Running head: CRYPTOCURRENCIES 1 CRYPTOCURRENCIES 3 Cryptocurrencies Name Institution Date Cryptocurrencies Cryptography can be described as hidden communication or value, as in cryptocurrencies, which is propagated in a secure form. Cryptography is therefore the study or practice in which information is constructed in a manner that is hidden and distributed for decoding so that it can be understood. The need for secure communication and transactions saw an increase in the use of cryptography and its representation as digital currencies. It is very important in this context to define and explore the concept of cryptocurrencies. This analysis will utilize Bitcoin as an example of a cryptocurrency through which the main objectives will be achieved. This example will be used to overview the main characteristics of cryptocurrencies and how they influence the economy. A cryptocurrency is essentially a platform that utilizes concepts of cryptography to enable secure transactions as well as the establishment of new units within the economy. Considering the significance of cryptocurrencies in the contemporary world, it is essential to explore and understand the impact of cryptocurrencies on business, how people trust currencies, their social implications as well as how this technology can be applied in future to develop a more efficient economy. The Economics of Cryptocurrencies To properly understand the concept of cryptocurrencies, it is important to utilize a base model to explain how it works. Van Alstyne (2014) defines Bitcoin as a decentralized electronic cash system that uses peer-to-peer networking, digital signatures and cryptographic proof so as to enable users to conduct irreversible transactions without relying on trust. Cryptocurrencies are therefore a form of digital currency that is utilized within the external environment of banking institutions and is distributed through the internet. Increased virtual financial activities in the internet has depicted great potential in Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies. The technical framework that made provisions under which cryptocurrencies were conceptualized was created by Satoshi Nakamoto. Banks use what is known as centralized currency systems in which the value of currencies and their amounts available in specific markets are determined by the government or specific companies. On the contrary, decentralized cryptocurrency involves management of ledgers by a community called miners who secure, balance and maintain the integrity of the ledgers. A particular timestamp is used by these individuals to validate transactions and toggle the value of cryptocurrencies. Bitcoin was the very first digital currency of its kind. Therefore, most cryptocurrencies were developed based on the archit ...

1. Running head: CRYPTOCURRENCIES
1
CRYPTOCURRENCIES
3
Cryptocurrencies
Name
Institution
Date
Cryptocurrencies
Cryptography can be described as hidden communication or
value, as in cryptocurrencies, which is propagated in a secure
form. Cryptography is therefore the study or practice in which
information is constructed in a manner that is hidden and
distributed for decoding so that it can be understood. The need
for secure communication and transactions saw an increase in
the use of cryptography and its representation as digital
currencies. It is very important in this context to define and
explore the concept of cryptocurrencies. This analysis will
utilize Bitcoin as an example of a cryptocurrency through which
the main objectives will be achieved. This example will be used

2. to overview the main characteristics of cryptocurrencies and
how they influence the economy. A cryptocurrency is
essentially a platform that utilizes concepts of cryptography to
enable secure transactions as well as the establishment of new
units within the economy. Considering the significance of
cryptocurrencies in the contemporary world, it is essential to
explore and understand the impact of cryptocurrencies on
business, how people trust currencies, their social implications
as well as how this technology can be applied in future to
develop a more efficient economy.
The Economics of Cryptocurrencies
To properly understand the concept of cryptocurrencies, it is
important to utilize a base model to explain how it works. Van
Alstyne (2014) defines Bitcoin as a decentralized electronic
cash system that uses peer-to-peer networking, digital
signatures and cryptographic proof so as to enable users to
conduct irreversible transactions without relying on trust.
Cryptocurrencies are therefore a form of digital currency that is
utilized within the external environment of banking institutions
and is distributed through the internet. Increased virtual
financial activities in the internet has depicted great potential in
Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies. The technical framework
that made provisions under which cryptocurrencies were
conceptualized was created by Satoshi Nakamoto.
Banks use what is known as centralized currency systems in
which the value of currencies and their amounts available in
specific markets are determined by the government or specific
companies. On the contrary, decentralized cryptocurrency
involves management of ledgers by a community called miners
who secure, balance and maintain the integrity of the ledgers. A
particular timestamp is used by these individuals to validate
transactions and toggle the value of cryptocurrencies. Bitcoin
was the very first digital currency of its kind. Therefore, most
cryptocurrencies were developed based on the architecture of
Bitcoin. Characteristically, more competitive markets have a
larger number of cryptocurrencies as compared to others. It is

