricultural
educators and advisers, manufacturer andeducators and advisers, manufacturer and
retail sales repsretail sales reps
 Co-option of hegemonic farmingCo-option of hegemonic farming
masculinities through industrial symbolsmasculinities through industrial symbols
such as powerful machinery and large-such as powerful machinery and large-
scale farmingscale farming

35. Impressed by Business Ethos
‘…the agricultural industry in the UK, it really, it blew
me away…in England, agriculture is a
professional business…They’re very professional,
they’re good business men. Whereas here…we
have some top quality farmers, but [they] just get
buried beneath a lot of cowboys’
‘…I really think that we could help our own image by
becoming more business-minded and by
attacking these opportunities instead of just going
through the motions’
Conventional farmer in southeast

36. External Expert and Excessive Inputs
‘you’ve got distributor agronomists who are
working for a big, big mill in town, who sell
chemicals…they’ll send out their man for
free to the farmer…but what he doesn’t
realise is that he’s paying for that
agronomist in the extra chemicals that he’s
putting on that he doesn’t need’
Conventional farmer in southeast

37. Potential for Sustainable
Agriculture

38. Regional Variation in Gender Identities
 NNíí Laoire (2005) notes persistence of moreLaoire (2005) notes persistence of more
conventional masculine and feminine identities inconventional masculine and feminine identities in
commercial farming areas, the association of masculinecommercial farming areas, the association of masculine
pride with full-time farming, and more conservativepride with full-time farming, and more conservative
social structuressocial structures → monologic masculinities→ monologic masculinities
 In contrast, she describes construction of masculineIn contrast, she describes construction of masculine
and feminine identities in marginal farming areas mayand feminine identities in marginal farming areas may
have adjusted to more flexible social structures thathave adjusted to more flexible social structures that
break from the traditional integration of farm work,break from the traditional integration of farm work,
men’s work and earning powermen’s work and earning power → dialogic masculinities→ dialogic masculinities
 Young farmers in marginal farming areas freer toYoung farmers in marginal farming areas freer to
engage in pluriactivity than peers in commercial farmingengage in pluriactivity than peers in commercial farming
areas (Nareas (Níí Laoire, 2005)Laoire, 2005)

39. Seeds of Alternative Masculinities
 Off-farm jobs sustain small-scale and marginal farms
 Associated with participation in the Rural Environment
Protection Scheme (REPS), less intensive production,
lower levels of mechanisation
 In this way, supports environmental and social
sustainability
 Ní Laoire argues that ‘in the less rigid gender relations of
marginal farming and old pluriactive family farms can be
found the seeds of alternative masculinities which are
based less on patriarchal economic power’ (2005: 112)
 Dispersal of farming community due to agricultural and
rural restructuring may undermine social control of
innovative farmers
 Thus, as marginal farms and small-scale farms comprise
site of flexible gender relations, informed by diverse work
patterns and more elastic understandings of self, they
offer fertile ground for germination of new agrarian
discourse of sustainable agriculture

40. Agricultural Sustainability: Back to
the Future
 But current sustainability discourse
presented as new concept emanating from
academics, urban-based and middle-class
conservation groups…
 Farm offspring interviews reveal respect for
tradition and ancestral practices on small-
scale farms and in marginal farming areas
 Need to explore the ecological and cultural
sustainability of traditional farming practices
as basis for sustainable agricultural
discourse with which conventional farmers
can identify e.g., BurrenLIFE project

41. References
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42. References (cont’d)
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43. Thank You
caroline.crowley@ucc.ie