1. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
Chapter 13
Discussion

2. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
• Answers the question posed in the Introduction
• Also explains:
o How the results support the answer
o How the answer fits in with existing knowledge
o Theoretical implications or practical applications
Function of the Discussion

3. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
• Provide the answer to the question
• State and interpret key findings
• State the novelty and significance/importance
• Indicate possible next steps
• Provide other relevant results and hypotheses
• Compare and contrast your findings with others
• Can mention possible errors, unexpected findings, or
limitations
Content of the Discussion
Summarize and generalize

4. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
• Consider readers
• Basic scientists and clinicians need to
understand each other
• Provide clinical implications
• Discuss scientific significance
• Take a stand—convey confidence and authority
Audience and Tone in the Discussion

5. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
Pyramid structure: Specific to general
- The answer
- Your interpretation of the answer
- Supporting evidence
- Comparisons/Contrast with previous studies
- Unexpected findings and limitations
- Hypotheses or models
- Summary and significance
First Paragraph
Middle
paragraphs
Last
paragraph
Organization of the Discussion

6. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
The verb tense depends on the subject of the sentence
Signal Verb Tense
This study shows that Present
Our results indicate that Present
In this study, we provide evidence
that
Present
In this study, we have shown that Present perfect
In this study, we have found that Present perfect
In this study, we found that Past
Signal of the Answer

7. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
State the answer/interpret key findings
• Answer ≠ Results
Answer = Generalization based on the results
Support the answer
• State the relevant results after stating the answer
• Cite a figure or a table if necessary
• Readers will not memorize results or search for them
First Paragraph

8. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
Transition Type
“In our experiments” Transition phrase
“The evidence is that” Transition clause
“Evidence that (answer) is that” Transition clause
“We found that”* Transition clause
“(Answer) has been demonstrated
in two ways.”
Topic sentence
*Only if “We found that” is not used to signal the answer.
Transitions from the
Answer to the Results

9. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
Example
Our findings emphasize the need to continue to promote
personal protection measures to reduce the risk of Lyme
disease infection. We have identified three reasonable
personal measures that may be protective against Lyme
disease when practiced: tick checks, bathing, and insect
repellents. Performing tick checks within 36 hrs after
spending time in the yard may reduce one’s risk by as
much as 46%. In addition, bathing may reduce one’s
risk by up to 57%, and the use of insect repellent may
be protective against the disease up to 75%.
AnswerAnswer
Supporting
evidence
Supporting
evidence
Sample Discussion First Paragraph

10. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
Do not begin the Discussion with:
• A second introduction
• A summary of the Results
• Secondary information
How Not to Begin the Discussion

11. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
• Organize the topics: most to least important
• Compare and contrast results
• Explain discrepancies, unexpected findings, and
limitations
• Provide generalizations (models) where possible
Middle Paragraphs

12. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
• Use topic sentences
• Repeat key terms
• Use Transitions
- Stronger transitions in later paragraphs
• Consider word location
Continuity in the Discussion

13. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
Mention any results that do not support your answer
Explain discrepancies with other’s work
Example
Apparent discrepancies between our values and those of
earlier studies may be due to differences in study design. In
our study, oxygen was excluded in all cases. Moreover,
aluminum was added. Earlier studies that reported lower
reaction rates, differed from this study design in one of two
ways: No care was taken to exclude oxygen, or a mixture of
different metal alloys was added.
Conflicting Results

14. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
Discuss unexpected findings
•State that the finding was unexpected (or surprising)
•Explain unexpected findings as best you can
•Unexpected findings may be important
Example
To our surprise we discovered that the bindin fusion
protein was being cleaved during isolation and purification.
The proteolysis is remarkably efficient since only small
amounts of the unprocessed form remain (Fig. 2, lane 3).
Unexpected Findings

15. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
Provide a conclusion
•Restate the answer(s) to the question(s)
•Indicate the importance of the work
•Discuss theoretical and possible practical implications
Last Paragraph

16. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
Phrase conclusions concisely and with great care
Signal the end and signal the answer
Examples
• “In summary, we have shown that . . .”
• “In conclusion, this study shows that . . .”
The Conclusion
Answer at the end of the Discussion = Answer at
the beginning
Answer at the end of the Discussion = Answer at
the beginning

17. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
Level of
Certainty
Indicate importance by stating
Importance of Work
Ending Example
Application . . . can be used for . . .
Advice X should be used to . . .
Suggestion Our results imply . . .
Proposition We hypothesize that . . .

18. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
Example Application
In summary, our work reveals the functional interactions
involved in the binding of antibiotics to the peptidyl transferase
cavity of the bacterial ribosome. None of the antibiotics
examined show any direct interaction with ribosomal proteins.
Chloramphenicol targets mainly the A site, where it interferes
directly with substrate binding. Clindamycin interferes with the
A site and P site substrate binding and physically hinders the
path of the growing peptide chain. Macrolides bind at the
entrance to the tunnel where they sterically block the
progression of the nascent chain. The structural model of the
peptidyl transferase center in complex with the examined
antibiotics can not only enable a rational approach for
antibiotic development and therapy strategies but can also be
used to identify new target sites on the eubacterial ribosome.
Sample Conclusion
AnswerAnswer
Key
findings
Key
findings
SignificanceSignificance

19. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
Tense in the Discussion
• Past tense for results
• Present tense for general statements and
conclusions
• Be specific about necessary future studies

20. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
Signals in the Discussion
Answer Key findings Summary Significance
In this study, we
have shown . . .
In our
experiments . . .
In summary, . . . Our findings can/will
serve to . . .
In this study, we
found that . . .
. . . can be
attributed to . . .
In conclusion, . . .
Finally, . . .
. . . can be used . . .
Our study shows
that . . .
We found
that . . .
To summarize our
results, . . .
Y should be used
for . . .
Our findings
demonstrate
that . . .
Our data show
that . . . was
demonstrated
by . . .
We conclude
that . . .
Taken
together, . . .
Y indicates that X
may . . .
These findings imply
that X may . . .
This paper
describes . . .
Overall, . . . . . . we hypothesize
that . . .

21. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
Signals in the Discussion
Comparisons Conflicting
Results
Limitations Unexpected
Findings
Proposed
Hypothesis
. . . consistent
with . . . (ref.)
Similar to . . . (ref.)
. . . has also been
observed by . . .
(ref.)
X has been
demonstrated . . .
(ref.)
However, other
studies found
that . . . (ref.)
. . . is
controversial . .
. (ref.)
. . . does not
agree with (ref.)
. . . has also
been reported…
(ref.)
. . . was not
possible . . .
. . . could not be
measured . . .
. . . was limited
by . . .
Further
observations are
needed to . . .
Surprisingly,
. . .
To our
surprise . . .
. . . was not
expected.
Our results lead to
the conclusion
that . . .
From these data
we hypothesize
that . . .
We propose the
following new
principle . . .
ref. = reference

22. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
• The Results and Discussion sections are
sometimes combined
• Advantageous for certain papers
• The results are discussed as they are presented
An Alternative:
Results and Discussion

23. Scientific Writing and Communication, 2e Angelika H. Hofmann Copyright © 2014 by Oxford University Press
Common Problems of the Discussion
• The answer/interpretation is not provided in
the first paragraph
• The importance/significance of the study is
not clear
• Inclusion of irrelevant or peripheral
information
• Results are repeated or summarized in the
Discussion