Discusses the impact of Deepwater Horizon explosion and oil spill upon water, land and air animals, coastal communities and the ecosystem, the life and livelihood of the people living along the coast and neighboring localities. The paper uses the IMRAD framework in presenting and discussing the communication issues involved, the handling of the issues by Deepwater Horizon, the strategies used to manage the communication crisis, and other significant matters. Recommendations are presented to handle and manage similar environmental and communication issues.

1. Paper submitted by A.B. Loveria to Prof. A.T. Rosete (MGM, MA
Communication) as a final requirement in Communication Issues
(Course No. 204), 3rd Trimester AY 2021-2022, Master of Arts in
Communication, AIJC using the IMRAD Framework
August 4, 2022
Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Communication Issues in an Environmental Crisis
Introduction
An oil spill is an environmental concern that can have catastrophic effect upon humans,
land, sea and air animals, and the ecosystem. The Deepwater Horizon oil spill was the
biggest environmental catastrophe in marine oil drilling operations (Environmental
Protection Agency, 2022).
The communication issue/s chosen for this paper relate/s to the explosion and sinking
of Deepwater Horizon offshore drilling rig off the coast of Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico
(Ingersoll et al. 2, as cited in Ivy Panda, 2020; Sanchez, 2018). The drilling rig exploded
on April 20, 2010 and sank two days after (Pallardy, 2010). The explosion resulted to
death of 11 persons (Sanchez, 2018), oil leaks, and huge damage to the environment,
economy and tourism (Ingersoll et al. 2, as cited in Ivy Panda, 2020).
The drilling rig was owned by BP (British Petroleum) and operated by Transocean. A
District Judge in the US Carl Barbier attributed the fault to BP (67 %), drilling rig
operator Transocean (30%), and cement contractor Halliburton (3 %) (Rayman, 2014).
BP paid a penalty of $5.5 billion for violation of Clean Water Act and $8.8 billion for
damages to natural resources (Environmental Protection Agency, 2022). Due to the
magnitude of the claims and legal issues, the US District Court for the Eastern District of
Louisiana created a website for the oil spill (Environmental Protection Agency, 2022).
Methods
Primary and secondary data were collected for this research. The researcher collects
the primary data from first-hand experience (Easterby-Smith et al., 2008, as cited in
Ogoko, 2015). The researcher chooses, interprets and constructs primary data.
The primary data collected comprised the following: “feedback from interviews
conducted with individuals in affected communities (sourced through Youtube);
feedback from interviews conducted with BP officials (newspaper, Youtube and other
media sources); responses from officials of the American government (newspapers and
Youtube); and remarks by public relations practitioners (newspapers, YouTube, and

2. other media channels)” (Ogoko, 2015, p. 26). These data, subjected to an analytical
framework developed for this research, were treated as primary data. Information from
YouTube and newspapers were regarded as primary data because the study focused
on constructions and interpretations of media commentators.
Secondary data is collected by other researchers (Ogoko, 2015) and consists of
information which is already in existence (Bryman & Bell, 2011, as cited in Ogoko,
2015). They can be accessed from “public domains such as websites, academic
textbook, academic journals, company publications, unpublished manuscripts, and other
public domains” (Ogoko, 2015, p. 26).
YouTube is considered treated as primary data because material from it was subjected
to the construction and interpretation of the researcher. Secondary data supported the
primary data, and was used in the development of the literature review. The literature
review provides support to the analysis of data collected.
Qualitative approach was chosen because the data researched were mostly qualitative,
such as corporate communications; media reports, comments, reports, and
observations. A qualitative research approach involved "recording, analyzing and
making an effort to uncover deeper meaning and importance of human behavior and
experience" (Collis & Hussey, 2005, as cited in Ogoko, p. 10). In order to understand
how organizations use public relations to drive their own agendas, undertaking a
critique of their corporate communications is critical. Such communication consists of
qualitative data.
The critical discourse analysis (CDA) is a qualitative approach used in analyzing the
corporate communications of BP. It was used to analyze the primary and secondary
data collected (Ogoko, 2015). The main objective of CDA is to explore how corporations
manipulate or use spin to manage public's perceptions of their reputation when faced
with crisis. To do this the case study design is used. The case study design offers a
useful way of understanding the complex problem by examining a real-life scenario
(Collis & Hussey, 2005, as cited in Ogoko). Case study can help the researcher in
understanding groups, organizations, political, social or phenomena (Yin, 1981:1, as
cited in Ogoko, 2015).
Results
The first press release (PR 1) of BP dated April 21, 2010 provided information to the
general public about the rig accident, demonstrated support to Transocean, the efforts
of BP to reduce the escape of oil, and protect the marine and coastal environments
(Ogoko, 2015).
The second press release (PR 2), issued on April 21, 2010, offered support to
Transocean and its families. In the second paragraph, BP chief executive Tony
Hayward issued the following remarks: "our concern and thoughts are with rig personnel

