Learning Algorithms For Life Scientists

Artificial Intelligence and Learning Algorithms Presented By Brian M. Frezza 12/1/05

Game Plan

What’s a Learning Algorithm?

Why should I care?

Biological parallels

Real World Examples

Getting our hands dirty with the algorithms

Bayesian Networks

Hidden Markov Models

Genetic Algorithms

Neural Networks

Artificial Neural Networks Vs Neuron Biology

“ Fraser’s Rules”

Frontiers in AI

Hard Math

What’s a Learning Algorithm?

“An algorithm which predicts data’s future behavior based on its past performance.”

Programmer can be ignorant of the data’s trends.

Not rationally designed!

Training Data

Test Data

Why do I care?

Use In Informatics

Predict trends in “fuzzy” data

Subtle patterns in data

Complex patterns in data

Noisy data

Network inference

Classification inference

Analogies To Chemical Biology

Evolution

Immunological Response

Neurology

Fundamental Theories of Intelligence

That’s heavy dude

Street Smarts

CMU’s Navlab-5 (No Hands Across America)

1995 Neural Network Driven Car

Pittsburgh to San Diego: 2,797 miles (98.2%)

Single hidden layer backpropagation network!

Subcellular location through fluorescence

“ A Neural network classifier capable of recognizing the patterns of all major subcellular structures in fluorescence microscope images of HeLa cells” M. V. Boland, and R. F. Murphy, Bioinformatics ( 2001 ) 17( 12 ), 1213-1223

Protein secondary structure prediction

Intron/Exon predictions

Protein/Gene network inference

Speech recognition

Face recognition

The Algorithms

Bayesian Networks

Genetic Algorithms

Neural Networks

Bayesian Networks: Basics

Requires models of how data behaves

Set of Hypothesis: {H}

Keeps track of likelihood of each model being accurate as data becomes available

P(H)

Predicts as a weighted average

P(E) = Sum( P(H)*H(E) )

Bayesian Network Example

What color hair will Paul Schaffer’s

kids have if he marries Redhead ?

Hypothesis

H a (rr) rr x rr : 100% Redhead

H b (Rr) rr x R r : 50% Redhead 50% Not

H c (RR) rr x RR: 100% Not

Initially clueless:

So P(H a ) = P(H b ) = P(H c ) = 1/3

Bayesian Network: Trace H a : 100% Redhead H b : 50% Redhead 50% Not H c : 100% Not Redhead 0 Not 0 Hypothesis History Likelihood's = P( red |H a )*P(H a ) + P( red |H b )*P(H b ) + P( red |H c )*P(H c ) = (1)*(1/3) + (1/2)*(1/3) + (0)(1/3) =(1/2) Prediction: Will their next kid be a Redhead ? 1/3 1/3 1/3 P(H c ) P(H b ) P(H a )

Bayesian Network:Trace H a : 100% Redhead H b : 50% Redhead 50% Not H c : 100% Not Redhead 1 Not 0 Hypothesis History Likelihood's = P( red |H a )*P(H a ) + P( red |H b )*P(H b ) + P( red |H c )*P(H c ) = (1)*(1/2) + (1/2)*(1/2) + (0)(1/3) =(3/4) Prediction: Will their next kid be a Redhead ? 0 1/2 1/2 P(H c ) P(H b ) P(H a )

Bayesian Network: Trace H a : 100% Redhead H b : 50% Redhead 50% Not H c : 100% Not Redhead 2 Not 0 Hypothesis History Likelihood's = P( red |H a )*P(H a ) + P( red |H b )*P(H b ) + P( red |H c )*P(H c ) = (1)*(3/4) + (1/2)*(1/4) + (0)(1/3) =(7/8) Prediction: Will their next kid be a Redhead ? 0 1/4 3/4 P(H c ) P(H b ) P(H a )

Bayesian Network: Trace H a : 100% Redhead H b : 50% Redhead 50% Not H c : 100% Not Redhead 3 Not 0 Hypothesis History Likelihood's = P( red |H a )*P(H a ) + P( red |H b )*P(H b ) + P( red |H c )*P(H c ) = (1)*(7/8) + (1/2)*(1/8) + (0)(1/3) =(15/16) Prediction: Will their next kid be a Redhead ? 0 1/8 7/8 P(H c ) P(H b ) P(H a )

Bayesian Networks Notes

Never reject hypothesis unless directly disproved

Learns based on rational models of behavior

Models can be extracted!

