1. Alexander the Great: Humble Student to Victorious Vanquisher
How Alexander’s three years studying under Aristotle influenced his worldview thenceforth
http://karenswhimsy.com/
Brent Michael McCulley
Senior Seminar in History
HIST498 I001 Win 13
Prof. Kelly McMichael
February 20, 2013

2. “Fable is more historical than fact, because fact tells us about one man and fable
tells us about a million men.”
-G.K. Chesterton
Contents
Chapters
1. Introduction………………...……..3
2. Aristotle……………………………5
3. Inspiration…………..………….....6
4. Natural Sciences.…………....……10
5. Rhetoric……….……………….…..14
6. Pragmatism………………………..17
7. Political Theory…….....…..………19
8. Homer’s Iliad…..……..……...…...21
9. Conclusion………………..…...…...23
Bibliography…………………..……25
2

3. 1 //
When studying the historiographical profile of an individual, it’s important to
understand the specific influences that played a factor in shaping that person’s
worldview. It is for this reason why mentors and tutors are so vitally significant to young
children because they are at such a naïvé and impressionable age. Such is the case with
the historically venerated Alexander the Great. Notwithstanding a relatively short amount
of time in tutorship, Alexander studied under one of the most acclaimed philosophers in
all of Greece. In consequence, he carried with him many Aristotelian principles that
helped shaped his philosophical worldview, since studying underneath Aristotle of
Stagira, from 342 –c.339 BC in the Macedonian court. This is significant because without
this, Aristotle’s tutorship, it’s easily to hypothesize an Alexander that does not turn out to
be so “great.”
Born during a time of Persian dominance, Alexander son of Phillip was born in
July of 356 B.C. in Pella, a town in central Macedonia. Or, in the words of Plutarch:
“Alexander was born on the sixth day of the month called Hekatombaion, though the
Macedonians call it Loös.”1
From birth, Alexander was destined for greatness, for
example, his lineage was that of royalty; his family, in fact, traced their ancestry back to
the demigod, Heracles. Alexander, therefore, grew up in a great Macedonian Dynasty
1
Philip Freeman, Alexander the Great, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011), 1.
3

4. wherein Phillip II bestowed upon his young son the rights, training, and preparation in
order to properly prepare his son to continue the dynastic kingdom.
Growing up, Alexander’s life was like the average Macedonian nobleman. His
love for war was made evident in the fact that he trained in archery, swordplay, and
horsemanship every day from a young age. Excelling in the classical arts, the art of war,
and language, Alexander surely was surpassing others his age at an extraordinary rate;
even his father knew that he was destined for greatness. “My son,” Alexander’s father,
Phillip II, said, “you must seek out a kingdom equal to yourself –Macedonia is not big
enough for you!”2
By the time Alexander was fourteen years old, his father had sought
out a relatively unknown philosopher at the time: Aristotle of Stagira. However, because
Phillip and Aristotle had grown up together as nobles in the Macedonian court, they had
known each other since boyhood. Aristotle, who had been studying underneath Plato at
his Academy for the past twenty years, was now summoned back to the Macedonian
court for the careful instruction of the young and zealous Alexander. Although Alexander
achieved fantastic and brilliant feats throughout his life, the tutorship under Aristotle
shaped a formidable worldview on the impressionable child and helped profile his
philosophy, political theory, and viewpoint. Moreover, he was learned in specific skills
that also helped him to rise to such greatness and fame. Hence, the philosopher’s
influence is easily recognizable in the conqueror’s beliefs and actions; namely, his
inspiration, natural sciences, rhetoric, political theory, pragmatism, and love for Homer’s
Iliad.
2
Ibid, 24.
4

5. 2 //
Studying under the acclaimed Plato at his widely venerated academy, who in turn
studied under the wise and infamous Socrates, Aristotle was a man of many words, yea,
he was a man also of many thoughts. Rigorous in his studies, he grew up in the court with
Phillip II, Alexander’s father, in Macedonia. In fact, King Phillip and Aristotle were
boyhood acquaintances for many years, albeit Aristotle was a few years older than Phillip
II. Nevertheless, at seventeen Aristotle sojourned away from Macedonia towards Athens
wherein he found himself at the Academy. There he staid and studied under the great
Plato for many years; twenty years in fact! Even so, Aristotle was still largely unknown
to anyone outside of Athens, and he definitely was not known as a famous philosopher.
A fantastic opportunity approached him, however, after the death of Plato in
348/7 B.C. It was largely understood that Aristotle would take over the Academy’s
leadership; however, due to anti-Macedonian pressure, and the militarism of
Demosthenes, Aristotle was forced to flee. This was because of his overt connection to
Phillip and the Macedonian party which has been heretofore already discussed. What’s
more, it was the very same year when his hometown, Stagira, was also destroyed by
Phillip’s army; this, as a consequence, forced Aristotle to flee to a city in close proximity,
the city of Troy, which was being governed, at the time, by Hermias, a satrap of the
Persian Empire, and a surrogate of Artaxerxes III. There he remained for approximately
three years –even as much as to intermarry into the lineage of the tyrant, by taking his
5