3. and their families. We are also focused on providing every possible support in the effort
to deal with the consequences of the incident". This, however, was not supported by
action.
PR 3, released on April 23, 2022, offered sympathies and condolences to the families
and friends who died as a result of the explosion. Showing empathy, according to
Jaques (2007, as cited in Ogoko, 2015) is one of the fundamental requirements of crisis
communication. PR 3, however, failed to provide any information on the extent of the
damage and its effects. This can be interpreted as a ploy to manage any anxiety on the
part of the general public.
PR 4, released on May 24, 2010, committed the sum of US$500m for the study of the
impact of the oil spill, as well as to generate recommendations that would address the
oil spill effects.
Discussion
Communication & information Issue and Rationale
Managing the reputation during a crisis is crucial to how the public perceive the
organization. The primary stakeholders affected will lose trust, while the media may
release unfavorable reports that could badly damage the organization. Public relations
is utilized in reputation management because it can bridge the gap between the
organization’s perception of itself and the public’s view (Ogoko, 2015). The image of the
organization and public’s perception of it during a crisis is magaged through crisis
communication.
The communication and information issues chosen involve the messages in the press
releases of British Petroleum (BP) after the explosion of the drilling rig. The press
releases contained statements which are considered as public relations blunders such
as dishonesty, lack of transparency, press agentry, improper behavior and lack of crisis
management plan and framework. Press agentry is described as the “practice of
attracting the attention of the press through techniques that manufacture news” with
methods, such as “staged events, publicity stunts, faux rallies or gatherings, spinning,
and hype” (Heath, 2022, p. 1).
The communication issues were selected because the Deepwater Horizon oil spill is the
largest marine environmental disaster in history (Pallardy, 2010) that affected numerous
stakeholders, the marine life and the environment. British Petroleum (BP) committed
public relations blunders through the press releases it issued. It would be significant to
the study of communication to determine the crisis management tactics of BP in dealing
with environmental disaster. With crisis communication plans and strategies, there
would be means through which information could be collected and released rapidly
(Ogoko, 2015). Crisis communication tactics can enable the company to “provide

4. correct and particular information on very short notice” (Fearn-Banks, 1996, p. 20, as
cited in Ogoko, 2015).
Research Plan
A research plan for communication is fundamental in preparing for and addressing a
communication crisis. In the case of British Petroleum, its public relations channel in
informing the stakeholders was dissemination of press releases. While preparation of
public relations strategies and messages may be had through brainstorming and focus
group discussions among the communications team members, research may be
conducted for other questions that need to be answered.
Davis (2004, Chapter 8) mentioned in his book Mastering Public Relations that the
public relations process is “based on research—research, action planning, and
evaluation—which are three of the four steps in the strategic management process in
the RACE acronym (which stands for research, action planning, communication, and
evaluation)”. Research plays a significant role in public relations management, he
added.
Through research, collection of information from the publics becomes two-way rather
than one-way (Davis, 2004). Furthermore, research allows the communications team to
“engage in dialogue with publics, understanding their beliefs and values, and working to
build understanding on their part of the internal workings and policies of the
organization” (Davis, 2004, Chapter 8). He added that research would make public
relations a true management functions, and not a mere press agentry wherein hunches
and instinct are relied upon in creating publicity.
Modern public relations management must be founded upon research. Research would
ensure that public relations activities are strategic and target the publics who need and
care about the information (Ehling & Dozier, 1992, as cited in Davis, 2004). With
research, results can be shown, impacts can be measured, and efforts can be
refocused based on the metrics (Ehling & Dozier, 1992, as cited in Davis, 2004).
Ineffective activities or messages shown by statistical results can be redesigned or
eliminated (Ehling & Dozier, 1992, as cited in Davis, 2004).
Formative research, after revising one’s own thinking to include public views, allows
segmentation of the publics, tailoring communications for unique publics, sending
different messages to targeted publics, and building relationships with those who have
interest in the message (Stacks, 2002, as cited in Davis, 2004).
Data can be gathered through quantitative and qualitative methods (Davis, 2004). The
methods of quantitative data collection are as follows:
1. Internet-based surveys
2. Telephone surveys
3. Mail surveys

