A Review on the concept of "Sonic Branding" and its impact on Emotions, Brand Recall, Brand Recognition and Purchase Intention.

1. FINAL REPORT
ON
A Review of the concept “SONIC BRANDING” and
techniques to measure its impact on Emotions, Brand Recall,
Brand Recognition and Purchase Intention.
By
(DARPAN JAIN, 07BS1675, IBS AHMEDABAD)
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2. FINAL REPORT
ON
A Review of the concept “SONIC BRANDING” and
techniques to measure its impact on Emotions, Brand Recall,
Brand Recognition and Purchase Intention.
By
(DARPAN JAIN)
(M.B.A. 2007-2009)
A report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of MBA Program
(Class of 2007-09)
ICFAI BUSINESS SCHOOL
AHMEDABAD
Submitted To,
Mrs. Kiran Rai
(Faculty Guide)
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3. AKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project report is an outcome of sincere efforts and cooperation of everyone who helped me.
I conducted this project under the supervision of my respectful guide Prof. Kiran Rai (Faculty at
IBS Ahmedabad).
I am very thankful for her insightful ideas which helped me to look at the project from not only
just the academic point of view but also the commercial one. She did help me to pen my thoughts
and visualize the big picture. I am also thankful to Prof. Toby Mammen and Prof. Amit Saraswat
for sharing their special views on the topic and giving it a meaningful angle.
I would also specially like to thank Laura Strickland (Business Strategist, Sonic Id) and Noel
Franus (Managing Director, Sonic Id). Laura Strickland has been kind enough to help me at
every stage of the project. She has been sharing her knowledge from the time I started the project
and it is due to her active dialogue with me that the project has been finally completed. Noel
Franus has also been a source of inspiration for the project. Having a healthy discussion with him
helped me gain a commercial understanding of the concept and at the same time a good
knowledge of industry demand. It was due to his investing precious time in my project that
helped me to frame the second phase of the project.
Signature of the Student
(DARPAN.L.JAIN)
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4. Table of Contents
Table of Contents ...............................................................................................................................4
Abstract .............................................................................................................................................6
Introduction-I.....................................................................................................................................1
WHAT IS SONIC BRANDING?............................................................................................................2
HISTORY:.....................................................................................................................................2
SONIC BRANDING CONCEPT:........................................................................................................3
HOW TO LEVERAGE ON SONIC BRAND IDENTITY?..........................................................................7
Introduction-II ..................................................................................................................................14
Literature Review .............................................................................................................................17
Theories and Models.....................................................................................................................17
Attitude Theory.........................................................................................................................17
Classical Conditioning Theory.....................................................................................................18
Involvement Theory...................................................................................................................18
Music theory.............................................................................................................................19
Variables ......................................................................................................................................22
Independent Variables...............................................................................................................22
Dependent Variables .................................................................................................................22
Results .........................................................................................................................................26
Attitude Toward the Ad .............................................................................................................26
Ad Time ....................................................................................................................................26
Attitude Toward the Brand ........................................................................................................27
Brand Recall ..............................................................................................................................27
Pleasure and Arousal .................................................................................................................28
Purchase Intention ....................................................................................................................28
Content Analyses.......................................................................................................................28
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5. Future Research ...............................................................................................................................36
Advertisers and Academics............................................................................................................36
Advertising and Popular Music.......................................................................................................36
Brand Image .................................................................................................................................37
Environments ...............................................................................................................................37
Fit and Indexicality........................................................................................................................38
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................39
REFERENCES.....................................................................................................................................40
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6. Abstract
The research discusses the role of sound in branding with its usage in marketing
communication. The impact of sound to create distinct and memorable long term image of the
brand in the minds of target audience has been one of the most cited advantage of the concept
“Sonic Branding”. The research paper explores the concept in terms of its history, how the
concept grew, its utility, convergence of Sonic Branding with recent technologies and Sonic
Branding in India.
The second part of the report concerns more on the measurement aspect and involves a critical
examination of tools and techniques to measure the effect of music on emotions, brand recall,
recognition and purchase intention. It summarizes the various methods applied by researchers all
over the world and discusses in brief the outcomes of the research done by them.
The research is divided into two phases- the first phase deals with concept and the techniques
to measure its impact. The second phase would deal with the application of the research
techniques to understand its impact on the above mentioned parameters and would also discuss
the results and insights that are generated from the research.
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7. Introduction-I
In recent years, marketing and branding practices have become increasingly complex and
challenging. Getting the attention of consumers has become more difficult as the amount of
marketing “noise” is blurring communication further. Until recently, brands have been
communicated with a dominant emphasis on visual elements. Consumers are exposed to 3.000
advertisements every day, hence creating a strong need for more efficient and distinguishable
communication by companies attempting to communicate to them. Brand effectiveness is an
ideal searched for by many, but only achieved by few. This truth is reflected by the current state
of the advertising industry today; a market saturated with adverts that are indistinct and
ineffective. Coupled with a rise in the personalization of media, consumers now have the ability
to sidestep advertising and have begun to invest their time more in platforms that have no
established tradition of advertising such as mobile and broadband broadcast content. Avoidance
of adverts is also causing levels of consumer interaction with brands to dramatically reduce in
the sense that they feel little need to be involved with a brand they have no interest in. Reduced
interest caused by a lack of brand distinction which is itself generated by ineffective management
and presentation of bands by advertisers. If consumers can no longer identify brands as being
distinct, then their constant presentation will cease to be of little value to consumers or
advertisers. The perception of brands as being generic has lead consumers to direct their
attention more on the content of the media they interact with and less on the advertising
positioned around it. This in turn has simply encouraged advertisers to produce bigger, attention
grabbing campaigns that cater more to the consumer eye than brand equity, and only act as red
flags for the consumer –beginning the whole cycle once more. A strong, almost disproportionate,
emphasis on the visual perception of consumers has lead to different advertisers treating different
brands in the same manner and visual execution more than long-term brand impact has become
the main drive behind advert presentation. This communication space is hence somewhat
saturated, and companies must turn to other methods in order to communicate their brands
through the filter. Sensory branding has been appraised as one of the characteristics of brand
communication in the new millennium. Herein, sound is one of the main players, and it offers a
considerable means for brands to enhance their image and consumer awareness. Companies are
slowly realizing the potential of audio, however, the execution remains a somewhat untouched
aspect. This field lacks management perspectives on how to create and implement audio
elements as a prolongation of the visuals. The literature that exists within this developing field is
vastly descriptive and draws upon examples from companies that have already implemented
audio into their brand communication. In order for brands to benefit from audio, and perhaps
achieve first mover advantage in relation to audio elements, it is essential that the academic field
progresses and contributes with theoretical considerations that companies can utilize for the
further development of brands. 1
1
Breaking the Silence- A managerial approach for companies to realize their audio potential, School of
Economics and Management, Lund University (2007).
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8. WHAT IS SONIC BRANDING?
Before we define sonic branding, it’s important to define the concepts of brand and logo.
These may be generic terms that are used in everyday lingo, and that is exactly why they need a
specific definition.
A brand as “an identifying mark burnt on livestock” was the original definition
(Anonymous), and it has been extended to the field of marketing since the advent of packaged
goods and the industrial revolution. Marketing guru Phillip Kotler defines brand as “a name,
term, sign, symbol, or design, or a combination of them intended to identify the goods or services
of one seller or a group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of competitors.” (Kotler,
2000)
According to Kotler, a logo is a vital part of the brand. It is the face of the company and
“a graphic element, symbol or icon of a trademark or brand and its logotype, which is set in a
unique typeface or arranged in a particular way (Kotler, 2000).”
