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文化進化のパターンとプロセス
1. Patterns and processes
in cultural evolution:
Archaeology and cultural evolutionary studies
Hisashi Nakao
Nagoya University
hisashinakao@gmail.com
http://www.hisashinakao.com
1
8. Inferring evolutionary patterns
+ 系統推定...の前に分類
Character Character
・一般的に用いられる8つの Character state Character state
特徴を選ぶ I. Location of maximum blade width
1. Proximal quarter
V. Outer tang angle
1. 93°-115°
2. Secondmost proximal quarter 2. 88°-92°
3. Secondmost distal quarter 3. 81°-87°
・この基準で621の標本を分類 4. Distal quarter 4. 66°-88°
5. 51°-65°
→491のクラスに分けられる II. Base shape
1. Arc-shaped
6. <50°
2. Normal curve VI. Tang-tip shape
3. Triangular 1. Pointed
・4つ以上の標本を持つクラス 4. Folsomoid 2. Round
3. Blunt
を選んで系統推定 III. Basal indentation ratio
1. No basal indentation VII. Fluting
2. 0.90-0.99 (shallow) 1. Absent
・結果的に17のクラスに関して 3. 0.80-0.89 (deep) 2. Present
IV. Constriction ratio VIII. Length/width ratio
系統推定． 1. 1.00
2. 0.90-0.99
1. 1.00-1.99
2. 2.00-2.99
3. 0.80-0.89 3. 3.00-3.99
4. 0.70-0.79 4. 4.00-4.99
5. 0.60-0.69 5. 5.00-5.99
6. 0.50-0.59 6. 6.00
8
9. Inferring evolutionary patterns
+ 系統推定...の前に分類
D
E
Character Character
E
D Character state Character state
I. Location of maximum blade width V. Outer tang angle
1. Proximal quarter 1. 93°-115°
C 2. Secondmost proximal quarter 2. 88°-92°
A A’ 3. Secondmost distal quarter 3. 81°-87°
4. Distal quarter 4. 66°-88°
5. 51°-65°
C II. Base shape 6. <50°
A A’
B B’ 1. Arc-shaped
2. Normal curve VI. Tang-tip shape
B B’
F 3. Triangular 1. Pointed
F 4. Folsomoid 2. Round
D’ D’
C’ 3. Blunt
E’
G III. Basal indentation ratio
E’ C’
G H 1. No basal indentation VII. Fluting
2. 0.90-0.99 (shallow) 1. Absent
3. 0.80-0.89 (deep) 2. Present
Landmark Characters Base shapes
IV. Constriction ratio VIII. Length/width ratio
A-A’ = maximum blade width
Arc-shaped 1. 1.00 1. 1.00-1.99
B-B’ = minimum blade width 2. 0.90-0.99 2. 2.00-2.99
C-C’ = height of maximum blade width Normal curve 3. 0.80-0.89 3. 3.00-3.99
D-D’ = medial length 4. 0.70-0.79 4. 4.00-4.99
E-E’ = maximum length Triangular 5. 0.60-0.69 5. 5.00-5.99
6. 0.50-0.59 6. 6.00
F = outer tang angle
Folsomoid
G = tang tip
H = flute
9
16. (a)
800 Samoan
New Zealand
400
Tongan
0 Inferring evolutionary patterns Hawaiian
40
Fijian
20
+ Different results by different methodologies:
ublishing.org on August 18, 2012 Societies
0 Tuamotuan
ape and fabric of human history R. D. Gray et al. 3931 Marquesan Manihiki
8 Cooks Australs (b) Tongan
(a) Samoan
Samoan
Fijian
4 Manihiki Tuamotuan
New Zealand
0
Tongan
Hawaiian
Hawaiian Marquesan
200
100
Fijian
New Zealand Societies
0
0 –2 –4 –6 –8 Societies
–10
site-specific likelihood
Tuamotuan
Marquesan Manihiki Australs
e 9. Histograms showing the distribution of likelihood
(b) Tongan
s for (a) basic vocabulary, (b) functional aspects of Cooks
Samoan Fijian
design, (c) symbolic aspects of canoe design and (d)
Manihiki Tuamotuan Figure 10. Split graphs showing the results of NeighborNet
mization of the canoe data forthe language tree. Like-
- Networks on functional and symbolic aspects of canoe (Gray et al. 2010)
analyses of the (a) functional and (b) the symbolic aspects
d scores close to zero indicate a good fit. The basic
Hawaiian of canoe design. For functional traits, the average delta
ulary data fit the tree the best (mean ¼ 22.89, 16
score was 0.46 and the average Q-residual ¼ 0.03. For sym-
18. Outline
1. Inferring evolutionary patterns:
Cultural phylogenetics
2. Inferring evolutionary processes (1):
Optimality models in archaeology
3. Inferring evolutionary processes (2):
Cognitive mechanisms behind the evolution of
tools and technologies
18
19. Inferring evolutionary processes (1)
+ Optimality models and archaeology (Bright et al. 2002)
- The historical changes in diets, tools, and technologies were adaptive
R: return rate (kcal/hr)
E E: average energy (kcal)
R=
T+S T: average handling time (hr)
S: average search time (hr)
E1, T1, S1: for plants seeds
E1 E2 E2, T2, S2: for large games
>
T1 + S1 T2 + S2 If plants seeds are much more available,
R1 will be larger than R2.
+ Investment in tools and technology included:
T would decline while extra time for tools would be needed.
19
24. Inferring evolutionary processes (1)
+ Bifaces are more technologically demanding than core-flake tools
and more useful for larger games.
24
25. Inferring evolutionary processes (1)
+ Prediction from the optimality model:
The reduced emphasis on large and medium game after AD 1300
should be accompanied by a shift from higher-cost bifacial tools
in favor of more expedient core/flake technology (176).
+ Results:
Bifaces core/flake tech
AD 700-1300 96.8% 3.2%
After AD 1300 85.1% 14.9%
→The prediction was successfully confirmed.
25
26. Outline
1. Inferring evolutionary patterns:
Cultural phylogenetics
2. Inferring evolutionary processes (1):
Optimality models in archaeology
3. Inferring evolutionary processes (2):
Cognitive mechanisms behind the evolution of
tools and technologies
26
32. Inferring evolutionary processes (2)
+ The natural pedagogy (NP) hypothesis by Csibra & Gergely:
+ NP is a set of human unique and innate cognitive adaptations
“to transfer knowledge to, and receive knowledge from,
conspecifics through teaching” (Csibra & Gergely 2006, 252).
“[W]e hypothesize that the "birth of [natural] pedagogy"
was necessitated by extensive tool use by early hominid
groups...In fact, proliferation of tool use, and the emergence
of rich artefact culture, would have probably been impossible
without an efficient social learning mechanism [i.e., natural
pedagogy] that enabled transmission of not just observable
behaviours but also unobservable knowledge” (Csibra &
Gergely 2006, 253).
32
33. Inferring evolutionary processes (2)
[Natural pedagogy] makes it possible to efficiently convey
knowledge with opaque content to others in a single act of
demonstration not only because the recipient is prepared to
recognize such actions as communicative demonstrations, but
also because the addressee has the default expectation that the
content of the demonstration represents shared cultural
knowledge and is generalizable along some relevant dimension
to other objects, other occasions or other individuals
(Csibra & Gergely, 2011, 1150, emphasis added).
(1) NP includes a set of human unique and innate cognitive traits,
(2) enables novice learners to gain generalizable or shared and
relevant knowledge more efficiently,
(3) especially in opaque contexts, across different domains from
a single demonstration that is marked with OSs.
33
34. Inferring evolutionary processes (2)
brief communications
+ NP is effective especially in an opaque context (Gergely et al. 2002).
Rational imitation in preverbal infants
- Children do not imitate in a transparent context even with OSs
B a bie s m a y o p t for a sim ple r w a y t o turn o n a lig ht aft e r w a t c hin g a n a d ult d o it.