5. 4. Content analysis (usually of media coverage)
5. Comment cards and feedback forms
6. Warranty cards (usually demographic information on buyers)
7. Frequent shopper program tracking (purchasing data)
Following are the methods of qualitative data collection:
1. In-depth interviews
2. Focus groups
3. Case studies
4. Participant observation
5. Monitoring toll-free call transcripts
6. Monitoring complaints by e-mail and letter
The communications team must consider pre-crisis scenario, crisis phase response and
post-crisis communication management. The following figure presents the tactical
activities or information needed at each stage of crisis communication.
Figure 1: Stages of Crisis Communication Tactical Activities
The following guiding principles would be used in the development of the research plan:

6. Table 1: Guide for Research Plan
Various tactical activities can be used in reaching out to the stakeholders. However,
choosing the best and efficient activities must be carefully thought of in order to impact
the stakeholders most. The following considerations can be weighed when framing main
activities:

7. Figure 2: Considerations When Framing Main Activities
The research plan must know, rank and prioritize the audience according to the
following guide:
1) Key players – who are both interested in your research and are important in your
field/have influence. These are the people you will want to engage and consult
regularly to increase the likelihood that they will use and promote your research.
2) Key audiences – who perhaps do not yet know so much about your work but who are
important in your field or have influence. These are the people you want to engage
with regularly to increase their interest in your work.
3) Secondary audiences – who may be very interested in your research but do not have
real influence in the field. You will want to keep them informed and feeling positive as
they have the potential to be an ambassador and tell other people about your work.
4) General audiences – these are the people who you want to be aware of your work
but you are not sure what they can/will do with what you tell them. You should try to
find ways to communicate with them regularly so that they become more interested
and engaged over time.
It is important to consider the most appropriate ways (channels) to reach the target
audience, such as regular user groups, workshops or conferences, a newsletter or blog,

8. or some media activity. The following audience/ messaging grid provides guidance on
how to reach different audiences:
Table 2: Audience/ Messaging Grid
The Planning Matrix by communications activities below will provide guidelines on
achieving the communication objects and reach the target audience:
Table 3: Planning Matrix
Nature, Explicit and Implicit Manifestations, of CI issues
From the press releases issued by BP, a number of PR blunders had been identified.
From the initial press release, acceptance or accountability had not been shown.
Silence on the cause of the accident and deaths only increased apprehension of the
publics. This can be viewed as lack of transparency and empathy to the families of
victims. Targeting the general publics rather than specific stakeholders merely bolstered
BPs lack of crisis management plan and dedicated communication team. The chief
executive Tony Hayward who acted as the spokesperson was inexperienced in
managing a crisis. He described coastal communities as small people (Strawser, 2022).
His insensitivity to those affected had been an issue for quite a long time (Strawser,
2022). The statement relating to assistance to the rig workers was not equalled by
action. BP was likewise dishonest about the extent of the damage to the environment.