6. adopted daughters hand –until he withdrew further into isolation, after the assassination
of Hermias, by fleeing to the close-by island of Lesbos. Studying and observing the
natural sciences, in especially botany, Aristotle observed and taught the inhabitants, all
the while researching local flora and fauna. Aristotle would then be presented with
another chance, in which this one, he would actually accept. As Freeman puts it, “Three
years later, when Phillip invited him to return to Pella as Alexander’s tutor, Aristotle
jumped at the chance.”3
3 //
“I count him braver who overcomes his desires,” proclaimed Aristotle, “than him
who conquers his enemies; for the hardest victory is over self.”4
Such was the stimulation
of the great Aristotle; his fascination with self motivation showed not only from the
external, but even more so, from the internal. This is, in fact, what Alexander heard,
learned, and loved for three years under his tutorship; to wit, Aristotle drew up the young
boy’s inspiration for life, virtue, truth and greatness from the depths of his soul. For
instance, “if his mother and father had a strong impact on the boy, so did his teacher, the
famous Greek philosopher Aristotle. Through him, Alexander learned the wonders of
Greek culture; especially the great mythic tales.”5
This wonder and inspiration cannot be
denied in the life of Aristotle, hence, he most certainly outpoured these teachings on the
young Alexander as well. In fact, Freeman points out, “Aristotle was an inspired teacher.
3
Ibid, 25.
4
Lit. "Aνδρειότερος ε ναι μο δοκε τ ν πιθυμ ν τ ν πολεμίων κρατ ν κα γ ρ χαλεπώτατόν στι τἶ ί ῖ ὂ ῶ ἐ ῶ ἢ ῶ ῶ ὶ ὰ ἐ ὸ
αυτόν νικ σαι". Translated, from Vol IX of Joannes Stobaeus’,ἑ ῆ Florilegium, (Charlestown: Nabu Press,
2012), 223.
5
Cpurcell., "Alexander the Great," SchoolTube, Web, http://schooltube.com/video/Alexander the Great, c.
5:03 -5:17.
6

7. Just as Socrates had taught Plato and Plato in turn had instructed Aristotle, now the
philosopher from Stagira would show Alexander the wonders of the universe.”6
It’s clear
that Alexander, although young, zealous, and already an opportunist was subsequently
inspired even more. Not only did he gain and awe for the known world, but he learned
the fundamentals of true virtue and vice, as Aristotle was a masterful teacher on the
ethics.
“He who has never learned to obey cannot be a good commander,” stated
Aristotle.7
Widely learned on political theory, and much more pragmatic than his teacher
Plato, Aristotle was a genius when it came to practical political wisdom. Hence,
Alexander would have been inspired in this specific department as well. Already an
enthusiastic teenager with a love for militarism, horse riding, a swordsmanship,
Alexander certainly would have understood the well taught doctrine of virtuous
leadership and humble obedience. This, however, did not subtract from Alexander’s
desire for greatness, and also, his desire to conquer. This is further exemplified by the
realm of the great philosopher’s studies. For instance, Aristotle was not just a
metaphysician; nay, he also was a mastermind in numerous other arts, which in turn,
would be instilled in the young Alexander; his teacher’s master of the arts included:
mathematics, physics, poetics, theatre, music, logic, ethics, and political-theory.
Therefore, it can be concluded that Alexander’s worldview, even on the most general
level, was completely opened, broadened, expanded, and stimulated throughout the
course of his tutorship. In a word, Alexander’s eyes were opened to the vast true nature of
the world and the attainable glory therein. Mediterranean historian Chao Zxe explains it
6
Freeman, 25.
7
Book III, Part IV, 1277b, line 15. Aristotle, Translated by Benjamin Jowett, Politics, (New York: Dover
Publications, 2000), 108.
7