Programmer needs to form hypothesis beforehand.

The Algorithms

Bayesian Networks

Genetic Algorithms

Neural Networks

Hidden Markov Models(HMM)

Discrete learning algorithm

Programmer must be able to categorize predictions

HMMs also assume a model of the world working behind the data

Models are also extractable

Common Uses

Speech Recognition

Secondary structure prediction

Intron/Exon predictions

Categorization of data

Hidden Markov Models: Take a Step Back

1 st order Markov Models:

Q{States}

Pr{Transition}

Sum of all P(T) out of state = 1

Q 1 Q 4 Q 2 Q 3 P 1 P 2 1-P 1 -P 2 P 3 1-P 3 1 1-P 4 P 4

1 st order Markov Model Setup

Pick Initial state: Q 1

Pick Transition Probabilities:

For each time step

Pick a random number 0.0-1.0

Q 1 Q 4 Q 2 Q 3 P 1 P 2 1-P 1 -P 2 P 3 1-P 3 1 1-P 4 P 4 P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 0.6 0.2 0.9 0.4

1 st order Markov Model Trace

Current State: Q 1 Time Step = 1

Transition probabilities:

Random Number:

0.22341

So Next State:

0.22341 < P 1

Take P 1

Q 2

Random Number:

0.64357

So Next State:

No Choice, P = 1

Q 3

Random Number:

0.97412

So Next State:

0.97412 > 0.9

Take 1-P 3

Q 4

I’m going to stop here.

Markov Chain:

Q 1 , Q 2 , Q 3 , Q 4

What else can Markov do?

Higher Order Models

K th order

Metropolis-Hastings

Determining thermodynamic equilibrium

Continuous Markov Models

Time step varies according to continuous distribution

Discrete model learning

Hidden Markov Models (HMMs)

A Markov Model drives the world but it is hidden from direct observation and its status must be inferred from a set of observables.

Voice recognition

Observable: Sound waves

Hidden states: Words

Intron/Exon prediction

Observable: nucleotide sequence

Hidden State: Exon, Intron, Non-coding

Secondary structure prediction for protein

Observable: Amino acid sequence

Hidden State: Alpha helix, Beta Sheet, Unstructured

Hidden Markov Models: Example

Secondary Structure Prediction

Observable States Hidden States Unstructured Alpha Helix Beta Sheet His Asp Arg Phe Ala Cis Ser Gln Glu Lys Leu Met Asn Ser Tyr Thr Ile Trp Pro Val Gly

Hidden Markov Models: Smaller Example

Exon/Intron Mapping

Hidden Markov Models: Smaller Example

Exon/Intron Mapping

Hidden State Transition Probabilities Observable State Probabilities To From Hidden State Observable Starting Distribution 0.8 0.02 0.18 It 0.01 0.5 0.49 Ig 0.2 0.1 0.7 Ex It Ig Ex 0.2 0.5 0.16 0.14 It 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 Ig 0.14 0.11 0.42 0.33 Ex C G T A 0.01 0.89 0.1 It Ig Ex

Hidden Markov Model

How to predict outcomes from a HMM

Brute force:

Try every possible Markov chain

Which chain has greatest probability of generating observed data?