HISTORY:
Jean Pierre Bacelon, a French radio producer turned airtime salesman has been credited with
identifying the benefits of sonic branding on radio in the mid-1980s (Jackson, 2004). He coined the
term “marque sonique” and after analyzing and categorizing radio commercials of his era, he
concluded that radio advertising containing sonic branding elements achieved greater success in
awareness, sale and repeat purchase.
As Director of IP France, he started working closely with Media Sales and Marketing UK, which is
when he created the English translation of his ideas – “sonic branding”. It was initially used by radio
advertisers to pitch radio advertising and the use of sound as a powerful brand communication tool
(Miller & Marks, 1992). In the UK, the Radio Advertising Bureau adopted the sonic branding sell to
try and convince more advertisers to try out radio, during a time of lean growth for the industry.
Growth in dotcoms and new media in the late 1990s enabled venture capital to be made available for
sonic branding agencies (Jackson, 2004).
In the new millennium, every media platform has sound built-in. Sonic branding provides the
opportunity for companies to extend a common identity across various platforms, whether as TV,
Internet, radio, podcasts, ringtones, online navigational sounds, website sounds, tones at point of sale
areas in retail stores, cinema, cash registers, stadium public address systems, or the “hold music” of
the company’s customer service number.
This has led to a phenomenal growth in the number of sonic branding agencies. In the US,
establishment of sonic branding as a specialized field is much more recent as compared to the UK. In
2001, there was one company specializing in offering sonic branding services in the US, one in the
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9. UK, and one in the Switzerland. Today there are more than 50 companies in the world, 35 in Europe
alone (Lamb, 2006). 2
SONIC BRANDING CONCEPT:
“The intentional use of music, sound, voice and silence to create rational and emotional
connections between people and organizations.” (Sonic ID)
People and nature have been using sonic branding since the world began. We talk, sing, hum and
shake to our own tune and rhythm, using the sounds we make to differentiate ourselves from
those around us and express how we feel. Humans use sound in an incredibly sophisticated way.
From the cradle we use our primitive voice to express how we feel, what we need and whom we
like. As we develop our voices and skills we use speech and song. In our characteristic way, we
have developed tools for making sounds. Firstly percussive (drums) and latterly musical
instruments and polyphonic synthesizers. We also value sound very highly – emotionally and
financially. We buy recorded sounds and they form a soundtrack to our lives. We build concert
halls, we cherish musicians and singers as central to our society. Sound is big news in all
societies, everywhere. There is much yet to be discovered about the true relationship between
sound and the brain. Some things we do know include the fact that sound is processed in both the
left and right hemispheres, thereby appealing to our rational and emotional sides.
Left Brain Right Brain
Logical Random
Sequential Intuitive
Rational Holistic
Analyses Synthesizes
Objective Subjective
Parts Wholes
We also know that sound and memory have very strong associations. We all have a great
capacity for remembering voices, ambient sounds and especially music.
Brand Experience
The idea of treating a brand as an entire experience is well established. The premise is that every
time a person comes into contact with a brand physically, or through media the experience
2
The Sonic Boom- Effec t of Logo Presentation Style in Television Commercials on Memory for the adver tised Brand
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10. should be distinct, consistent and positive. Back in the 1950s, companies like McDonalds first
discovered the benefits of paying attention to all aspects of a brand experience – not just the
product and packaging.
These pioneers established the value of a distinct, positive and consistent retail environment,
incorporating look, feel and sound. As media has proliferated, the brand experience can take
place almost everywhere and at any time. Brand experience now incorporates every TV, radio,
outdoor, cinema and press ad and editorial. It involves websites, WAP/3G, direct mail and shelf-
wobblers. It involves telephone hold systems, call centers, IVRs, events and retail space. People
have five senses. If a brand can establish a consistent approach to taste, smell, visuals, textures
and sound then every part of the brand experience can be distinct, consistent and positive.
Sonic Brand Expressions
These range from corporate identity, Sonic Logos to three- hour symphonies composed to
entertain guests at the summer party. Any expression of a brand starts with an understanding of
what makes the brand distinct. The best consultants help brands draw honest conclusions that
relate to the truth of the brand not just to the smokescreens of image, spin and PR. Once the
essence of a brand is defined then all expressions, sonic or otherwise can be created to convey
the brand in a consistent, distinct and positive way.
Environment
Sound is as integral a part of environment as materials and structure. As such, it has a huge role
to play in delivering the brand experience for retailers, entertainment and service industries.
Designing sound for environment involves the arts of acoustics and composition. In simple
terms, acoustics involves deciding where to put what kind of speakers and how loud they should
be.
Huge strides have been made with speaker technology over the last 20 years with the
development of new technology such as Dolby Surround and THX. The enhanced sound
provides the ‘feel’ to go with the ‘look’ and that is the role it fills in retail and service
environments.
Many retail environments already have high quality speaker systems in place. Starbucks and
Pottery Barn, for example, deliver hi- fi as part of their brand experience. Also from the States,
FAO Schwartz toy stores have invested in good sound delivery. They use their system to play
their own musical identity – a single piece of music that can also be heard in their ads, on the
‘phone and anywhere else they have sound-delivering capabilities.
It is common knowledge that a busy sounding environment is more conducive to shopping.
Research carried out at Leicester University indicates that the type of music played in a retail
environment has a marked influence over a number of variables such as the propensity to return,
to spend time and to spend money. For example, it was suggested by the findings of one study in
one particular environment that classical music caused customers to spend more than easy
listening. There is a trend amongst independent retailers to play a commercial radio station in-
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11. store. While this is better than no sound at all, it is less than ideal as the choice of music is taken
out of the hands of the retailer.
British Airways offers a fine example of how the right emotion expressed through music that
‘fits’ the environment can benefit the brand experience. Their use of Delibe’s Flower Duet from
Lakme, played while awaiting take-off, creates a relaxing and soothing atmosphere. Indeed, that
piece of music is such a good fit with the brand that it has been used as sonic branding in their
advertising, on the ‘phones and in airport lounges for over ten years.
Multimedia
By multimedia I mean any medium that has the ability to use sound. (See Figure Below)
SOURCE: AN INTRODUCTION TO SONIC BRANDING, DANIEL JACKSON, MANAGING DIRCTOR, SONIC BRAND LTD.
The scope for sonic branding through multimedia is huge and new technology is being developed
all the time to put sound capabilities in more and more things: from greetings cards to handheld
devices, supermarket till dividers and even product packaging.
Defining the sonic branding for each application or context requires a flexible approach. Each
medium is consumed in a different way by a different audience. The challenge is to maintain the
‘fit’ with the environment whilst retaining the emotional values of the brand.
For many years, Renault was a great example of how music can be subtly altered to fit context.
Having decided to use Robert Palmer’s Jonny & Mary for all its corporate communications,
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12. Renault created over 150 variations on the theme. Each fitted its context beautifully, had a
recognizable melody and maintained its distinctive and positive elements.
Music
Music is the most sophisticated form of sonic branding. It is also the most powerful for
generating memorability and distinctiveness – two of the holy grails of the communications
industries.
Technology has made it possible to create and record new music incredibly quickly. The total
amount of music created each year is growing exponentially as more people find they have the
tools – a computer and some software – to create bedroom symphonies.
With increased ease come lower cost and the chance for brands to create wholly original music
that exactly fits the emotions of the brand and context. Original music ensures a fit with brand
essence and also, because of copyright law, allows true distinctiveness in a way that licensing
existing music cannot.
Back to British Airways. Their corporate music is a classical piece that is out of copyright. This
allowed Ford to use the same piece, along with airline imagery, for the launch of the Galaxy
people carrier. Most people we talk to believe there must have been a tie- up brand promotion;
there was no such thing. It was just a company taking someone else’s logo without permission
and using it as an endorsement (except this was legal). Original music means this cannot happen.