8. as such, “Aristotle's teachings opened Alexander's eyes to what was out there in the
world, [namely], what was to be conquered.”8
In retrospect of Alexander’s conquests, this
couldn’t be truer.
Alexander’s military campaigns were swift, decisive, and glorious (inasmuch as a
bloody and ruthless military campaign can be), even still, although the historical
campaigns are not the topic at hand, it must be understood that Alexander’s quest for
glory was fueled by his love and desire for the world. This, in fact, gives credence to
Aristotle’s inspiring wisdom that was so engrained in the young conqueror throughout his
studies. For instance, after finding out from Anaxarchus that there could potentially be an
infinite amount of worlds, Alexander began to weep and sob. Upon seeing their general
so distraught and hysterical, his friends inquired of him the reason he was so
downtrodden, to which he replied: “Do you not think it a matter worthy of lamentation
that when there is such a vast multitude of them [worlds] we have not yet conquered
one?”9
It is for this reason why Alexander was so spurred on by Aristotle’s teachings,
namely, how he inspired him. This is not specifically a particular area of study per say,
nay, it is, however, the general consensus that Alexander was moved by the wonder, the
beauty, and the feasible grandeur contained in the world. He would hear of it’s
magnificence for years, and in turn, eventually went on to conquer what he had only
learned about from his great teacher. His impeccable campaigns of Persia and his
significant victories in Egypt all give weight to Alexander’s motivation to explore and
conquer. Furthermore, Alexander continued his campaigns further east than anyone from
8
Zxe, Chao. Answers: History, Politics, Society, "What did Aristotle teach Alexander?" Last modified
2008. Accessed March 7, 2013. http://answers.com/Q/What_did_Aristotle_teach_Alexander.
9
Plutarch, et. al., On Tranquillity of Mind, (Boston: Little Brown & Co., 1878), accessed March 12, 2013.
8

9. the West-Mediterranean had hitherto explored. Coming up from Egypt, his army pressed
east all the way into India, so far, in fact, that most of his troops were so dreadfully afraid
they convinced the general to turn back west –although Alexander himself wanted to
continue further east into deep Indian territory.
“Alexander’s last major campaign was the conquest of India, an expedition that was not
only a military venture but also a fantastic journey to the outer limits of the world.
Marching with his men to what Alexander thought was the edge of his new territory; he
discovered more land to the east and another great river, the Ganges.”10
His love for the unknown, and passion to discover what was theretofore mysterious
couldn’t be explained without Aristotle’s rigorous teaching and Alexander’s inclusive
and laborious studies of the arts and sciences. In a word, Aristotle’s inspiration to the
young Alexander can be explained in one single Aristotelian maxim, the epoch of
Alexander’s philosophy concerning his motivation: “He who has overcome his fears will
truly be free.”11
Thus, the inspirational teachings of Aristotle as a whole, and as a
consequence, was one reason why Alexander was so propelled to curiosity about the
world, and in turn, expressed it throughout his military campaigns –ultimately, this is
how he perceived life in and of itself.
10
World Eras, "The Military Campaigns of Alexander the Great," Gale Student Resources (2001),
http://ic.galegroup.com/ (accessed March 7, 2013).
11
Stobaeus, 219.
9

10. 4 //
“All men by nature desire to know,” touted Aristotle, “An indication of this is the
delight we take in our senses; for even apart from their usefulness they are loved fro
themselves.”12
Aristotle was more than a lover of wisdom; he was a protector of wisdom.
Albeit still very much a theorist, philosopher, and metaphysicist, he rejected much
Platonic philosophy, approaching his epistemology from a more naturalist point of view:
the senses. It is this ideology that propelled the great philosopher to such a keen interest
in the natural, namely, what the senses could observe through their five different
faculties; that is, seeing, touching, smelling, tasting, and hearing. Ben Waggoner of the
University of California Berkley explains Aristotle’s contrast to his former tutor, and how
this transfers through his teachings to his students, and also, his written works: “Whereas
Aristotle's teacher Plato had located ultimate reality in Ideas or eternal forms, knowable
only through reflection and reason, Aristotle saw ultimate reality in physical objects,
knowable through experience.”13
Because his vast realm of scientific knowledge was primarily concerned with the
kingdom animalia and the kingdom plantae, his logistical treatises extensively outlined
comprehensive information in formidable areas concerning zoology, biology, botany,
physics, medicine and more. His studies of the consequences, and his learning through
12
Aristotle, Metaphysics, Book A (I), 980a
, Translated by W.D. Ross, The Basic Works of Aristotle, (New
York: Modern, Library, 1941), 689.
13
Ben Waggoner, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.). (Manuscript, University of California Berkley, 1996),
UCMP, http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/aristotle.html.
10