Viterbi algorithm

Dynamic programming approach

Viterbi Algorithm: Trace Hidden State Transition Probabilities Observable State Probabilities To From Hidden State Observable Starting Distribution Example Sequence: ATAATGGCGAGTG Exon = P(A|Ex) * Start Exon = 3.3*10 -2 Introgenic = P(A|Ig) * Start Ig = 2.2*10 -1 Intron = P(A|It) * Start It = 0.14 * 0.01 = 1.4*10 -3 0.8 0.02 0.18 It 0.01 0.9 0.09 Ig 0.2 0.1 0.7 Ex It Ig Ex 0.2 0.5 0.16 0.14 It 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 Ig 0.14 0.11 0.42 0.33 Ex C G T A 0.01 0.89 0.1 It Ig Ex G T A G A G C G G T A A T 1.4*10 -3 2.2*10 -1 3.3*10 -2 A Intron Introgenic Exon

Viterbi Algorithm: Trace Hidden State Transition Probabilities Observable State Probabilities To From Hidden State Observable Starting Distribution Example Sequence: ATAATGGCGAGTG Exon = Max( P(Ex|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(Ex|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(Ex|It)*P n-1 (It) ) *P(T|Ex) = 4.6*10 -2 Introgenic =Max( P(Ig|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(Ig|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(Ig|It)*P n-1 (It) ) * P(T|Ig) = 2.8*10 -2 Intron = Max( P(It|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(It|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(It,It)*P n-1 (It) ) * P(T|It) = 1.1*10 -3 0.8 0.02 0.18 It 0.01 0.5 0.49 Ig 0.2 0.1 0.7 Ex It Ig Ex 0.2 0.5 0.16 0.14 It 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 Ig 0.14 0.11 0.42 0.33 Ex C G T A 0.01 0.89 0.1 It Ig Ex G T A G A G C G G T A A 1.1*10 -3 2.8*10 -2 4.6*10 -2 T 1.4*10 -3 2.2*10 -1 3.3*10 -2 A Intron Introgenic Exon

Viterbi Algorithm: Trace Hidden State Transition Probabilities Observable State Probabilities To From Hidden State Observable Starting Distribution Example Sequence: ATAATGGCGAGTG Exon = Max( P(Ex|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(Ex|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(Ex|It)*P n-1 (It) ) *P(T|Ex) = 1.1*10 -2 Introgenic =Max( P(Ig|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(Ig|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(Ig|It)*P n-1 (It) ) * P(T|Ig) = 3.5*10 -3 Intron = Max( P(It|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(It|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(It,It)*P n-1 (It) ) * P(T|It) = 1.3*10 -3 0.8 0.02 0.18 It 0.01 0.5 0.49 Ig 0.2 0.1 0.7 Ex It Ig Ex 0.2 0.5 0.16 0.14 It 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 Ig 0.14 0.11 0.42 0.33 Ex C G T A 0.01 0.89 0.1 It Ig Ex G T A G A G C G G T A 1.3*10 -3 3.5*10 -3 1.1*10 -2 A 1.1*10 -3 2.8*10 -2 4.6*10 -2 T 1.4*10 -3 2.2*10 -1 3.3*10 -2 A Intron Introgenic Exon

Viterbi Algorithm: Trace Hidden State Transition Probabilities Observable State Probabilities To From Hidden State Observable Starting Distribution Example Sequence: ATAATGGCGAGTG Exon = Max( P(Ex|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(Ex|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(Ex|It)*P n-1 (It) ) *P(T|Ex) Introgenic =Max( P(Ig|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(Ig|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(Ig|It)*P n-1 (It) ) * P(T|Ig) Intron = Max( P(It|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(It|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(It,It)*P n-1 (It) ) * P(T|It) 0.8 0.02 0.18 It 0.01 0.5 0.49 Ig 0.2 0.1 0.7 Ex It Ig Ex 0.2 0.5 0.16 0.14 It 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 Ig 0.14 0.11 0.42 0.33 Ex C G T A 0.01 0.89 0.1 It Ig Ex G T A G A G C G G T 2.9*10 -4 4.3*10 -4 2.4*10 -3 A 1.3*10 -3 3.5*10 -3 1.1*10 -2 A 1.1*10 -3 2.8*10 -2 4.6*10 -2 T 1.4*10 -3 2.2*10 -1 3.3*10 -2 A Intron Introgenic Exon