Voice
There are at least twenty-five variables that can be used to describe a voice excluding accent! As
with music, we are incredibly sensitive to these variables and able to differentiate between
countless numbers of voices. Using the Speech font™ system, it is possible to choose a voice,
the quality of which matches the emotional essence of the brand. If the perfect voice is then used
consistently, the sonic branding effect from voice can be very powerful. The finest example of
this in recent years has been Orange, the mobile communications company. They have used the
same authoritative, friendly, voice since launch and now, whatever he says in commercials, it is
always stamped with the Orange brand essence.
Ambience
Any sound that cannot be described as music or voice comes under the banner of ambience or
sound effects (sfx).
Natural ambient sounds can be very useful in stressful office environments. We have used the
sound of a gentle summer breeze to free the minds of Reuter’s staff and enable them to think
more creatively. Many restaurants use water features as much for the relaxing sound they make
as much as for the visual effect.
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13. Sound effects can be incorporated into Sonic Logos, too. The re-arranged excerpt of Bach’s Air
on the G String, which has been used for many years by Hamlet Cigars in their advertising,
incorporates the sound of a match being struck.
Sony Playstation uses the same sfx for its advertising sonic logo as it does for its start-up noise.
In this case it is a distinct analogue ‘noise’ that perfectly matches the dark, hedonistic nature of
the brand.
Why Music as a source of Brand Ele ment?
Music: it can express that which has no othe r means of expression.
Music listening seems to encourage the release of endorphins which in turn elicit emotional
responses.
“Our Neuroimaging studies show Amygdala activation to music...repetition, when done skillfully
by a master composer, is emotionally satisfying to our brains, and makes the listening experience
as pleasurable as it is.” Daniel Levitin
“Music doesn‘t represent any tangible, earthly reality. It represents things of the heart, feelings
which are beyond description, beyond any experience one has had. The feeling of the holy, the
sacred, the wonderful, the mystical...is conveyed very powerfully in music.” Oliver Sacks
HOW TO LEVERAGE ON SONIC BRAND IDENTITY?
Based on a British consumer research programme of 50 leading brands and their experiences in the audio
branding-industry, Jackson provided four key-lessons for successful audio branding. These are:
1. Be frequent or consistent over a long period
2. If you want people to remember your brand name when they hear your audio branding, make sure you
say the name
3. Link your audio branding to a benefit of your brand
4. Be creative, be distinct and remember that nobody is listening!
For the first point, a good example of a consistent use of audio branding would be Nestlé’s Kit Kat, which
has used a consistent sound image (the chunkiness of the product) since the 1950’s. Examples of audio
branding efforts that have been successful due to their frequency are Carphone Warehouse's landline
product Talk Talk and McDonald’s “I’m lovin’ it” campaign.
Secondly, Intel’s sonic logo is one of the most successful and most quoted examples of audio branding.
However, in his studies Jackson found out that although 90% of the respondents were familiar with the
sound only 38% could identify the name of the brand. This underlines the second key-lesson in Jackson’s
studies. In order to make sure that the recipient connects the sound with the right product it is beneficial to
cite the name of the product simultaneously to the visual representation.
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14. Thirdly, by linking the benefit of the brand to the sound of the brand, consumers are brought closer to the
actual brand identity that the company wants to portray. Cadillac enhanced its luxurious image by
succeeding to acquire a very limited licensed Led Zeppelin’s song “Rock and Roll” in its advertising
campaigns. Starbucks emphasizes the benefit of its brand, a warm and cosy atmosphere, with “easy
listening, slightly jazzy, soulful tunes” in its outlets.
Finally, in audio branding, like in all branding activities, being creative is vital for success. The promotion
of Audi TT Roadster for women in France was successful because of the creative use of music. To
portray the feeling of actually driving the car, the advertising agency compiled a soundtrack of cover-
songs (e.g. "Riders on the Storm" with a hip-hop flavor) that was sent to subscribers of French Elle. This
compilation gave the listeners an overall experience of the feeling to drive the Roadster. The importance
of being distinct is also emphasized in research by North & Law. Their survey showed that “Ads with
music that 'fits' the brand are 96% more likely for the ad claim to be recalled than those with non-fit
music and 47% more than ads with no music”. This could also be interpreted as a warning sign for
companies getting into audio branding. The choice of music must be evaluated extremely carefully
because non-fit music causes a deeper decrease in recall than not using music at all.
The final point that Jackson makes in his key-lessons is that nobody is really listening. Because
consumers are constantly surrounded by various commercial stimulants, getting the message through is
quite difficult. Arnold illustrates this problem by referring to the passivity of the recipient in relation to
TV-advertisements: “Statistics show that 50% of people are in a way, occupied while the TV is on. That
figure jumps to 85% when a commercial kicks in…”. A solution to this problem offered by Jackson is to
use more complex and melodic audio messages. This causes the recipients to shift from passive hearing
into active listening.
Brand awareness
To support Jackson’s criterion of frequency and consistency for audio brands, it is essential to put
emphasis on creating and sustaining brand awareness. At present, the majority of organizations use
traditional marketing methods as a way of creating brand awareness. However, it seems that the concept
of audio branding can generate the same brand recognition as a visual identity brand identity alone.
Studies have shown that sound and memory have strong associations52 . Sound can be considered to be an
integrated part of our everyday life and culture. Hence, it can play an immense part in delivering the
brand experience both for retailers, and in the service and entertainment industries. However, many
companies fail to recognize this opportunity and focuses mainly on the visual identity of the brand.
In the increasingly competitive business environment, consumers are faced with too much
information, which makes it difficult for companies to differentiate. Hence, instead of focusing merely on
the visual identity companies should look elsewhere to enhance their brand identity. In relation to this, the
strategic use of sound to create memory and experience can prove a strong brand differentiator.
A number of research surveys have indicated that sound has a strong ability to enhance brand
recall. From a company perspective, this knowledge is vital as the use of sound elements to
communicate a brand can be used to enhance the brand’s identity. If sound or music is played
while creating a memorable interaction with the consumer, the possibility of internalizing this
experience into the memory which would easily be recalled in the future is more likely. Hence,
brand managers are increasingly using in-store music strategically, as it has the capability to
increase sales by 38.2 %. However, companies have numerous interaction points (touch points)
with consumers, from the logo to the experience of the product itself. By extending audio branding
into the different touch points, such as products, services and promotions, companies have more ways to
grow brand value and increase brand awareness.
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15. Touch Points
Having outlined the different means of achieving brand awareness, the catalysts for creating consistency,
namely the touch points, will be elaborated. The increasing focus on touch point is a rather new
phenomenon, which is likely to have emerged as a sub category to Customer Relationship Management
(CRM)56. There are various definitions of the constituents of touch points, however, in this paper the
concept will be referred to as the various situations in which the consumer encounters a brand. In order to
increase awareness and brand preference, it is crucial that companies exploit their various touch points.
The amount of touch points varies from company to company as well as the industry they operate in.
Jackson brings forward an outline of the various touch points57 . Due to the scope of the paper, all of them
will not be dealt with separately in this chapter. As an alternative four main categories constituting the
majority have been identified and serve as a generic overview of the touch points that many companies
have (figure given below) . These categories encompass
1.) The product/service
2.) Media communication
3.) Retail
4.) After sales/IVR, and
5.) Web.
It is hence acknowledged that the following framework is by no means exhaustive; however it should
serve its purpose of clarifying the relation between the different touch points and the various factors that
influence and shape them.
SOURCE: Breaking the Silence, School of Economics and Management, Lund University
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16. The Audio Strategy in Practice
In addition to creating a strong correlation between the existing brand identity and the audio
identity, as described in an earlier chapter, it is essential for companies to have specific
guidelines for the type of audio used and how. The audio strategy serves a crucial role in
implementing and utilising audio. It is prepared by identifying the core elements of the brand or
corporate identity with the use of audio identity triangle as described in the previous chapter.