11. existential experience, therefore, further gave credence to his loose epistemological
naturalism. Stanford philosopher, Christopher Shields, explains: “His extant writings
span a wide range of disciplines…into such primarily non-philosophical fields as
empirical biology, where he excelled at detailed plant and animal observation and
taxonomy. In all these areas, Aristotle's theories have provided illumination, met with
resistance, sparked debate, and generally stimulated the sustained interest of an abiding
readership.”14
In a word, Aristotle emphasized the natural sciences and the importance
therewith. Even still, how did Alexander see the sciences, and is their proof of Aristotle’s
influence on Alexander in this specific regard? If one examines the history of
Alexander’s campaigns, there is absolutely empirical relevance insofar Aristotle’s
passion for the sciences were engrained in the young warrior.
Plutarch, writing in his parallel lives, the glorified biography of Alexander the
Great, commented of his interest in the sciences: “it was from Aristotle that Alexander
got an inclination to the art of medicine.”15
This can be verified by the fact of what
Alexander would practice when he was on his military campaigns. For instance,
Alexander would often times tend to his wounded soldiers with pharmaceuticals, and if
not him, he always had numerous physicians on staff throughout the course of his
crusades. Freeman explains, “Aristotle learned the healing arts from his own father and
passed the knowledge on to Alexander. As a general on the field of battle in later years,
Alexander was known personally to treat wounds and prescribe medicines for his men.”16
Hence, it shows that Alexander not only understood the importance the art of medicine,
14
Christopher Shields, Aristotle. (Manuscript, Stanford University, 2008), Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle/.
15
Stefan Stenudd, Aristotle: His life, time and work, "Leaving the Academy: Alexander" Last modified
2006. (Accessed March 8, 2013), http://www.stenudd.com/aristotle/aristotle-life-07-alexander.htm.
16
Freeman, 26.
11

12. but also, practiced it himself! Evelyn explains: “Doubtless also it was to Aristotle that he
owed the inclination he had, not to the theory only, but likewise to the practice of the art
of medicine. For when any of his friends were sick, he would often prescribe them their
course of diet, and medicines proper to their disease.”17
Thus, we can easily see
Aristotle’s influence on Alexander regarding the science of medicine; this would prove
most beneficial to Alexander throughout the remainder of his career for obvious practical
reasons.
Moreover, the philosophers influence is also seen in Alexander’s love for biology
and botany, specifically, his love for all things “new.” Whether that meant new species of
animals or plants in foreign lands, or discovering new landscapes in previously unknown
locations, Alexander was always quick to explore, love, and document these discoveries.
This, as was heretofore discussed, was because of Aristotle’s exploration of such
scientific fields. Stenudd describes his endeavors to wit, “Aristotle started extensive
zoological and botanical fieldwork with students at the school. This project of natural
science was to continue for the rest of his life.”18
Therefore, it’s clear that Aristotle’s
influence was impeccable, as not only would Alexander travel with many scientists,
making sure that all things foreign were observed and studied, but he also would
constantly send back plants and samples to Aristotle, in turn, formulating and
contributing to the already established first botanical garden. Of these things Alegra
Bartzat describes in detail:
“Alexander the great supported Aristotle’s work and sent Aristotle plant and animal
samples from the entire Mediterranean region from the armies that were exploring and
conquering. Aristotle founded the Lyceum School, where he orchestrated many exotic
gardens and allowed his students the opportunity to observe and study in these gardens.
17
Evelyn, Livius.Org, “Alexander and Aristotle." Last modified 2013. (Accessed March 8, 2013),
http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t04.html.
18
Stenudd.
12

13. From these gardens and from the myriad samples from abroad, Aristotle created records
of observations that many consider the first rigorous study of life… [Furthermore[, it was
Alexander the Great who sponsored Aristotle later in his life and supported his works
both financially and with samples of flora of fauna, leading to the most comprehensive
study of life forms at the time.”19
Whether from Babylon, Egypt, or Persia, Alexander knew, understood, appreciated, and
loved the natural sciences, in especially botany. His love for medicine also was exercised
throughout his life as he practically cared for the injured, whether by himself or with
other medics. His passion for the world and the nature therein, can therefore, no doubt, be
traced back to his tutorship underneath Aristotle. Freeman again, confirms: “[Alexander]
also collected specimens of plants to send back to his teacher and mapped out the world
with a precision previously unknown.”20
As not only did the wise philosopher teach him
to learn and observe, but also, he taught him to explore! Thus, the success of Aristotle’s
botanical work at the Lyceum could not have flourished without the practical and
financial support of Alexander, and contrariwise, the interest and love for the natural
sciences would not have existed in Alexander to the extant that it did without the rigorous
teaching of Aristotle.
19
Alegra Bartzat, "Father of Biology: Aristotle," Bella Online, March 8, 2013,
http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art14442.asp (accessed March 8, 2013).
20
Freeman, 26.
13