Viterbi Algorithm: Trace Hidden State Transition Probabilities Observable State Probabilities To From Hidden State Observable Starting Distribution Example Sequence: ATAATGGCGAGTG Exon = Max( P(Ex|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(Ex|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(Ex|It)*P n-1 (It) ) *P(T|Ex) Introgenic =Max( P(Ig|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(Ig|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(Ig|It)*P n-1 (It) ) * P(T|Ig) Intron = Max( P(It|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(It|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(It,It)*P n-1 (It) ) * P(T|It) 0.8 0.02 0.18 It 0.01 0.5 0.49 Ig 0.2 0.1 0.7 Ex It Ig Ex 0.2 0.5 0.16 0.14 It 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 Ig 0.14 0.11 0.42 0.33 Ex C G T A 0.01 0.89 0.1 It Ig Ex G T A G A G C G G 7.8*10 -5 6.1*10 -5 7.2*10 -4 T 2.9*10 -4 4.3*10 -4 2.4*10 -3 A 1.3*10 -3 3.5*10 -3 1.1*10 -2 A 1.1*10 -3 2.8*10 -2 4.6*10 -2 T 1.4*10 -3 2.2*10 -1 3.3*10 -2 A Intron Introgenic Exon

Viterbi Algorithm: Trace Hidden State Transition Probabilities Observable State Probabilities To From Hidden State Observable Starting Distribution Example Sequence: ATAATGGCGAGTG Exon = Max( P(Ex|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(Ex|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(Ex|It)*P n-1 (It) ) *P(T|Ex) Introgenic =Max( P(Ig|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(Ig|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(Ig|It)*P n-1 (It) ) * P(T|Ig) Intron = Max( P(It|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(It|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(It,It)*P n-1 (It) ) * P(T|It) 0.8 0.02 0.18 It 0.01 0.5 0.49 Ig 0.2 0.1 0.7 Ex It Ig Ex 0.2 0.5 0.16 0.14 It 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 Ig 0.14 0.11 0.42 0.33 Ex C G T A 0.01 0.89 0.1 It Ig Ex G T A G A G C G 7.2*10 -5 1.8*10 -5 5.5*10 -5 G 7.8*10 -5 6.1*10 -5 7.2*10 -4 T 2.9*10 -4 4.3*10 -4 2.4*10 -3 A 1.3*10 -3 3.5*10 -3 1.1*10 -2 A 1.1*10 -3 2.8*10 -2 4.6*10 -2 T 1.4*10 -3 2.2*10 -1 3.3*10 -2 A Intron Introgenic Exon

Viterbi Algorithm: Trace Hidden State Transition Probabilities Observable State Probabilities To From Hidden State Observable Starting Distribution Example Sequence: ATAATGGCGAGTG Exon = Max( P(Ex|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(Ex|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(Ex|It)*P n-1 (It) ) *P(T|Ex) Introgenic =Max( P(Ig|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(Ig|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(Ig|It)*P n-1 (It) ) * P(T|Ig) Intron = Max( P(It|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(It|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(It,It)*P n-1 (It) ) * P(T|It) 0.8 0.02 0.18 It 0.01 0.5 0.49 Ig 0.2 0.1 0.7 Ex It Ig Ex 0.2 0.5 0.16 0.14 It 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 Ig 0.14 0.11 0.42 0.33 Ex C G T A 0.01 0.89 0.1 It Ig Ex G T A G A G C 2.9*10 -5 2.2*10 -6 4.3*10 -6 G 7.2*10 -5 1.8*10 -5 5.5*10 -5 G 7.8*10 -5 6.1*10 -5 7.2*10 -4 T 2.9*10 -4 4.3*10 -4 2.4*10 -3 A 1.3*10 -3 3.5*10 -3 1.1*10 -2 A 1.1*10 -3 2.8*10 -2 4.6*10 -2 T 1.4*10 -3 2.2*10 -1 3.3*10 -2 A Intron Introgenic Exon

