3. Purpose of Design
• Design is where customer requirements, business needs,
and technical considerations all come together in the
formulation of a product or system
• The design model provides detail about the software data
structures, architecture, interfaces, and components
• The design model can be assessed for quality and be
improved before code is generated and tests are
conducted
– Does the design contain errors, inconsistencies, or omissions?
– Are there better design alternatives?
– Can the design be implemented within the constraints, schedule,
and cost that have been established?
3
4. From Analysis Model to
Design Model
• Each element of the analysis model provides information that
is necessary to create the four design models
– The data/class design transforms analysis classes into
design classes along with the data structures required to
implement the software
– The architectural design defines the relationship between
major structural elements of the software; architectural
styles and design patterns help achieve the requirements
defined for the system
– The interface design describes how the software
communicates with systems that interoperate with it and
with humans that use it
– The component-level design transforms structural
elements of the software architecture into a procedural
4
description of software components
5. From Analysis Model to
Design Model (continued)
Component-level Design
(Class-based model, Flow-oriented model
Behavioral model)
Interface Design
(Scenario-based model, Flow-oriented model
Behavioral model)
Architectural Design
(Class-based model, Flow-oriented model)
Data/Class Design
(Class-based model, Behavioral model) 5
6.
7. Task Set for Software Design
1) Examine the information domain model and design
appropriate data structures for data objects and their
attributes
2) Using the analysis model, select an architectural style (and
design patterns) that are appropriate for the software
3) Partition the analysis model into design subsystems and
allocate these subsystems within the architecture
a) Design the subsystem interfaces
b) Allocate analysis classes or functions to each subsystem
4) Create a set of design classes or components
a) Translate each analysis class description into a design class
b) Check each design class against design criteria; consider
inheritance issues
c) Define methods associated with each design class
d) Evaluate and select design patterns for a design class or
subsystem
7
8. Task Set for Software Design
(continued)
5) Design any interface required with external systems or
devices
6) Design the user interface
7) Conduct component-level design
a) Specify all algorithms at a relatively low level of abstraction
b) Refine the interface of each component
c) Define component-level data structures
d) Review each component and correct all errors uncovered
5) Develop a deployment model
Show a physical layout of the system, revealing which
components will be located where in the physical computing
environment
8
10. Stages of Design
• Problem understanding
– Look at the problem from different angles to discover the
design requirements.
• Identify one or more solutions
– Evaluate possible solutions and choose the most
appropriate depending on the designer's experience and
available resources.
• Describe solution abstractions
– Use graphical, formal or other descriptive notations to
describe the components of the design.
• Repeat process for each identified abstraction
until the design is expressed in primitive terms.
12. Design Phases
• Architectural design: Identify sub-systems.
• Abstract specification: Specify sub-systems.
• Interface design: Describe sub-system
interfaces.
• Component design: Decompose sub-systems
into components.
• Data structure design: Design data structures to
hold problem data.
• Algorithm design: Design algorithms for problem
functions.
13. Phases in the Design Process
Requir
ements
specificaion
t
Design acti
vities
Ar
chitectural Abstract Interface Component Data Algorithm
design specificaio
t design design structur
e design
n design
Softw are Data
System Interface Component Algorithm
specificaion
t structure
architectur
e specifica
t ion specificaion
t specifica
t ion
specificaion
t
Design pr
oducts
16. Top-down Design
• In principle, top-down design involves starting
at the uppermost components in the hierarchy
and working down the hierarchy level by level.
• In practice, large systems design is never
truly top-down. Some branches are designed
before others. Designers reuse experience (and
sometimes components) during the design
process.
18. Design methods
• Many methods support comparable views of a
system.
• A data flow view showing data transformations.
• An entity-relation view describing the logical
data structures.
• A structural view showing system components
and their interactions.
22. Design Strategies
• Functional design
– The system is designed from a functional viewpoint.
The system state is centralized and shared between
the functions operating on that state.
• Object-oriented design
– The system is viewed as a collection of interacting
objects.
The system state is decentralized and each object
manages its own state. Objects may be instances of an
object class and communicate by exchanging methods.
23. Functional View of a Compiler
Source Tokens Tokens Syntax Object
program tree code
Build Generate
Scan Analyse
symbol code
source
table
Error
Symbols Symbols indicator
Symbol Output
table errors
Error
messages
24. Object-oriented View of a Compiler
Scan Add
Source Token Symbol
program stream table
Check
Get
Syntax Err or
Gr ammar
tree messages
Build Print
Generate
Abstract Object
code code
Generate
25. Mixed-strategy Design
• Although it is sometimes suggested that one
approach to design is superior, in practice, an
object-oriented and a functional-oriented
approach to design are complementary.