14. 5 //
“Rhetoric is useful” proclaims Aristotle, “because things that are true and things
that are just have natural tendency to prevail over their opposites…Moreover, before
some audiences not even the possession of the exactest knowledge will make it easy for
what we say to produce conviction. For argument based on knowledge implies
instruction, and there are people whom one cannot instruct. Here, then we must use…
modes of persuasion.”21
Masterfully persuasive and brilliantly convicting, Aristotle was
one of the best orators, public speakers, and rhetoricians in all of Greece –his treatise
Rhetoricia proved it. The importance was not necessarily with proving the verifiability of
the matter through empirical adequacy inasmuch as it was using the art of persuasion
regardless of the facts, whether they are true or untrue. Historian Chao Zxe clarifies,
“Aristotle proved to be a brilliant teacher of both rhetoric and the art of efficient public
speech.”22
Needless to say, Alexander’s studies under the great rhetorician would prove
most beneficial to the young Macedonian as he utilized rhetoric in the political spectrum
as well as in the military spectrum. The passionate Alexander, throughout the course of
his career, would deliver hundreds of brilliant oratories, in especially, to his soldiers.
Eloquent speeches at Gaugamela, Hydaspes, and Opis, are some of the highlights of the
king’s career. In fact, his speech in India saved a near mutiny of his soldiers against him.
Hence, the power of rhetoric favored well for Alexander throughout the entire duration of
his career, albeit he would not favor so well in Babylon before his death.
21
Aristotle, Rhetoric, Book I, 1355a
, 20-30, Translated by W. Rhys Roberts, The Basic Works of Aristotle,
(New York: Modern, Library, 1941), 1327, 1328.
22
Zxe, Chao. Answers: History, Politics, Society, "What did Aristotle teach Alexander?" Last modified
2008. Accessed March 7, 2013. http://answers.com/Q/What_did_Aristotle_teach_Alexander.
14

15. Nevertheless, the art of rhetoric had been studied, practiced, and beloved, for
hundreds of years before the young Alexander began his studies; but nevertheless, the
formation of Aristotle’s specific type of rhetoric vitally important when understanding
Alexander’s success. For instance, while most rhetoricians stressed the systematic study
of the practice and the political nature of the art, Aristotle stressed one function that made
rhetoric itself successful: persuasion. Without persuasion, he argued, it doesn’t matter
how systematically you lay out fact upon fact. He concludes that some people will not be
able to be convinced by mere facts alone, no matter how convincingly true, and instead,
need to be persuaded through the art.
This principle is not more transparently evident than in Aristotle’s treatise to
Alexander himself on the subject entitled Rhetoric to Alexander.23
Upon speaking of the
sensible knowledge given in Rhetoric to Alexander, classical Greek historian, philologist,
and linguist Ian Worthington summarizes its theme to wit: “[it] advises on to put into
practice the precepts that have been recommended, insisting that the speaker who is going
to persuade his audience should supplement his technical preparation with a moral
preparation effected in practical life, applying the same method.”24
His practical display
of the art made it efficient and most winsome for the Alexander; his studies of the art of
persuasion proved very beneficial for him as he successfully used such methods
throughout the duration of his life which will be explored briefly.
23
Notwithstanding the long historical tradition with this document believed for almost two-thousand years
to have been penned by Aristotle, it has of late been rejected be skeptics and higher critics as an authentic
documents by Aristotle, instead, it was claimed that it was forged by a pseudo-Aristotle. Nevertheless, this
is also demonstrable in light of the historical accuracy and worth of the documents, and is now most widely
agreed upon by historians that the document is an authentic historical document penned by Anaximenes of
Lampsacus, the Greek historian, rhetorician, and teacher of Aristotle.
24
Ian Worthington, A Companion to Greek Rhetoric, (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2010), 91.
15