H
ere we show that if an adult demon- a b c
strates a new way to execute a task to a
a: hands occupied, transparent
group of infants aged 14 months, the
100 %
80 %
b: hands free, opaque
children will use this action to achieve the
same goal only if they consider it to be 60 %
the most rational alternative. Our results 40 %
blue: head action imitated
indicate that imitation of goal-directed
action by preverbal infants is a selective, 20 %
green: hand touch imitated
interpretative process, rather than a simple
re-enactment of the means used by a
0%
Hands
occupied
Hands
free
demonstrator, as was previously thought1–3.
In Meltzoff ’s seminal study1, a group of Figure 1 Comparison of the methods used by 14-month-old infants to switch on a light-box 1 week after watching how an adult executed
14-month-old subjects watched a demon- the same task under two different conditions. a, b, Adult switching on the light by touching the lamp with her forehead in the hands-occupied
strator illuminate a light-box by leaning condition (a, nǃ14) or the hands-free condition (b, nǃ13). c, Methods used by infants to switch on the light-box after watching the head
forwards and touching its top with her fore- action used by the demonstrator under these two conditions (left bar, adult had hands occupied; right bar, adult had hands free), recorded
head1,2. One week later, two-thirds of them over a 20-s period. Blue, head action was re-enacted; green, only manual touch was used. Further details are available from the authors.
re-enacted this head action to achieve the
same outcome, although none of the control were free (Fig. 1b), 69% of infants re-enacted infant, indicates that imitation by 14-
group used it spontaneously. This was taken the head action, replicating Meltzoff’s month-olds goes beyond emulation. We
as evidence that infants separate the goal results1. However, after watching the adult conclude that the early imitation of goal-
from the means, automatically imitating the turn on the light with her head when her directed actions is a selective, inferential
means as demonstrated2. Such imitative hands were occupied, the number of chil- process that involves evaluation of the
learning is thought to be specific to humans, dren who imitated the head action dropped rationality of the means in relation to the
as primates do not imitate new strategies to significantly to only 21% (P<0.02; Fig. 1c). constraints of the situation.
achieve goals, relying instead on motor It must therefore have seemed sensible to the György Gergely*, Harold Bekkering†‡,
actions already in their repertoire (emula- infants that the demonstrator should use the Ildikó Király*
tion)3. If this were also the case in infants, head action when her hands were occupied *Institute for Psychology, Hungarian Academy of
they would be expected to touch the box — nevertheless, 79% of them chose not to
34 Sciences, 1132 Budapest, Hungary
with their hands, rather than imitating the imitate her because their own hands were e-mail: gergelyg@mtapi.hu
35. Inferring evolutionary processes (2)
+ OSs allow children to get generalizable object valence?
positive
- Gergely et al. 2007
- Two experimenters: A & B negative
O1 O2
- Subjects: 14-months-old children
- A: ostensive positive expressions to O1
but negative expressions to O2.
- B: ostensive negative expressions to O1
but positive expressions to O2.
- Asymmetric trials: One of the two
experimenters appears three times
more often than the other B A
(e.g., A appears 15 times and B 5 times) 5 times 15 times
35
36. keyboard. Each test event lasted until the infant looked
away for more than 2 seconds. A sound cue oriented the
infant’s attention back to the display before the next
event started.
Inferring evolutionary processes (2)
Results
We used the looking times during test trials as the sole
dependent measure. A second experimenter re-coded
+ OSs allows children to get generalizable object valence?
off-line 25% of the video-records measuring subjects’
looking times for the test events. The two coders’
measurements showed significantly high correlation
(Pearson: r = .99), indicating the reliability of the look-
- The children were not surprised when watching B choosing O
ing time data. 1
though she had appeared to like O . 2
Figure 1 depicts the mean looking times to the differ-
ent types of object-choices during test events for the
- Rather, they were surprised when watching B choosing O2.
- This should be due to the fact that
the children understand shared
valence of objects (not subjective
preferences of the A & B).
36
Figure 1 Mean looking times to ‘attitude-consistent’ vs. ‘attitude-