However, due to the fact that audio as a strategy is a rather new phenomenon, companies
adopting an audio strategy are currently opting for audio branding consultants. Sonic Branding
creates the audio branding strategy through interaction with managers and employees for the
purpose of revealing the true core of the brand identity. The strategy often covers various touch
points and companies develop an audio manual, in which the core of the strategy is described.
For instance, if the core identity of the brand is tradition and royalty, then the audio strategy
should encompass these elements and make them transferable to the various touch points. Hence
the audio strategy represents both an extended identity of the current brand identity. In addition,
the audio strategy also comprises its own core in which the touch points are extensions. As the
dotted line in figure 6 illustrates, there is a dynamic correlation between the brand identity and
the brand image. This implies that the audio might affect the brand image and subsequently
possibly cause alterations of the brand identity if beneficial.
Inevitably, the touch points also have an effect on each other, although not illustrated. As an
example, when audio is implemented into the product, the sound that is used in marketing
communication should be similar in order for the audience to connect the commercial to the
brand. Naturally, the process might skip some of the various touch points, however what remains
of importance is that all touch points used share the same core.
1. The Product/Service
As described in a previous chapter, the sound logo is connected to the core of the brand. It is often used
for intangible products by brands such as Intel, in which case it seeks to make the brand memorable as the
consumer is not likely to remember the actual product. Sound is also implemented in actual physical
products. Several car manufacturers have developed and implemented specific “click” audio elements
when the car door is closed. The purpose is to illustrate the quality of the car, as studies have shown that
consumers expect the “click” sound for a quality car. A different example is the Tic Tac mints, which
heavily focuses on the sound of the product. The different commercials present the recognizable feature
of Tic Tac’s; the click of opening as well as the shaking of the plastic container59 . The essence of these
brands is that the sound reflects the core identity. In the case of Tic Tac, the sound is the main
characteristic of the product and the sound will be recognized by other users, hence optimizing the
visibility of the product in the market. Thus, it is essential for brands to reflect the core identity as
elaborated in a previous chapter. In order to be successful and gain recognition and recall, the sound
should remain stable over time.
2. Media Communication
In addition to staying tuned to the core identity as described above, the brand can epitomize various
extended identities through media communication60 . This umbrella term covers the various
communication channels that the brand uses to communicate with its audiences. Examples of these are
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17. TV/cinema commercials, radio spots, conferences and various PR events61 . Oftentimes these channels
serve to increase consumer awareness and additionally to enhance the consumer perception of the
connection between brand values and brand offering.
3. Retail
This element refers to the various instances when the consumer is in direct contact with the brand by an
intention to buy or gain more information. Often this will be in a retail setting, and there is a paradox
found herein, as not all brands have the opportunity for exploiting this channel. Not many brands have
own stores in which they can fully implement their audio logo and identity. The majority of brands are
available in retail settings that contain many different brands. Oftentimes the audio used in these settings
will consist of music, which in general reflects the identity of the retail change and not the specific
brands. The individual brands can make use of this channel by using TV’s and product demonstrations
including sound in the retail setting. The risk by doing so, however, as Jackson points out is that staff and
consumers oftentimes spend a considerable amount of time in store and hence find the use of repetitive
audio a nuisance62 . A means to avoid this factor is to use subtle audio both in relation to volume and
length of piece of audio clip. In other words, the constant repetition of the sound logo in this setting
fosters irritation rather than desired recognition and perception. Brands opting for this channel should
hence aim for utilization of their audio identity (theme) as it conveys the identity without displeasing the
various stakeholders.
4. After Sales / IVR
In order to exploit the brand audio in a long-term perspective, companies should strive to implement the
audio in IVR (Interactive Voice Response) and other channels that the consumer might encounter after
purchasing the product or service. According to Sonic Branding, most companies have not realized the
importance of creating telephone profiles that reflect the identity of the brand. This becomes an obstacle
in that it fails to communicate the values of the company, and consequently some of the credibility is lost
or damaged. Often for IVR it is recommended to use a voice of a person external to the company63 as it
makes it possible to create a consistent voice identity, which is a feature that consumers or clients
appreciate. In addition, it is equally important not to utilize the voice of a person that is used by many
companies as it does not appear authentic. This concerns both the IVR and general media communication.
5. Web
One of the most important touch points is the Internet. This channel is interrelated to media
communication; however in the above illustration it has been separated in order to stress its importance.
This touch point represents both the brand web site and advertisements on the net. The majority of brands,
at least the higher-involvement, have a web site to communicate its values and other information.
Presently, many companies operating online fail to exploit this channel in relation to audio64 . In addition
to being a crucial point for communication, web sites are limited in their sensory appeal. Sound is in fact
the only additional appeal that can be implemented and should hence be exploited to the extent possible.
This can be done through regular background music, such as heard on the Finlandia web site as well as
playing the audio logo in order to create a stronger connection to commercials in which the audio logo is
used.
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18. A recent trend is for brands to place their sound logos as POD (Play-On-Demand), which brand
devotees download and use as ring tones for their mobile phones or MP3 players. A company that has
already exploited this new channel is Coca Cola. The sound logo can be downloaded and used for the
mobile. Moreover, the company offers its own “coke music”, which users can engage in like a regular
radio channel65 . Undoubtedly, the majority of companies will not be able to implement such an extensive
service, yet most companies will benefit from using their sound logo and sound profile as much as
possible through this channel.
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19. Tools and Techniques to measure the Concept
“SONIC BRANDING”
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20. Introduction-II
It is almost impossible to turn on the radio or the television, or walk into a retail
establishment and not witness the marriage of art and commerce. Even before the days of media
and malls, music was a major force in consumer marketing. Without exception, music plays a
vital role in the interactive process of consumer behavior. The commercial uses of music in
marketing account for billions of dollars nationwide. Not surprisingly, this area of study has
received considerable attention primarily focused on the impact of music on consumer responses
to commercial advertising.
There are many stimuli, or environmental cues, that retailers use to affect consumer behavior
including music, color, scents, etc. Music is considered to be the most commonly studied
stimulus variable (Turley & Milliman, 2000). Most retailers would agree that music is one of
their most important considerations and expenses (Yalch & Spangenberg, 1993). Billions of
dollars are spent worldwide on music in the retail environment (North & Hargreaves, 1998). Past
reviews of experimental evidence in this area have included music as part of a larger review of
atmospheric effects (Lam, 2001; Turley & Milliman, 2000), and more narrowly focused on just
its effect on shopping behavior (Allan, in press).
There are also many stimuli, or executional cues, that advertisers use to affect consumer
response to commercials including music, spokespersons, animation, etc. Music is also
considered to be the most used executional cue in commercials (Yalch, 1991). Dunbar (1990,
p. 200) argued that “music makes you watch or listen [to advertising] in a different way” than
commercials without music and adds an emotional dimension to the consumer response to the
brand.
While it should not be surprising that the effect of music on advertising has been
extensively researched, it should be surprising that a current, comprehensive, and critical review
of the literature has not been completed. Bruner (1990) provided an early collection of relevant
research involving music and advertising as part of the literature review for his “Music, Mood
and Marketing” but that is now more than a decade old. North and Hargreaves (1997) updated
the list as part of a larger chapter (“Music and Consumer Behaviour”) on the commercial and
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21. industrial uses of music (advertising, shops and the music industry) in The Sociology of Music.
This article then, has three purposes. First, it is a review of the most important studies involving
music and advertising beginning with the most relevant definitions (Table 1). Second, it is a
synthesis and comparison of variables and results. Third, based on what has been done and how
it has been executed, it is a foundation and facilitation for future research.