16. Alexander began his quest for Greek unification in c. 335 BC, and also, began
conquering the entire Mediterranean subsequently thereafter, eventually moving through
Egypt and into India –a feat so fantastic it had theretofore not even been conceived of by
a conqueror. Ten years later, his men were tired, downtrodden, and weary, thousands of
miles from their home. Historian Kate McKay explains: “ten years of fighting and being
away from home, [Alexander’s] men lacked the will to take part in another battle,
especially against an opponent like King Porus and his army. Alexander used the talent
for oration he had developed while studying under Aristotle to infuse his men with the
motivation they needed to continue on, to fight and to win.”25
Remember, Aristotle’s
technique in rhetoric was influence, the ability to inspire, persuade, and encourage –to
these he did most wonderfully. Alexander’s speech in India, near the Hydaspes River,
brilliantly shows the years of his studies concerning rhetoric, his masterful ability as an
orator, and the significant influence his teacher had on him regarding the profound art of
rhetoric. He commanded his troops with these words:
“I could not have blamed you for being the first to lose heart if I, your commander, had
not shared in your exhausting marches and your perilous campaigns; it would have been
natural enough if you had done all the work merely for others to reap the reward. But it is
not so. You and I, gentlemen, have shared the labour and shared the danger, and the
rewards are for us all. The conquered territory belongs to you; from your ranks the
governors of it are chosen; already the greater part of its treasure passes into your hands,
and when all Asia is overrun, then indeed I will go further than the mere satisfaction of
our ambitions: the utmost hopes of riches or power which each one of you cherishes will
be far surpassed.”26
In brilliant form, persuasion, and encouragement, Alexander successfully convinced his
troops to stand by his side throughout the remaining trials that would wait for them in
India. Therefore, his oratory skills, and utilization of rhetoric, cannot be overestimated in
25
Kate McKay, "The 35 Greatest Speeches in History," The Art of Manliness (blog), August 1, 2008,
http://artofmanliness.com/2008/08/01/the-35-greatest-speeches-in-history/.
26
Arrian, Speech of Alexander the Great: The Campaigns of Alexander, (New York: Fordham University:
Internet History Sourcebooks, 2000) http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/arrian-alexander1.asp
(accessed March 9, 2013).
16

17. regards to the training he received in his youth from the wisest and noblest rhetoricians in
all of Greece thitherto.
6 //
“Every art and every inquiry” Aristotle stated, “and similarly every action and
pursuit is thought to aim at some good; and for this reason the good has rightly been
declared to be that at which all things aim.”27
Despite two decades under the acclaimed
Plato, Aristotle’s philosophy was a much more pragmatic than his old teacher’s
ideology.28
It is in this sense that Aristotle developed his ethics, metaphysics, and
sciences; namely, that he put theory and speculation into action. In a word, he was a
thinker and a doer, rather than a mere speculator. Aristotle’s pragmatism is seen in his
works, studies, and life itself, for instance, not only did his studies cause him to travel
(although only in the nominal sense), but he also practically researched the sciences. He
observed, experimented, and tested. Freeman explains:
“Unlike Plato, who valued theory and speculation above all else, Aristotle was a practical
man. He was passionately curious about how things worked and was as likely to be found
knee-deep in a swamp collecting tadpoles for dissection as in a library studying the art of
poetics. In an age before specialization, Aristotle studied and wrote about everything…
practically; [also], he invented logic.”29
Therefore, the pragmatism can be seen in Aristotle’s systematic studies through his
empirical testing and verificationism, albeit he did speculate metaphysically as well as he
27
Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics, Book I, 1094a
, Translated by W.D. Ross, The Basic Works of Aristotle,
(New York: Modern, Library, 1941), 935.
28
When I speak of Aristotle’s philosophy as being pragmatic, I’m using the term in an anachronistic sense;
obviously, however, the term, as it is currently understood, wasn’t coined until the 18th
century,
nevertheless, the philosophical ideology of James, Dewey, and Pierce is what specific tradition I’m
referring to. Namely, putting thought to action, rather than sitting on mere speculative theory.
29
Freeman, 25
17