9. One obvious communication issue is the damage to the reputation of BP, as well as the
loss of trust of the public to it and the authorities. In 2015 (after five years), the wildlife
still struggled to rebound despite the remediation efforts (The Arthur W. Page Center,
n.d.). Dishonesty was likewise manifest with BPs PRs in 2015 that highlighted the
recovery of the Gulf which was opposite the actual condition.
Root Causes of Selected CI Issues using Framework(s)
Public relations pertain to managing the organization’s relationship with the external
stakeholders (Allen et al., 2008, as cited in Ogoko, 2015). Relationships with the
stakeholders before a crisis, Marra (1992, as cited in Ogoko, 2015) noted, have six
attributes which can be used to measure relationships. Absence of these attributes -
trust, understanding, credibility, satisfaction, cooperation, and agreement – could
magnify the negative effects of the crisis. Not trusting an organization could mean not
agreeing with its actions. Furthermore, a relationship could not be built or repaired
during a crisis; and a “comprehensive crisis plan cannot compensate for poor pre-crisis
relationships” (Marra, 1992, as cited in Ogoko, 2015, p. 21).
According to Allen et al. (2008, as cited in Ogoko, 2015, p. 14) public relations is a
“structured function that assesses the attitudes and behaviors of external stakeholders;
harmonizes the objectives, policies, and processes of a person or company with the
public interest; and implements a program of action to gain public support and
acceptance”. In addition, public relations enables an uninterrupted exchange of views
that results to public consent to such messages (Allen et al., 2008, as cited in Ogoko,
2015).
Public relations is a manifestation of respect to the members of society and is “at the
core of corporate reputation management” (Allen et al., 2008, as cited in Ogoko, 2015,
p. 13). On the contrary, Ogoko (2015, p. 13) mentioned that public relations can be
used by an organization to promote its own agenda “irrespective of the interests and
needs of external stakeholders”. Public relations can be used in building a relationship
for those with shared interest, and managing a crisis if used to lessen the effect of
negative publicity and there is a threat to the organization’s reputation (Coombs, 2007,
as cited in Ogoko, 2015). Crisis management presents a useful framework in ‟protecting
a company and its stakeholders from threats or reduce the effect from the
materialization of such threats” (Jaques, 2007, as cited in Ogoko, 2015, p. 7).
The theories of relationship (e.g. situational theory) and theories of mass
communication (e.g. framing theory and agenda setting) underpin public relations
practice (Grunig & Repper, 1992; Cohen, 1963, as cited in Ogoko, 2015). The theories
of relationships are concerned with management of relationships, referring to the
network of relationships between the organization and the external stakeholders (Leary
& Kowalski, 1990; Spaulding & Correa, 2005, as cited in Ogoko, 2015). The theories of
mass communication, on the other hand, are significant because public relations belong
to the discipline of mass communication (Ogoko, 2015).

10. Situational theory provides an explanation why certain groups would be active on some
issues, others on several issues, or simply indifferent to the issues (Grunig & Repper,
1992, as cited in Ogoko, 2015). Changes in situation could lead to changes in
perception. Situational theory could inform communicators to focus on the types of
information that the public want against the information that the organization preferred
to disseminate. The assumption here is that the public will seek for information that is
for their best interest. With situational theory, public relations messages could be
tailored to specific issues that the public need answers.
The Agenda Setting Theory purports that what the media report has correlation with
what the people consider as critical. This was shown by Shaw and McCombs (1977, as
cited in Ogoko, 2015) in their study that what the media reports as critical was positively
correlated with the public perception. Public relations practitioners could focus their
effort on influencing media agenda by releasing news items for news consumption
(Akpabio, 2005, as cited in Ogoko, 2015). The public relations practitioners must exert
effort in influencing media agenda through news items that the public would consume
(Akpabio, 2005, as cited in Ogoko, 2015). They should identify subjects that news
directors and editors would consider news and localize the messages (Ogoko, 2015).
In the Framing Theory, messages and information sent to the audience have “pre-
existing set of meanings or what some would refer to as ‘frames’”, according to Entman
(1993, as cited in Ogoko, 2015, p. 14). Framing refers to an “active process of drawing
out dominant themes from the content (Dozier et al., 1995, as cited in Ogoko, 2015, p.
14). Understanding common frames makes way for easy and meaningful
communication with the audience (Ogoko, 2015).
PR 1 was intended for the general publics (public information model) and not the
specific stakeholders (Gnnig & Hunt, 1984, as cited in Ogoko, 2015). Despite the
timeliness of this press release, it did not give information on the cause of the accident
or casualties. This only increased the apprehension on the part of the families of
workers, along with the general public.
BP chief executive mentioned in PR 2 that the company was “working closely with
Transocean and the US Coast Guard, which was initiating the emergency response,
and had been offering its help that included logistical support. In this particular
statement, the 'scapegoat mentality' is evident. In essence, there seems to be an
attempt by BP to transfer blame for the incident rather than facing the crisis head-on.
Although stating that BP is assisting Transocean, it did not attempt to assume
responsibility for the incident. PR 3 likewise fits into the 'public information model' of PR
that targets the general public (Grunig & Hunt, 1984, as cited in Ogoko, 2015).
At this time, the BP executives should have been made aware of the leakage of barrels
of oil into the Gulf. BP first brought to the fore about the leakage when its executives
appeared before the US Senate. But still, they underestimated the extent of the problem
(a form dishonesty and lack of transparency). PR 4 is a belated corrective action can be