Viterbi Algorithm: Trace Hidden State Transition Probabilities Observable State Probabilities To From Hidden State Observable Starting Distribution Example Sequence: ATAATGGCGAGTG Exon = Max( P(Ex|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(Ex|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(Ex|It)*P n-1 (It) ) *P(T|Ex) Introgenic =Max( P(Ig|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(Ig|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(Ig|It)*P n-1 (It) ) * P(T|Ig) Intron = Max( P(It|Ex)*P n-1 (Ex), P(It|Ig)*P n-1 (Ig), P(It,It)*P n-1 (It) ) * P(T|It) 0.8 0.02 0.18 It 0.01 0.5 0.49 Ig 0.2 0.1 0.7 Ex It Ig Ex 0.2 0.5 0.16 0.14 It 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 Ig 0.14 0.11 0.42 0.33 Ex C G T A 0.01 0.89 0.1 It Ig Ex 4.7*10 -10 3.6*10 -11 1.1*10 -10 G 1.2*10 -9 1.2*10 -10 1.4*10 -9 T 9.2*10 -9 4.1*10 -10 4.9* -9 A 8.2*10 -8 2.7*10 -9 8.4* -9 G 2.0*10 -7 9.1*10 -9 1.1*10 -7 A 1.8*10 -6 3.5*10 -8 9.1*10 -8 G 4.6*10 -6 2.8*10 -7 7.2*10 -7 C 2.9*10 -5 2.2*10 -6 4.3*10 -6 G 7.2*10 -5 1.8*10 -5 5.5*10 -5 G 7.8*10 -5 6.1*10 -5 7.2*10 -4 T 2.9*10 -4 4.3*10 -4 2.4*10 -3 A 1.3*10 -3 3.5*10 -3 1.1*10 -2 A 1.1*10 -3 2.8*10 -2 4.6*10 -2 T 1.4*10 -3 2.2*10 -1 3.3*10 -2 A Intron Introgenic Exon

How to Train an HMM

The forward-backward algorithm

Ugly probability theory math:

Starts with an initial guess of parameters

Refines parameters by attempting to reduce the errors it provokes with fitted to the data.

Normalized probability of the “Forward probability” of arriving at the state given the observable cross multiplied by the backward probability of generating that observable given the parameter.

CENSORED

The Algorithms

Bayesian Networks

Genetic Algorithms

Neural Networks

Genetic Algorithms

Individuals are series of bits which represent candidate solutions

Functions

Structures

Images

Code

Based on Darwin evolution

individuals mate, mutate, and are selected based on a Fitness Function

Genetic Algorithms

Encoding Rules

“ Gray” bit encoding

Bit distance proportional to value distance

Selection Rules

Digital / Analog Threshold

Linear Amplification Vs Weighted Amplification

Mating Rules

Mutation parameters

Recombination parameters

Genetic Algorithms

When are they useful?

Movements in sequence space are funnel shaped with fitness function

Systems where evolution actually applies!

Examples

Medicinal chemistry

Protein folding

Amino acid substitutions

Membrane trafficking modeling

Ecological simulations

Linear Programming

Traveling salesman

The Algorithms

Bayesian Networks

Genetic Algorithms

Neural Networks

Neural Networks

1943 McCulloch and Pitts Model of how Neurons process information

Field immediately splits

Studying brain’s

Neurology

Studying artificial intelligence

Neural Networks

Neural Networks: A Neuron, Node, or Unit Σ ( W )- W 0,c Activation Function Output W a,c W b,c W 0,c (Bias) W c, n a z (Bias)

Neural Networks: Activation Functions Sigmoid Function (logistic function) Threshold Function Zero point set by bias In In out out +1 +1

Threshold Functions can make Logic Gates with Neurons! Logical And W 0,c = 1.5 W b,c = 1 W a,c = 1 A B Σ ( W )- W 0,c a z (Bias) Output If ( Σ (w) – W o,c > 0 ) Then FIRE Else Don’t (Bias) 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 ∩

And Gate: Trace W 0,c = 1.5 W b,c = 1 W a,c = 1 -1.5 Off Off Off -1.5 < 0 (Bias)