18. “deduced that the universe must have been created by an all powerful prime mover who,
however, took no interest in his handiwork.”30
Studying under Aristotle, Alexander would have learned the practical theory
espoused by his teacher. Specifically, if something is theorized, it must be tested; in order
to test the aforementioned theory, it must be put into action. This was precisely young
Alexander’s dogma as seen in his swift, rapid, and zealous conquests thought the
Mediterranean, Middle-East, Africa, and India. Zxe make clear, “[Alexander] had little
regard for logic choppers.”31
Essentially, he cared not for equivocation and doleful
theory; in contrast, he wanted to set his head to the plow. In fact, this is exactly what he
did. After King Phillip II, Alexander’s father, died from an assassination, the newfound
king acted rapidly and systematically, victoriously taking kingdom after kingdom in the
fastest conquest by an individual of the ancient world ever. Military historian and
strategic studies expert Dr. Lonsdale expounds, “Romantic though he may have been,
Alexander was also a great pragmatist and strategist,” his practical military skills and
necessary action led to decisive victories through Persia, Tyre, and Egypt.32
Therefore,
because of Alexander’s passion, the pragmatic-naturalism taught by Aristotle allowed
him to put his understanding of the world into action; hence, Alexander became arguably
the best generals and military strategists in history.
30
Ibid.
31
Chao Zxe.
32
Emphasis mine, David J. Lonsdale, Alexander the Great, Killer of Men: History’s Greatest Conqueror
and the Macedonian Art of War, (New York: Basic Books, 2004), 137.
18

19. 7 //
Although Aristotle’s political theory differed starkly in comparison to
Alexander’s political theory (if one can argue that he did in fact hold to ideological
presuppositions at all concerning the city-state), one area where Aristotle did in fact
influence Alexander was in his attitude concerning how a state should be governed. In
specific, the Greeks should be held in high regard, but the non-Greeks, in especially the
barbarians to the north, in no wise were in an even comparison with the intellectual and
philosophical minds of the Hellenes. In particular, Aristotle argued that slavery was an
inherent natural institution, necessary for a well functioning polity. In his treatise Politics,
he argues the rightness of the organization, wherein he states: “Property is a part of the
household, and the art of acquiring property is of the art of managing the household…
And so, in the arrangement of the family, a slave is a living possession, and property a
number of such instruments.”33
Because of the inherited right of slaves as property, he
thereby argues that certain beings were born for servitude, and others, to be masters.
Hence, the most virtuous and noblest of races have the right to property insofar they can
keep their house in good order and contrariwise.
Although Aristotle’s political theory and speculation, no doubt, did not rub off an
Alexander, his philosophical ideologies on the nature of ruling, and especially, the
institution of inherent slavery, most certainly did. It would be these tenants, combined
with his imperialistic zeal, which Alexander would utilize in order to substantiate his
enslavement of hundreds upon thousands of Persians, Tyrians, and Egyptians throughout
33
Aristotle, Politics, Book I, Chapter 3, 1253b
, 25-30, Translated by W.D. Ross, The Basic Works of
Aristotle, (New York: Modern, Library, 1941), 1131.
19

20. the duration of his military campaigns. The following passage explains the aforesaid
precepts eloquently:
“Aristotle asserted [his] influence particularly with regard to the so-called barbarians–a
term that was used to characterize essentially all non-Greeks. Alexander himself was
already passionately anti-Persian; and Aristotle provided him with the intellectual
justifications for his fated and inherited mission. Aristotle believed that slavery was a
natural institution, and that barbarians were by nature meant to be slaves. He therefore
encouraged Alexander to be a leader to Greeks and a despot to barbarians, treating the
former as friends and the latter as beasts. Aristotle saw barbarians as living only through
and for their senses, incapable of rising above hedonism…In these respects, Aristotle's
influence was likely essential, for he pushed Alexander along a path that diverged greatly
from the more precarious model set by his father.”34
Therefore, the influence Aristotle had on the Macedonian was significant in regard to his
anthropological worldview. For this reason, the viciousness and brutality of Alexander is
succinctly warranted in light of the teaching he endured previously endured. Not only did
Aristotle logically deduce the proper justification for slavery, but in fact, he encouraged it
as necessary and proper for the Hellenes. He writes in his Politics: “but is there any one
thus intended by nature to be a slave, and for whom such a condition is expedient and
right, or rather, is not all slavery a violation of nature? There is no difficulty answering
this question, on grounds both of reason and fact. For that some should rule and others be
ruled is a thing not only of necessary, but expedient; from the hour of their birth, some
are marked out for subjection, others for rule.”35
Aristotelian philosophy, in this regard,
not only justified Alexander on his conquests, but it fueled his militaristic passion whence
he would brutally subject those he conquered.
8 //
34
SparkNotes Editors. “SparkNote on Alexander the Great.” SparkNotes LLC. 2005.
http://www.sparknotes.com/biography/alexander/ (accessed March 8, 2013).
35
Aristotle, Politics, Book I, Chapter 3, 1254, 15-20, 1132.
20