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22. Table 1
A Summary of Relevant Definitions Definition__________________________ Citation__________________
Fit The music’s relevance or appropriateness to the central ad message. MacInnis & Park (1991)
Indexicality The extent to which the music arouses emotion- laden memories. MacInnis & Park (1991)
Jingle Unique, novel lyrics written for a particular advertisement. Wallace (1991)
Modality A pitch-related variable that is the configuration of intervals between notes Kellaris & Kent (1991)
in the scale such as major and minor modes.
Mood A fleeting, temporary feeling state, usually not intense and not tied to a Gardner (1985)
specifiable behavior.
Music A complex chemistry of three main controllable elements (time, pitch and Bruner (1990)
texture).
Needle drop Music that is prefabricated, multipurpose, and highly conventional. Scott (1990)
Placement The position of the music in the advertisement. Brooker & Wheatley (1994)
Popular Music that is “well- liked” by “ordinary people” (Shuker, 1994) that has Shuker (1994)
Music had wide exposure and appeal but usually for a fixed period of time.
Tempo A time-related variable that controls pace. Kellaris & Kent (1991)
Texture Comprised of timbre and orchestra. Kellaris & Kent (1994)
Tonality The configuration of intervals between pitches on a scale. Kellaris & Kent (1994)
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23. Literature Review
The review of literature is divided into two parts. The first part is a discussion of the most
cited theories and models including the terms and concepts. The second part is an analysis of the
most relevant empirical studies of the effects of music on advertising. A summary table follows
each section.
Theories and Models
Advertising and music have been investigated through many variables with a wide range of
outcomes. An analysis of these studies begins with a discussion of the most relevant theories and
models. These theories and models provide the foundation of music in advertising
experimentation and include attitude theory, classical conditioning theory, involvement theory
especially the elaboration likelihood model (ELM), and music theory.
Attitude Theory. Fishbein’s (1963) attitude theory, that a person’s attitude is a function of
his salient beliefs activated from memory at a point in time in a given situation, is the primary
consideration with all research dealing with attitude toward the ad and attitude toward the brand.
As will be apparent in the results section, many researchers have studied music’s effect on
attitude toward the brand in regard to product preference (Allen & Madden, 1985; Gorn, 1982;
Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Middlestadt et al., 1994; Park & Young, 1986; Pitt & Abratt, 1988; Zhu,
2005) and purchase intention (Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Morris & Boone, 1998). Others have
also considered attitude toward the ad and product preference (Macklin, 1988; Shen et al., 2006)
and purchase intention (Morris & Boone, 1998; North et al., 2004). The music variables with
regard to attitude toward the brand and the ad that have been most studied are indexicality, or
“the extent to which the music arouses emotion- laden memories,” and fit, or “the music’s
relevance or appropriateness to the central ad message,” and its effect on the processing of the
commercial (MacInnis & Park, 1991).
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24. Classical Conditioning Theory. Pavlov’s classical conditioning, as it relates to
advertising, suggests that positive attitudes towards an advertised product or a conditioned
stimulus, usually the brand, might develop through its association in a commercial with stimuli
that are reacted to positively, such as music, celebrities, or color. But, research has produced
conflicting results. Gorn (1982) concluded that positive attitudes towards an advertised product,
in this case colored pens, might develop through its association in a commercial with other
stimuli like music (he used the theme from “Grease” and classical Indian music). The results of
two experiments supported the notion that the simple association between a product and another
stimulus such as music can affect product preferences as measured by product choice.
Furthermore, an individual who is in a decision- making mode when exposed to a commercial is
more affected by the information therein than an individual who is not in a decision- making
mode. Many researchers have attempted to extend Gorn’s study but have been unable to replicate
his findings (Allen & Madden, 1985; Alpert & Alpert, 1990, Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Pitt &
Abratt, 1988). As it stands, classical conditioning appears to occur unreliably (Kellaris & Cox,
1989) and then only in case of low involvement consumers.
Involvement Theory. Involvement Theory in general, and the Elaboration Likelihood
Model (ELM) in particular, have been suggested as keys to understanding how music affects
responses to advertising. Krugman (1965) defined involvement as “the number of conscious
bridging experiences, connections, or personal references per minute that a viewer makes
between his or her own life and a stimulus” (p. 356). Salmon (1986) added that “involvement, in
any form, seems to mediate both the acquisition and processing of information through activating
a heightened state of arousal and/or greater cognitive activity in an interaction between an
individual and a stimulus” (p. 264). Petty and Cacioppo’s (1986) concept of elaboration
likelihood refers to “the likelihood one engages in issue-relevant thinking with the aim of
determining the merits of the arguments rather than the total amount of thinking per se in which
a person engages” (p. 674). ELM assumes that once an individual receives a message, processing
begins. Depending on the personal relevance of this information, the receiver will follow one of
two “routes” to persuasion: “central” and “peripheral.”
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25. When the consumer gives the message a high degree of attention, there is high involvement and
thus a central (active) processing route. When the consumer gives the message a low degree of
attention, there is low involvement and a peripheral (passive) processing route. Petty and
Cacioppo suggested that high involvement was the result of a message with high personal
relevance. Researchers that have studied involvement with regard to advertising and music have
found that it can positively affect message processing in low involvement conditions (MacInnis
& Park, 1991; Park & Young, 1986).
Music theory. The idea that music has the potential to enhance attention (stimulate awareness)
and memory (recall) has been widely speculated and researched (Adorno 1941, 1976; Bartlett &
Snelus, 1980; Bower & Bolton, 1969; Galizio & Hendrick, 1972; Hecker, 1984; Macklin, 1988;
Rothschild, 1987; Rubin, 1977; Schulkind et al., 1999; Wallace, 1994).
Macklin (1988) found that messages that were sung in a produced, original jingle that
sounded like a nursery rhyme produced the same recall from children as spoken messages.
Bartlett and Snelus (1980) found that cued recall of lyrics of popular songs from 1921 (“When
Francis Dances With Me”) to 1974 (“Morning Has Broken”) was higher in response to melodies
than in response to titles. Schulkind, Hennis, and Rubin (1999) observed a correlation between
music, emotion and autobiographical, long-term memory of older adults and songs from their
youth when testing the Top 20 from 1935 (“On Treasure Island”) to 1994 (“That’s The Way
Love Goes”). Some researchers have also observed the enhancement of recall by music. Rubin
(1977) found that recall of information is improved when cued with the melody of a well known
song (“Star Spangled Banner”). Wallace (1994) found that the melody of a song (using three
ballads from “The Frank C. Brown Collection of North Carolina Folklore) could facilitate recall
of text by providing it with musical structure for learning and remembering. Serafine, Crowder,
and Repp (1984), Serafine, Davidson, Crowder, and Repp (1986), and Crowder, Serafine and
Repp (1990) suggested an integration effect where the melody or text of a song (using folksongs
from Erdei) is better recalled with original text than with different text.
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26. These results suggest that music in ads has the potential to stimulate emotion, attention and
recall but not all studies support this theory. Galizio and Hendrick (1972) did not observe that
memory for verbal information was enhanced by presenting the information in the form of a
song (the musical accompaniment of a guitar). A summary of the most cited theories and models
including terms and concepts can be seen in Table 2.
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27. Table 2
A Summary of Relevant Theories and Models
Theory____________________________________________________ __ Citation________________
Attitude Suggests that beliefs are the only mediators of attitude formation and change and Fishbein
Theory that a person’s attitude is a function of salient beliefs at a particular moment. (1963)
Classical The process of behavior modification by which a subject (dog) comes to respond Pavlov
Conditioning in a desired manner to a previously neutral stimulus (bell) that has been (1927)
repeatedly presented along with an unconditioned stimulus (food) that elicits the
desired response.
