1. CHAPTER NINE
THE DIFFUSION of LANGUAGE
I. THE LANGUAGE TREE
1. DIVERGENCE: Mid-19th century theory of comparing the world’s language
families to the branches of a tree. It is the basic process of
language formation over time and space and how
differences occur. (August Schleicher)
2. CONVERGENCE: Diffusion of languages through human mobility. This can
complicate the task for researchers because the rules of
reconstruction may not apply or may be unreliable.
3. REPLACEMENT: Languages of invaders/conquerors have replaced and/or
modified languages of traditional, smaller, and technolog-
ically less advanced people. Has occurred throughout human
history.

2. THEORIES of LANGUAGE DIFFUSION
CONQUEST THEORY: Present-day Russia, an early cradle, spread westward, over-
powering earlier inhabitants and imposing their vocabulary.

3. AGRICULTURAL THEORY: It was the spread of agriculture, not conquest, that diffused language
through Europe. The source of ancient language had to lie in an
agricultural hearth, and not in Russia and Ukraine. The source area is
believed to be the area of Anatolia in modern Turkey. This theory has
both supporters and opponents. Explain both perspectives.

4. The agricultural theory, proposed in 1984, has as its main point, one culture hearth as the
origin of diffusion for the Indo-European language.

5. THE SEARCH for a SUPERFAMILY
The evolution and diffusion of Proto-Indo-European occurred over a period of, at most,
9,000 years. But language development and divergence have been occurring for more than
ten times as long. Describe Colin Renfrew’s theory. How is it different from the
agricultural theory? Identify the culture the culture hearths.

6. DIFFUSION to the PACIFIC
To study language diffusion in the Pacific, geographers studied the migration (diffusion) of people
through the region. The diffusion of peoples and their languages into the Pacific north of Indonesia
began in China (Fig. 9-6). Identify the emergent language family and the three distinct dialects
that evolved. Despite geographic barriers, the process of diffusion took place remarkably quickly.

7. DIFFUSION in the AMERICAS
The current language map of the
Americas is dominated by Indo-European
languages. These have engulfed the
languages of Native Americans. Because
of their small populations and the fact
that there were not any preexisting
people, it was assumed that the Indian
linguistic situation would be fairly simple.
How many Native languages have been
discovered versus Old World
languages? So what conclusion can be
drawn?
Describe the Greenberg hypothesis &
identify the 3 language families. Do
all linguists agree with Greenberg?
Explain.

8. INFLUENCES on INDIVIDUAL LANGUAGES
Each of the languages in the world’s language families
has its own story of origin and dispersal. We can’t
hope to tell the story of even a fraction of these
languages, but we can identify some of the critical
influences of individual tongues.
Explain the premise that speakers of non-written
languages will not retain the same language very long
if they lose contact with one another. How might this
relate to the early proliferation of languages in
human history? What was the significance of the
Middle Ages to language diffusion?