• Good software engineers should select the
most appropriate approach for whatever
sub-system is being designed.
27. Quality's Role
• The importance of design is quality
• Design is the place where quality is fostered
– Provides representations of software that can be assessed for
quality
– Accurately translates a customer's requirements into a finished
software product or system
– Serves as the foundation for all software engineering activities that
follow
• Without design, we risk building an unstable system that
– Will fail when small changes are made
– May be difficult to test
– Cannot be assessed for quality later in the software process when
time is short and most of the budget has been spent
• The quality of the design is assessed through a series of formal
technical reviews or design walkthroughs
27
30. Design Concepts
• Abstraction
– Procedural abstraction – a sequence of instructions that have a specific
and limited function
– Data abstraction – a named collection of data that describes a data
object
• Architecture
– The overall structure of the software and the ways in which the structure
provides conceptual integrity for a system
– Consists of components, connectors, and the relationship between them
• Patterns
– A design structure that solves a particular design problem within a
specific context
– It provides a description that enables a designer to determine whether
the pattern is applicable, whether the pattern can be reused, and
whether the pattern can serve as a guide for developing similar patterns
30
31. Design Concepts (continued)
• Modularity
– Separately named and addressable components (i.e., modules) that are
integrated to satisfy requirements (divide and conquer principle)
– Makes software intellectually manageable so as to grasp the control
paths, span of reference, number of variables, and overall complexity
• Information hiding
– The designing of modules so that the algorithms and local data contained
within them are inaccessible to other modules
– This enforces access constraints to both procedural (i.e., implementation)
detail and local data structures
• Functional independence
– Modules that have a "single-minded" function and an aversion to
excessive interaction with other modules
– High cohesion – a module performs only a single task
– Low coupling – a module has the lowest amount of connection needed
with other modules
31
32. Design Concepts (continued)
• Stepwise refinement
– Development of a program by successively refining levels of
procedure detail
– Complements abstraction, which enables a designer to specify
procedure and data and yet suppress low-level details
• Refactoring
– A reorganization technique that simplifies the design (or internal
code structure) of a component without changing its function or
external behavior
– Removes redundancy, unused design elements, inefficient or
unnecessary algorithms, poorly constructed or inappropriate data
structures, or any other design failures
• Design classes
– Refines the analysis classes by providing design detail that will
enable the classes to be implemented
– Creates a new set of design classes that implement a software
infrastructure to support the business solution
32
34. Types of Design Classes
• User interface classes – define all abstractions necessary for
human-computer interaction (usually via metaphors of real-world
objects)
• Business domain classes – refined from analysis classes; identify
attributes and services (methods) that are required to implement
some element of the business domain
• Process classes – implement business abstractions required to
fully manage the business domain classes
• Persistent classes – represent data stores (e.g., a database) that
will persist beyond the execution of the software
• System classes – implement software management and control
functions that enable the system to operate and communicate
within its computing environment and the outside world
34
36. Characteristics of a Well-Formed
Design Class
• Complete and sufficient
– Contains the complete encapsulation of all attributes and methods that exist
for the class
– Contains only those methods that are sufficient to achieve the intent of the
class
• Primitiveness
– Each method of a class focuses on accomplishing one service for the class
• High cohesion
– The class has a small, focused set of responsibilities and single-mindedly
applies attributes and methods to implement those responsibilities
• Low coupling
– Collaboration of the class with other classes is kept to an acceptable
minimum
– Each class should have limited knowledge of other classes in other
subsystems
36
37. The Design Model
Component-level Design
Interface Design
Architectural Design
Data/Class Design
38. Introduction
• Design model elements are not always developed in a
sequential fashion
– Preliminary architectural design sets the stage
– It is followed by interface design and component-level design,
which often occur in parallel
• The design model has the following layered elements
– Data/class design
– Architectural design
– Component-level Design
Interface design
– Component-level design
Interface Design
• A fifth element that follows all of
the others is deployment-level design Architectural Design
Data/Class Design
38
40. Design Elements
• Data/class design
– Creates a model of data and objects that is represented at a high level
of abstraction
• Architectural design
– Depicts the overall layout of the software
• Interface design
– Tells how information flows into and out of the system and how it is
communicated among the components defined as part of the
architecture
– Includes the user interface, external interfaces, and internal interfaces
• Component-level design elements
– Describes the internal detail of each software component by way of data
structure definitions, algorithms, and interface specifications
• Deployment-level design elements
– Indicates how software functionality and subsystems will be allocated
within the physical computing environment that will support the software
40
42. Pattern-based Software Design