Elaboration Assumes that once an individual receives a message, processing begins. When the Petty & Cacioppo
Likelihood consumer gives the message a high degree of attention because it is relevant
Model (ELM) there is high involvement and thus a central (active) processing route. When the (1986)
consumer gives the message a low degree of attention because it is not relevant,
there is low involvement and a peripheral (passive) processing route.
Hierarchy of The processes of attending to a commercial, learning and remembering its Thorson et al. (1992)
Advertising content, developing attitudes, and generating conative [tendency to move
Effects towards] responses occur in a sequential causal chain.
Involvement The number of conscious bridging experiences, connections, or personal Krugman (1965)
references per minute that a viewer makes between his or her own life and a
stimulus.
Music Theory The recall of information is improved when cued with the melody of a well known Rubin (1977)
song. The melody of a song can facilitate recall in certain environments. There is a Wallace (1994)
correlation between music, emotion and memory. Schulkind et al. (1999)
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28. Variables
While the amount of consumer behavior theories and models used in the investigation
and explanation of music’s effect on advertising may be relatively few, the variables have been
many and varied. The following is a summary of the most widely observed independent and
dependent variables including a continuum, followed by a comprehensive review of the results of
the interaction of these variables.
Independent Variables. The impact of music on advertising has been observed with a
variety of behaviors when mediated either individually or through the interaction of certain
variables. Music appeal (like or dislike) has been observed in relation to product preferences
(Allen & Madden, 1985; Gorn, 1982; Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Pitt & Abratt, 1988). The effect of
music arousal or mood (a temporary feeling or state) was studied with purchase intention (Alpert
& Alpert, 1990; Alpert et al., 2005; Kellaris & Mantel, 1996). Music fit has been observed in
relation to message processing (MacInnis & Park, 1991; North et al., 2004; Shen et al., 2006).
Different types of music placements/treatments (vocals, instrumentals, jingles, etc.) and recall
have been researched (Allan, 2006a; Roehm, 2001; Wallace, 1991, 1994; Yalch, 1991). Music
presence has positively affected product preference and purchase attention when interacting with
attitude (Macklin, 1988; Morris & Boone, 1998; Middlestadt et al., 1994; Park & Young, 1986;
Wheatley & Brooker, 1994) and recall (Macklin, 1988; Olsen, 1995; Wheatley & Brooker,
1994). Finally, music tempo (speed or pace), texture (timbre and orchestration), modality
(intervals between notes), and tonality (intervals between pitches in a scale) have been shown to
have the potential to enhance pleasure and arousal resulting in a greater purchase intention
(Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Kellaris & Kent, 1991, 1994; Kellaris & Rice, 1993).
Dependent Variables. When mediated with the above variables, the effect of music in
advertising on a variety of consumer responses has also been observed. Attitude toward the ad
can be positively influenced by the presence of music (Macklin, 1988; Morris & Boone, 1998;
North et. al., 2004; Shen et al., 2006). Perception of ad time can be decreased by arousing music
(Kellaris & Mantel, 1996). Attitude toward the brand can be improved by appealing music (Allen
& Madden, 1985; Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Gorn, 1982; Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Kellaris &
Rice, 1993; Middlestadt et al., 1994; Morris & Boone, 1998; Park & Young, 1986; Pitt & Abratt,
1988; Zhu, 2005). Brand recall can be increased by personally relevant and significant music
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29. (Allan, 2006a; Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Kellaris et. al., 1993; Macklin, 1988; MacInnis &
Park, 1991; North et al., 2004; Olsen, 1995; Roehm, 2001; Shen et al., 2006; Wallace, 1991,
1994; Yalch, 1991; Wheatley & Brooker, 1994). Music attitude can be positively affected by
tempo (Kellaris & Rice, 1993; Kellaris & Kent, 1994). Pleasure/arousal can be affected by not
only the tempo but the tonality and texture of the music (Kellaris & Kent, 1994). Finally,
purchase intention can be affected by interaction of music and mood (Alpert & Alpert, 1990;
Alpert et al., 2005; Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Kellaris & Kent, 1991; Morris & Boone, 1998;
North et al., 2004). A continuum of dependent variables and the corresponding independent
variables that have been observed can be seen in Figure 1.
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30. Figure 1
DV/IV Continuum
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Attitude Toward →→ → Ad→→→ Attitude Toward →→ Brand→→→ Pleasure/ → →→ Purchase
the Ad Time the Brand Recall Arousal Intention
Music fit Music arousal Music appeal Music fit Music tempo Music fit
Music presence Music melody Music texture Music melody
Music presence Music tonality Music modality
Music tempo Music mood
Music placement
Music presence
Music tempo
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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31. 25 | P a g e

32. Results
Much has been learned about music and advertising since it was first used in commercials
in the early days of radio. Through a survey and analysis of experimental literature and a content
analyses of experimental results and their theoretical underpinnings, a better understanding of the
interaction of independent and dependent variables or more conversationally, how music affects
the processing of the ad, and how much it is being used in advertising, has been achieved. What
follows is a discussion of the results.
Attitude Toward the Ad
Shimp (1981) argued that attitude toward the ad (ATTA) is an important mediator when a
consumer makes a choice. Since then, music’s potential to affect the consumer’s ad attitude has
received some attention with conflicting results. The presence of music was shown to affect how
a viewer feels when looking at print ads (Morris & Boone, 1998). Musical fit resulted in a better
attitude toward the ad (North et al., 2004; Shen & Chen, 2006). Brooker and Wheatley (1994),
however, reported no effect of music placement on attitude toward the ad. Likewise, Macklin
(1988) reported no effect of music presence on attitude toward the ad with children.
Ad Time
It has been argued that, under some circumstances, there is a disparity between objective
time and perceived time of the ad and that the latter is affected by external stimuli like music
(Kellaris & Mantel, 1994; 1996). While not a lot of attention has been given to perceived ad
time, it is still worth mentioning. Arousal was found to moderate the influence of stimulus
congruity on perceived time such that congruity contributed positively to retrospective duration
estimates among subjects exposed to soothing (versus arousing) music (Kellaris & Mantel,
1996). The implications of objective time versus perceived time involve the potential benefits to
the advertiser of increasing memory for the ad while reducing its length (60-second versus 30-
second commercial).
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33. Attitude Toward the Brand
Mitchell and Olson (1981) argued that a consumer’s attitude or “internal evaluation” of a
brand has always been an important consideration in marketing research. It is not surprising then,
that a considerable amount of investigation into music’s effect on attitude toward the brand
(ATTB) has been undertaken with a variety of variables and results. Gorn (1982) observed that
hearing liked or disliked music can affect product preferences but his results were never
replicated (Allen & Madden, 1985; Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Pitt & Abratt, 1988). The presence of
music (Blondie’s “Tide Is High”) had a facilitative effect on brand attitude (shampoo and their
functional performance) in the low involvement condition and a distracting effect for those in the
cognitive involvement condition (Park & Young, 1986). Music presence was also shown to have
either no effects (Morris & Boone, 1998) or negative effects (Shen et al., 2006) on attitude
depending on its fit. As to how the process of attitude change toward the brand occurs, it has
been suggested that it might be a belief-based rather than an affect-based change (Middlestadt et
al., 1994). Brooker and Wheatley (1994) reported no effect of placement on attitude toward the
brand. Macklin (1988) reported no effect of the presence of music on attitude toward the brand
with children.
Brand Recall
Recall of the brand is obviously a primary consideration in the evaluation of the
effectiveness of music in advertising. When the music fit, the message processing of the ad was
enhanced (MacInnis & Park, 1991; North et al., 2004). Different music treatments (original and
altered vocals, instrumentals, jingles, silence) did affect recall differently under varied conditions
(Allan, 2006a; Olsen, 1995: Roehm, 2001; Wallace, 1991, 1994; Yalch, 1991). The presence or
absence of music was shown to be both attention-getting (Park & Young, 1988) and distracting
(Wheatley & Brooker, 1994). The placement (Brooker & Wheatley, 1994) or the presence of
music (Macklin, 1988) was not observed to affect recall. Musical fit, however, was shown to
stimulate better recall of brands (North et al., 2004; Shen et al., 2006).