And Gate: Trace W 0,c = 1.5 W b,c = 1 W a,c = 1 -0.5 On Off Off -0.5 < 0 (Bias)

And Gate: Trace W 0,c = 1.5 W b,c = 1 W a,c = 1 -0.5 Off On Off -0.5 < 0 (Bias)

And Gate: Trace W 0,c = 1.5 W b,c = 1 W a,c = 1 0.5 On On On 0.5 > 0 (Bias)

Threshold Functions can make Logic Gates with Neurons! W 0,c = 0.5 W b,c = 1 W a,c = 1 A Σ ( W )- W 0,c a z (Bias) If ( Σ (w) – W o,c > 0 ) Then FIRE Else Don’t (Bias) Logical Or B 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 U

Or Gate: Trace W 0,c = 0.5 W b,c = 1 W a,c = 1 -0.5 Off Off Off -0.5 < 0 (Bias)

Or Gate: Trace W 0,c = 0.5 W b,c = 1 W a,c = 1 0.5 On Off On 0.5 > 0 (Bias)

Or Gate: Trace W 0,c = 0.5 W b,c = 1 W a,c = 1 0.5 Off On On 0.5 > 0 (Bias)

Or Gate: Trace W 0,c = 0.5 W b,c = 1 W a,c = 1 1.5 On On On 1.5 > 0 (Bias)

Threshold Functions can make Logic Gates with Neurons! W 0,c = -0.5 W a,c = -1 Σ ( W )- W 0,c a z (Bias) If ( Σ (w) – W o,c > 0 ) Then FIRE Else Don’t (Bias) Logical Not 1 0 0 1 !

Not Gate: Trace W 0,c = -0.5 W a,c = -1 -0.5 Off On 0.5 > 0 (Bias) 0 – (-0.5) = 0.5

Not Gate: Trace W 0,c = -0.5 W a,c = -1 -0.5 On Off -0.5 < 0 (Bias) -1 – (-0.5) = -0.5

Feed-Forward Vs. Recurrent Networks

Feed-Forward

No Cyclic connections

Function of its current inputs

No internal state other then weights of connections

“ Out of time”

Recurrent

Cyclic connections

Dynamic behavior

Stable

Oscillatory

Chaotic

Response depends on current state

“ In time”

Short term memory!

Feed-Forward Networks

“ Knowledge” is represented by weight on edges

Modeless!

“ Learning” consists of adjusting weights

Customary Arrangements

One Boolean output for each value

Arranged in Layers

Layer 1 = inputs

Layer 2 to (n-1) = Hidden

Layer N = outputs

“ Perceptron” 2 layer Feed-Forward network

Layers Input Output Hidden layer

Perceptron Learning

Gradient Decent used to reduce error

Essentially:

New Weight = Old Weight + adjustment

Adjustment = α X error X input X d( activation function )

α = Learning Rate

CENSORED

Hidden Network Learning

Back-Propagation

Essentially:

Start with Gradient Decent from output

Assign “blame” to inputting neurons proportional to their weights

Adjust weights at previous level using Gradient decent based on “blame”

CENSORED

They don’t get it either: Issues that aren’t well understood

α (Learning Rate)

Depth of network (number of layers)

Size of hidden layers

Overfitting

Cross-validation

Minimum connectivity

Optimal Brain Damage Algorithm

No extractable model!

How Are Neural Nets Different From My Brain?

Neural nets are feed forward

Brains can be recurrent with feedback loops

Neural nets do not distinguish between + or – connections

In brains excitatory and inhibitory neurons have different properties

Inhibitory neurons short-distance

Neural nets exist “Out of time”

Our brains clearly do exist “in time”

Neural nets learn VERY differently

We have very little idea how our brains are learning

“ Fraser’s” Rules “ In theory one can, of course, implement biologically realistic neural networks, but this is a mammoth task. All kinds of details have to be gotten right, or you end up with a network that completely decays to unconnectedness, or one that ramps up its connections until it basically has a seizure.”

Frontiers in AI