• Mature engineering disciplines make use of thousands of design patterns for
such things as buildings, highways, electrical circuits, factories, weapon
systems, vehicles, and computers
• Design patterns also serve a purpose in software engineering
• Architectural patterns
– Define the overall structure of software
– Indicate the relationships among subsystems and software components
– Define the rules for specifying relationships among software elements
• Design patterns
– Address a specific element of the design such as an aggregation of components
or solve some design problem, relationships among components, or the
mechanisms for effecting inter-component communication
– Consist of creational, structural, and behavioral patterns
• Coding patterns
– Describe language-specific patterns that implement an algorithmic or data
structure element of a component, a specific interface protocol, or a mechanism
for communication among components
42
43. Architectural Design
- Introduction
- Data design
- Software architectural styles
- Architectural design process
- Assessing alternative architectural designs
45. Definitions
• The software architecture of a program or computing system is the
structure or structures of the system which comprise
– The software components
– The externally visible properties of those components
– The relationships among the components
• Software architectural design represents the structure of the data and
program components that are required to build a computer-based
system
• An architectural design model is transferable
– It can be applied to the design of other systems
– It represents a set of abstractions that enable software engineers to
describe architecture in predictable ways
45
46. Architectural Design Process
• Basic Steps
– Creation of the data design
– Derivation of one or more representations of the architectural structure of
the system
– Analysis of alternative architectural styles to choose the one best suited to
customer requirements and quality attributes
– Elaboration of the architecture based on the selected architectural style
• A database designer creates the data architecture for a system to
represent the data components
• A system architect selects an appropriate architectural style derived
during system engineering and software requirements analysis
46
47. Emphasis on Software
Components
• A software architecture enables a software engineer to
– Analyze the effectiveness of the design in meeting its stated
requirements
– Consider architectural alternatives at a stage when making design
changes is still relatively easy
– Reduce the risks associated with the construction of the software
• Focus is placed on the software component
– A program module
– An object-oriented class
– A database
– Middleware
47
48. Importance of Software
Architecture
• Representations of software architecture are an enabler for
communication between all stakeholders interested in the development
of a computer-based system
• The software architecture highlights early design decisions that will have
a profound impact on all software engineering work that follows and, as
important, on the ultimate success of the system as an operational entity
• The software architecture constitutes a relatively small, intellectually
graspable model of how the system is structured and how its
components work together
48
50. Software Architectural Style
• The software that is built for computer-based systems exhibit
one of many architectural styles
• Each style describes a system category that encompasses
– A set of component types that perform a function required by the
system
– A set of connectors (subroutine call, remote procedure call, data
stream, socket) that enable communication, coordination, and
cooperation among components
– Semantic constraints that define how components can be
integrated to form the system
– A topological layout of the components indicating their runtime
interrelationships
50
51. A Taxonomy of Architectural Styles
Independent Components
Communicating Event Systems
Processes
Implicit Explicit
Client/Server Peer-to-Peer
Invocation Invocation
Data Flow Data-Centered
Batch Sequential Pipe and Repository Blackboard
Filter
Virtual Machine Call and Return
Main Program Object
and Subroutine Layered Oriented
Interpreter Rule-Based 51
System Remote Procedure Call
53. Data Flow Style
• Has the goal of modifiability
• Characterized by viewing the system as a series of
transformations on successive pieces of input data
• Data enters the system and then flows through the components
one at a time until they are assigned to output or a data store
• Batch sequential style
– The processing steps are independent components
– Each step runs to completion before the next step begins
• Pipe-and-filter style
– Emphasizes the incremental transformation of data by successive
components
– The filters incrementally transform the data (entering and exiting via
streams)
– The filters use little contextual information and retain no state
between instantiations
– The pipes are stateless and simply exist to move data between filters
53
54. Data Flow Style (continued)
• Advantages
– Has a simplistic design in the limited ways in which the components
interact with the environment
– Consists of no more and no less than the construction of its parts
– Simplifies reuse and maintenance
– Is easily made into a parallel or distributed execution in order to
enhance system performance
• Disadvantages
– Implicitly encourages a batch mentality so interactive applications are
difficult to create in this style
– Ordering of filters can be difficult to maintain so the filters cannot
cooperatively interact to solve a problem
– Exhibits poor performance
• Filters typically force the least common denominator of data
representation (usually ASCII stream)
• Filter may need unlimited buffers if they cannot start producing output
until they receive all of the input
• Each filter operates as a separate process or procedure call, thus
incurring overhead in set-up and take-down time
54
55. Data Flow Style (continued)