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34. Pleasure and Arousal
It has been argued that music is an especially powerful stimulus for affecting moods
(Bruner, 1990). Thus, it is maybe a bit surprising that music’s potential to affect moods primarily
through pleasure and arousal garnered a significant amount of attention in the 1990’s but not
much since. During that time, it was observed that arousing music was found to produce greater
degrees of mood enhancement thus positively affecting purchase intention (Alpert & Alpert,
1990; Alpert et al., 2005; Kellaris & Mantel, 1996; Morris & Boone, 1998). Music tempo (fast)
was shown to have positive effects on behavioral intent (Kellaris & Kent, 1991).
Purchase Intention
Since purchase intention or conation was first defined as “behavior directed toward
action” (Shanteau & Ptacek, 1983, p. 149), it has been one of the most difficult advertising
effects to research but arguably the most important. With regard to purchase intention and music,
the results varied with some observing significant effects (Alpert & Alpert, 1990; Alpert et al.,
2005; Kellaris & Kent, 1991) and some observing no significant effects (Brooker & Wheatley,
1994; Morris & Boone, 1998). The placement of music was shown to invite attention to the
message and motivating consumers to process the message and facilitate the potential to
purchase (Brooker & Wheatley, 1994). The combination of music with silence also has been
shown to be attention- getting resulting in the enhancement of purchase intention (Olsen, 1995).
The effect of music tempo was shown to have had contradictory results with some reporting a
passive effect on purchase intention (Kellaris & Kent, 1991), and some reporting no effect
(Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Morris & Boone, 1998).
Content Analyses
Only a few studies have dealt with the amount of commercials on television and radio with
music. Stewart and Furse (1986, p. 160) found music featured in slightly more than 40% of 1000
television commercials they studied, but that only 12% of those used lyrics to directly convey the
advertising message. Similar frequencies were obtained in a follow-up study (Stewart & Koslow,
1989, p. 29). Appelbaum and Halliburton (1993) analyzed international commercials and found
music in 89% of their sample (p. 237). Allan (2006b) analyzed commercials in prime-time
television and reported that 86% of the unique ads contained some type of music.
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35. A summary of the most relevant qualitative and quantitative studies on the effects of music on
advertising can be seen in Table 3.
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36. Table 3
Summary of Relevant Effectual Research Involving Advertising and Music___________________
Citation Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results______________________
Gorn 1982 244 Music appeal Brand attitude Hearing liked or disliked
undergraduates music while being exposed to
a product can directly affect
product preferences.
Allen & 60 undergraduates Music appeal Brand attitude Hearing liked or disliked
Madden music while being exposed to
(1985) a product did not directly
affect product preferences.
Park & Young 120 women Music Brand attitude/information Music had a facilitative effect
(1986) presence/absence, on brand attitude for subjects
Involvement in the low involvement
(high/low) condition and a distracting
(TV ads) effect for those in the
cognitive involvement
condition.
Sewall & 200 mall Music background Brand recall Background music had no
Sarel (1986) shoppers/ significant effect
832 radio ads
Pitt & Abratt 172 undergraduate Music appeal Brand attitude Hearing liked or disliked
(1988) students music while being exposed to
a product did not directly
affect product preferences.
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37. Table 3
(continued)________________________________________________________
Citatio Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results___________________________
Macklin (1988) 75 preschoolers Music background Ad attitude Music did not enhance outcomes.
Presence Brand attitude
Brand recall
Stout & 1498 mall Music Cognitive/ Music had only minor effects.
Leckenby shoppers/ tempo; mode; Affective responses
(1988) 50 TV ads volume;
presence
Kellaris & Cox 302 undergraduates Music appeal Brand attitude No evidence that product preferences can
(1989) be conditioned through a single exposure
to appealing or unappealing music.
(Classical Conditioning)
Alpert & 48 undergraduate Music Mood Music had a significant effect on moods
Alpert (1990) students Purchase intention and purchase intention.
Kellaris & 180 undergraduates Music tempo/ Music evaluation Tempo and Modality influenced arousal
Kent (1991) modality Purchase intention and intent.
MacInnis & 178 undergraduate Music fit/ Message processing Indexicality and fit affect the processing of
Park (1991) women indexicality both high- and low- involvement consumers,
(TV ads) influencing message- and non-message-based
processing.
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38. Table 3
(continued)____________________________________________________
Citation Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results_______________________
Wallace (1991) 120 subjects Music placement- Brand recall Music provides a retrieval cue.
Sung/ Music acts as a frame which the text is
spoken words tightly fit.
(jingles/
ballads)
Yalch (1991) 103 undergraduates Music placement- Brand recall Music enhances memory for advertising
slogans with and slogans when the slogans were incorporated
without music into an advertisement in the form of a jingle
(jingles) or song.
Kellaris & Rice 52 undergraduates Music tempo, Music responses Gender moderates the influence of loudness
(1993) Loudness, resulting in females responding more
Gender positively to music at lower volumes
Kellaris et. al. 231 undergraduates Music- message fit, Brand recall/ Increasing audience attention to music
(1993) Attention- gaining value Recognition of brand enhances message reception when the music
name and messages evokes message-congruent thoughts.
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39. Table 3
_________________________________________ (continued)__________________________________________________
Citation Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results_____________________
Brooker & 100 participants Music tempo/ Ad attitudes Tempo had effects on perception
Wheatley placement Brand attitudes of music but no effect on DV’s.
(1994) (radio ads) Purchase intention Placement had a stronger effect
Brand recall on DV’s.
Kellaris & 288 Music tempo/ Pleasure/Arousal Tempo affected pleasure and
Kent (1994) undergraduates Tonality/ arousal.
Texture Tonality affected pleasure and
surprise.
Texture moderated tempo and
tonality on pleasure.
Middlestadt et 97 undergraduates Music presence Brand attitude Belief-based change
al. (1994)
Wallace 64 undergraduates Music melody Brand recall Text is better recalled when it is
(1994) heard as a song rather than as
speech, provided the music
repeats so that it is easily
learned.
Wheatley & 144 undergraduate Music Brand recall Music hindered message recall
Brooker students and their presence/absence Cognitive response and did not enhance attention.
(1994) parents Spokespersons
(radio ads)
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40. Table 3
(continued)_________________________________________________
Citation Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results______________________
Olsen (1995) 144 undergraduate Music Brand recall/ Silence effectively increases
students presence/absence attribute importance listener retention of ad
(music/silence) information especially when the
highlighted information was the
last item of a series.
Kellaris & 85 undergraduate Music arousal/ Ad time Arousal was found to moderate
Mantel (1996) students congruity the influence of stimulus
(radio ads) congruity on perceived time such
that congruity contributed
positively to retrospective
duration estimates among subjects
exposed to soothing (versus
arousing) music.
Morris & 90 undergraduates Music Emotional response Music affected emotional
Boone (1998) presence/absence Brand attitude response of print ads. No effect on
(print ads) Purchase Intention brand attitude or purchase
intention.
Roehm (2001) 48 MBA Music placement Brand recall Instrumentals produced greater
students/44 versus vocals recall of the message if the
community people (radio ads) individuals knew the song. Vocals
produced greater recall of the
lyrics if the individuals did not
know the song.
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41. Table 3
(continued)____________________________________________________
Citation Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results______________________
North et. al. 162 participants Music/voice fit Attitude toward the ad Musical fit resulted in better
(2004) Brand recall recall of products, brands, and
Purchase Intention claims, attitude toward the ad,
and purchase intention.