21. Finally, and arguably most significant, Aristotle instilled in the young Alexander
an infatuation with the classical Greek poets of old –most specifically, Homer. His love
for Homer’s Iliad was more than a boyhood fancy; nay, it shaped not only how he
perceived the world, but also, how he viewed himself. Namely, Alexander began to be
fascinated with the legendary heroes described in the epics, stirring up in his own heart
the same lust for glory. But more exclusively, he wanted to identify himself with
greatness, something that would be more than just legendary, but godlike! It is for this
reason why he was so obsessive in trying to distinguish himself as more than human; he
wanted to be a god.
Concerning these lessons, Freeman comments: “Alexander must have studied all
these ideas and more under Aristotle, but the subject that seemed to interest him the
most…[was] poetry.”36
His studies of Hesiod, Homer, and others, showed his interest in
these myths, in especially, that they could perchance be more than myths, and thereby
become attainable. Again, Freeman notes, “He loved to reading, especially Homer’s
Iliad, which he revered as a handbook of war. Aristotle edited a volume of the poem for
him that he carried on his campaigns in a special box. At night Alexander placed it
reverently under his pillow –along with a very sharp dagger.”37
It would make sense, therefore, why Alexander attributed himself to be a son of
Zeus. Not only did his very own mother spread the fable that she was impregnated by the
god himself in the appearance of a snake, -at least mythologically speaking –but
Alexander traced his lineage back to Heracles and Achilles, of whom, Achilles
36
Freeman, 26.
37
Ibid.
21

22. specifically, he identified with as his avatar or ideological personality. However, to
Alexander these were not mere wives tales but a living reality. So much so, in fact, that
he killed some of his own men, and also had Aristotle’s nephew tortured, for denying that
he was immortal. Nevertheless, however desirous he was to be immortal, it was apparent
he himself knew that it was not the case. Hence, the identification with Achilles: for in
the mind of Alexander, it was better to burn out fast and achieve an infinite amount of
fame and glory, than to live long and fall short of the splendor he so beloved. Alexander
himself once stated, “Sex and sleep alone make me conscience that I am mortal.”38
Hence, it follows that Aristotle’s teaching of the classic poets, and the mythological tales
of old, were not mere fanfare for Alexander, but rather, the moral foundation that
Alexander would build his life upon. They provided the framework and ideology
therewith whereby his goals could be reached and his glory could be achieved.
9 //
38
Robin Lane Fox, Alexander the Great, (New York: Penguin Publishing Co, 1973).
22

23. For many years, albeit zealous, Alexander was a humble student underneath the
great Aristotle. Thence he learned the things that would forthwith shape his worldview
and radically change his life inasmuch as he utilized the strengths he had learned
thitherto. Although certainly Alexander would have been able to carry on in some sort of
like manner if he had never been tutored by Aristotle, his worldview would have been
significantly altered. Not only that, but there is a high probability he would never have
possessed many of the skills that set him apart as such a great commander, general, and
king. Not only did he have powerful theoretical knowledge that he obtained from the
great philosopher, but he learned fundamentally important practical skills that he would
utilize on and off the battle field.
From Aristotle’s inspiration, Alexander was able to initially open his mind to the
conceptions he theretofore had only idealized as fanciful. From Aristotle’s intellect
concerning the natural sciences, Alexander was able to make use of paramount skills that
proved to be vitally advantageous on the battlefield; viz., taking care of his wounded
soldiers through the art of medicines. Also, Alexander would thereafter travel with many
scientists, even mapping topography, and sending back exotic botanical samples to his
philosopher friend. Additionally, Aristotle’s masterful skills of rhetoric influenced
Alexander as he would make the most of such skills until the day he died –even
delivering life-saving speeches thereupon to his wearisome troops on the verge of
mutiny.
From Aristotle’s practicality, Alexander was able to formulate a pragmatic
worldview wherein he put theory to action –this he did to much success. From Aristotle’s
political theory, Alexander was easily swayed as a young boy to the extreme prejudices
23

24. of the Ancient Hellenes, and was thereby justified, in his own right, to forthwith enslave
the barbarous populations he would come into contact with throughout his campaigns
therefrom. Moreover from Aristotle’s ingenious knowledge of Greek poets, to conclude,
he was able to instill in Alexander a love for Homer’s Iliad, wherewith he infused a
religious dogma inside his head, and thus, lived his life as Achilles, the great conqueror.
Destined by the gods for a life of infinite fame, glory, and spender –all the while fated by
a poignant harbinger, a premature death –Alexander the Great will forever lives on.
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