11. viewed as a form of ‘press agentry’ to improve its image by committing huge funds for
scientific study. Such commitment should have been done years before as part of its
safety program. Although this may be a welcome development by the scientific
community, the general public and those whose livelihoods had been affected would
have a different response in relation to BPs earlier PR blunders.
Effects and Impact of Selected Issues on Individual and Society
The actions made by BP had impacted upon the people living in coastal communities
who lost their livelihood for several years. The communication made by BP should have
included its plan to provide financial assistance to the inhabitants who cannot fish in the
area where the oil spill occurred. The families of the victims who remained uninformed
by BP grieved for a time due to the failure of the company to inform them. BP should be
ready to release funds for the clean-up and rehabilitation and fines to the government
for the destruction of the environment and various species of animals. Society under
this context would comprise the ecosystem that includes the people, the government,
the animals, the sea, and others.
Policies Recommended
The policies recommended for BP are as follows: a) prepare communication plan and
framed messages to be released to the public or for specific stakeholders at specified
time, b) be honest and transparent, c) be empathic and sympathetic to victims, d) be
accountable and responsible, and not pass the blame to another, d) increase social
listening efforts during and after the crisis, and f) let communications specialist speak for
the company.
Action Agenda
The action agenda that BP should undertake must include the following: a) act quickly
and inform the stakeholders whatever information is available at the moment, b) keep
the government regulatory agency informed, c) establish partnerships with technical
organizations to prepare for and be ready during crisis, d) monitor risks during pre-crisis
stage, e) establish trust-based relations with stakeholders, f) maintain a channel for
steady flow of information, g) keep the employees informed, g) utilize various channels,
including the social media, to reach out to stakeholders, and f) prepare a budget for
reparation and clean up.
Defense to Policy Recommendations and Action Agenda
The policy recommendations and action agenda would make the company prepared at
the different stages of the crisis, act ethically and appropriately in dealing with the

12. stakeholders, thrive in the ecosystem and environment that it is operating, preserve its
reputation even after the crisis, manage the crisis well, and gain the trust of the
stakeholders.
Conclusion
Reputation management is crucial to the existence of the organization. Rebuilding the
reputation of the organization is vital to its continued existence. According to Mijares
(2022, July 12), the goal of crisis management is to prevent or lessen the negative
outcomes of a crisis and thereby protect the organization, stakeholders, and/ or industry
from damage. Allowing the communications team to act independent of the control of
the management could determine the effectiveness of the crisis communication (Ogoko,
2015).
It is vital when managing a crisis to avoid certain responses, such as denying everything
and admitting nothing, saying only what the lawyers allow, spinning the story so that the
organization will look good, waiting for things to get worst before getting outside help,
fighting back, not commenting, keeping the employees in the dark, not talking to
reporters, perfecting the story before saying anything, hiding what can be hidden, and
telling only half truths. Responding through instincts will only make things worse
(Mijares, 2022, June 21).
Social listening at social media platforms would be useful in knowing the sentiments and
opinions of the stakeholders, especially the primary stakeholders. A social media
platform, like Facebook, is a venue that people vent their complaints, frustrations and
emotions. Williams (2017) said that the social media is the preferred communication
platform where they can voice their disapproval or dissatisfaction.

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