• Use this style when it makes sense to view your system as one
that produces a well-defined easily identified output
– The output should be a direct result of sequentially transforming a
well-defined easily identified input in a time-independent fashion
55
56. Call-and-Return Style
Main module
Subroutine B
Subroutine A
Subroutine A-1 Subroutine A-2
Application layer Class V Class W
Transport layer
Network layer Class X Class Y
Data layer
Class Z
56
Physical layer
57. Call-and-Return Style
• Has the goal of modifiability and scalability
• Has been the dominant architecture since the start of software
development
• Main program and subroutine style
– Decomposes a program hierarchically into small pieces (i.e., modules)
– Typically has a single thread of control that travels through various
components in the hierarchy
• Remote procedure call style
– Consists of main program and subroutine style of system that is
decomposed into parts that are resident on computers connected via a
network
– Strives to increase performance by distributing the computations and
taking advantage of multiple processors
– Incurs a finite communication time between subroutine call and response
57
58. Call-and-Return Style (continued)
• Object-oriented or abstract data type system
– Emphasizes the bundling of data and how to manipulate and access data
– Keeps the internal data representation hidden and allows access to the
object only through provided operations
– Permits inheritance and polymorphism
• Layered system
– Assigns components to layers in order to control inter-component interaction
– Only allows a layer to communicate with its immediate neighbor
– Assigns core functionality such as hardware interfacing or system kernel
operations to the lowest layer
– Builds each successive layer on its predecessor, hiding the lower layer and
providing services for the upper layer
– Is compromised by layer bridging that skips one or more layers to improve
runtime performance
• Use this style when the order of computation is fixed, when interfaces
are specific, and when components can make no useful progress while
awaiting the results of request to other components
58
60. Data-Centered Style (continued)
• Has the goal of integrating the data
• Refers to systems in which the access and update of a widely
accessed data store occur
• A client runs on an independent thread of control
• The shared data may be a passive repository or an active blackboard
– A blackboard notifies subscriber clients when changes occur in data of
interest
• At its heart is a centralized data store that communicates with a
number of clients
• Clients are relatively independent of each other so they can be added,
removed, or changed in functionality
• The data store is independent of the clients
60
61. Data-Centered Style (continued)
• Use this style when a central issue is the storage, representation,
management, and retrieval of a large amount of related persistent
data
• Note that this style becomes client/server if the clients are modeled as
independent processes
61
62. Virtual Machine Style
Program
Program Data
Instructions
Interpretation Program
Engine Internal State
62
63. Virtual Machine Style
• Has the goal of portability
• Software systems in this style simulate some functionality that is
not native to the hardware and/or software on which it is
implemented
– Can simulate and test hardware platforms that have not yet been
built
– Can simulate "disaster modes" as in flight simulators or safety-
critical systems that would be too complex, costly, or dangerous to
test with the real system
• Examples include interpreters, rule-based systems, and
command language processors
• Interpreters
– Add flexibility through the ability to interrupt and query the program
and introduce modifications at runtime
– Incur a performance cost because of the additional computation
involved in execution
• Use this style when you have developed a program or some 63
form of computation but have no make of machine to directly
65. Independent Component Style
• Consists of a number of independent processes that
communicate through messages
• Has the goal of modifiability by decoupling various portions of
the computation
• Sends data between processes but the processes do not
directly control each other
• Event systems style
– Individual components announce data that they wish to share
(publish) with their environment
– The other components may register an interest in this class of data
(subscribe)
– Makes use of a message component that manages communication
among the other components
– Components publish information by sending it to the message
manager
– When the data appears, the subscriber is invoked and receives the
data
– Decouples component implementation from knowing the names 65
(More on next slide)
and locations of other components
66. Independent Component Style
(continued)
• Communicating processes style
– These are classic multi-processing systems
– Well-know subtypes are client/server and peer-to-peer
– The goal is to achieve scalability
– A server exists to provide data and/or services to one or more
clients
– The client originates a call to the server which services the request
• Use this style when
– Your system has a graphical user interface
– Your system runs on a multiprocessor platform
– Your system can be structured as a set of loosely coupled
components
– Performance tuning by reallocating work among processes is
important
– Message passing is sufficient as an interaction mechanism among
66
components
67. Heterogeneous Styles
• Systems are seldom built from a single architectural style
• Three kinds of heterogeneity
– Locationally heterogeneous
• The drawing of the architecture reveals different styles in different areas (e.g., a
branch of a call-and-return system may have a shared repository)
– Hierarchically heterogeneous
• A component of one style, when decomposed, is structured according to the rules
of a different style
– Simultaneously heterogeneous
• Two or more architectural styles may both be appropriate descriptions for the style
used by a computer-based system
67