Voice fit resulted in better recall
of claims, attitude toward the
ad, and purchase intention.
Alpert et. al. 75 undergraduate Music mood Purchase intention When music is used to evoke
(2005) students emotions congruent with the
symbolic meaning of product
purchase, the likelihood of
purchasing is enhanced.
Zhu, Rui & 77/109 Music meanings Brand attitude Intensive processors are
Meyers-Levy, undergraduates (embodied/referential) sensitive to music meanings.
Joan (2005)
Shen & Chen 130 students Music fit Ad attitude When the music does not fit
(2006) (music incongruity) it can have
an adverse effect on attitudes
toward the ad.
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42. Future Research
It’s been over twenty years since Hecker (1984, p. 7) called music “the catalyst of advertising.”
He suggested that “researchers can better understand and use this magic if they understand that music is
too important to be wasted on amorphous, irrelevant, or inappropriate goals.” While much has been done,
there is still great “potential for real research into music’s effectiveness” (Dunbar, 1990). Bruner (1990, p.
102) reinforced in his review of literature that the relevant body of research was indeed still “meager” and
North and Hargreaves (1997, p. 282) concluded that the “field is [still] under-investigated.” A number of
the studies reviewed have suggested additional research that either has not been undertaken or needs
additional investigation. These include more collaboration between the private and academic sectors, a
longitudinal study on the amount of music in advertising, more attention to the effect of music on brand
image, the use of different experimental environments, and finally a richer investigation of the effect of
music fit and indexicality on advertising.
Advertisers and Academics
Alpert and Alpert (1991, p. 236) called for more “cooperative efforts between academic
researchers and industry practitioners applying musical theories to advertising executioners.” Too often
the efforts remain separate with the industry findings unavailable. Joint efforts would benefit both parties
to better understand “when and why music works in advertising” (p. 236). Many advertisers use popular
music in their advertising especially The Gap and Old Navy. The Gap primarily uses original lyrics with
Old Navy utilizing altered lyrics. Since they are both owned by the same parent company, it would be
beneficial to not only conduct an academically-based effectual study as well as to correlate the findings
with sales results during the campaign. At the very least, private research should be made available to the
academic community to verify the results and provide a practical basis for the use of music in advertising.
Advertising and Popular Music
It is clear that there is a need to more consistently quantify and trend the use of music, especially
popular music, in advertising. Stewart and Furse (1986, p. 160) lamented the absence of its systematic
measurement and set out to provide such documentation. In a later report, Stewart, Farmer, and Stannard
(1990) recommended that additional research was needed in this area. Nonetheless, only Appelbaum and
Halliburton (1993) and Allan (2006b) heeded this recommendation by analyzing international
commercials. A longitudinal investigation of the amount of music in advertising, especially popular
music, should be conducted to track its proliferation and progression.
Since the use of popular music in advertising continues to prosper, more needs to also be known about
the effects. In fact, Kellaris and Kent (1991, p. 248) suggested further study into the effects of musical
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43. components on the processing of verbal material (e.g., song lyrics, advertising messages). More needs to
be done with popular music and altered lyrics (e.g. eBay, Old Navy). This could include more diverse
demographics and “the role of listener characteristics in shaping responses to music (Kellaris & Kent,
1994, p. 397). Additionally, while comparisons have been made between some placements/treatments
(vocals/instrumentals, etc.), a larger study needs to be done comparing all possible treatments (vocals,
instrumentals, jingles, altered vocals, and a control treatment of silence). Also apparent is the need for
further research into the role of background music (Alpert & Alpert, 1990, p. 130). It is also clear that we
need further “investigations of advertisements with songs that represent varied styles of popular music”
(Roehm, 2001, p. 57).
Finally, McChesney (2001) called popular music and advertising the “bankruptcy of culture” and
Burns (1996) called it “disturbing and even shocking.” Advertisers who use it consider it a “marriage of
art and commerce” and Allan (2005) suggested that the combination of popular music and advertising
creates “a new cultural product.” Clearly, more attention needs to be given to the social and ethical
implications of the use of popular music and advertising. This can be done as part of a longitudinal study.
Brand Image
Stout and Lechenby (1988, p. 223) called for more research into “the contribution made by music
to brand image.” It is clear that many advertisers are using music to create an image (e.g., iPod). What is
not so clear is music’s effectiveness or the implications for the music and/or artists (e.g., U2). A related
area of consideration is the use of music in the imaging of a brand as a distribution channel (e.g.,
Starbucks). Each of these areas of research is certainly underdeveloped and warrants further investigation.
Additionally, some popular music and artists are actually being exposed and “branded” through
advertising (e.g., Modest Mouse) and placement in television shows (e.g., Grey’s Anatomy). The effects
of advertising and media on popular music could also be investigated.
Environments
Scott (1990, p. 234) argued that “we must not let our methods drive our theories but must instead
design our methods in a way that can encompass whatever theory seems articulate enough to fully
describe the phenomenon.” Studies need to be conducted under more realistic viewing and listening
conditions. Bruner (1990) agreed and called for the raising of “level of experimental sophistication” (p.
100). Far too many studies continue to be done in isolated lab environments. One possible idea would be
to observe and survey customers in The Gap or Old Navy when their respective advertisements are played
in the store. Additionally, due to their growing distribution of music, Starbucks provides a potentially
effective field experiment location.
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44. Fit and Indexicality
More studies need to further investigate fit (a person’s perception of the music’s relevance) and
indexicality (a person’s emotion-laden memories). This research can be expanded to look at various
genres and eras of music with special attention given to the personal relevance of the music/effect of
processing (ELM). Additionally, more focus needs to be given to “the study of executional cues and their
processing implications for high- and low-involvement consumers’ ad processing” (MacInnis & Park,
1991, p. 172). It may be that music can influence a person’s involvement with advertising due to some
conceptualization of involvement (Zaichkowsky, 1986) such as personal, object, or situational
characteristics. A great deal of contemporary advertising utilizes classic rock music evidently targeted
towards 25-54 males, yet some teenagers are also listening to this genre of music from the 1970s. It may
certainly be involving to both demographics with much different indexicality, not to mention fit. Further
investigation must be conducted to determine the consequences.
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45. Conclusion
The research suggests that music is more likely to positively than negatively affect the consumer’s
response to your advertising. That’s the easy part but not very helpful to an agency trying to advise an
advertiser on whether or not to use music and what music to use. The use of music in general, and the
type of music in particular, must be carefully chosen with the target audience and the desired outcome
driving the selection. It is clear from this review that music has been shown to both positively and
negatively stimulate a variety of responses including attention, mood, attitude, and purchase intention.
The stimulation of these responses is different based on various characteristics of the music itself
including its appeal, presence, tempo, background or foreground, etc. In the case of its appeal, different
genres of music from different eras affect different demographics of consumers differently. So it’s
complicated. What we do know from this overview of research on music and advertising is that, when
used effectively, it can be effective. That “sounds” rather trite but it’s true. An advertiser should not just
use any music in a commercial just for the sake of using music. It should be carefully chosen and tested to
predict its potential to stimulate a positive response for the brand and/or the ad with the ultimate goal of
branding and purchase. There is a substantial amount of research out there to guide the advertiser and this
review provides the foundation for that process. There is also much research that needs to be done and
this review also provides direction and motivation.
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48. WEBSITES
www.sonicbrand.com
www.sonicid.com
www.audiobrain.com
www.movingbrands.com
www.id-ology.net/idology
www.linkedin.com
www.sonicaudibranding.com
www.intentionalnoise.com Sonic Branding, Daniel Jackson, Palgrave Macmillan
BOOKS
Sonic Branding, Daniel Jackson
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