3. the transfer of Bitcoin coins from one virtual destination to the
other that makes up transactions (Gervais, Karame, Capkun, &
Capkun, 2014). The security of ledgers within this system is
entirely based on trust bestowed upon miners who actuate the
transactions.
Impact of Bitcoin on Business
The very design of cryptocurrencies is configured to establish a
more efficient way for business transactions to take place.
There have been reports detailing the main limitations of
centralized currency systems in satisfying the wave of digital
migration in contemporary businesses. This has highlighted the
need for a decentralized currency system that will ensure ease
of virtual transactions while maintaining the integrity of the
currency. There is no doubt that digital currencies bring a level
of efficiency that a banking economy has not been able to
achieve. As a matter of fact, the provision of cryptocurrencies
objectifies the limitation of normal currency that will be in
circulation. It is therefore a proven fact that cryptocurrencies
make business transactions more efficient. Another influence it
has is the integrity of currency. The involvement of
governments and companies in the control of amount and value
of currency in centralized systems raises the question of what
conflicting interests do to the integrity of currency.
On the contrary, the use of miners in the Bitcoin system ensures
that specific decisions critical to the integrity of currency are
distributed to remotely positioned and trusted individuals. The
concept of a blockchain makes the Bitcoin system as transparent
as possible. Citing from the conceptualization stage of any
cryptocurrency, gaining public confidence and trust is very
important. Perhaps the most efficient way in which Bitcoin
achieves this objective is through blockchain. It is
fundamentally a well distributed database of records detailing
all ledger transactions that are shared between individuals and
parties within the system (Crosby, Pattanayak, Verma, &
Kalyanaraman, 2016). It is an efficient way of ensuring that
information on transactions is directed to the correct audience

4. who have the stakes to influence the value and characteristics of
Bitcoin coins in the market. Businesses need this form of
assurance to exchange value in their transactions.
Trust and Currencies
People must develop trust and confidence on a currency before
it is considered admissible. Bitcoin, besides utilizing a
blockchain framework to ensure transparency, has a unique user
matching system to ensure that attackers cannot map a profile
so as to take advantage of the system. Bitcoin uses public keys
as the primary tool users use to access and generate
transactions. While a user has the capability of generating as
many public-keys as possible, these can only be made through a
user’s node only (Reid & Harrigan, 2013). This gives the user
full control on the origin of transactions. This generates
considerable trust from the people as compared to centralized
banking system which distributes information through numerous
virtual nodes where people can access their currencies. The use
of these unique keys and corresponding addresses where users
exchange the ownership of Bitcoin coins as the major selling
point of this cryptocurrency (Reid & Harrigan, 2013). Before a
cryptocurrency is launched, the public is sensitized on the
architecture and functional characteristics of the system. In this
context, the consent of the public in the form of acceptance and
confidence is used as a pass key to reflect the possible traffic
the currency will most likely achieve. This means that for a
currency to get the people’s trust, it must demonstrate
satisfactorily, how integrity, security, value disposition and
diversity will be achieved within the framework. Bitcoin, as a
pioneer cryptocurrency in this system has utilized its weak
points to revolutionize the approach to creation and disposition
of digital currencies.
Social Impact of Bitcoin and other Cryptocurrencies
The introduction of Bitcoin aroused social debates on how it
would socially transform the platform of exchange within
virtual networks. To begin with, Bitcoin and other
cryptocurrencies introduce the use of internet to facilitate

5. transactions throughout the world. However, it is its
comparative social form that makes it a game changer (Wallace,
2011). The centralized currency system has been characterized
by a particular social groups considering the number of
unbanked people in the world. This can be attributed to the
types of securities that banks demand or the perspective it has
created. On the other hand, Bitcoin introduced a digital platform
where individuals can exchange currency beyond the structure
of their social systems. The impact this has on people is that it
enables transactions in diverse social setups without
discriminating anyone. Cryptocurrencies essentially treat every
unit as important as a database would to its registries. For
instance, Bitcoin makes it possible for users to develop and use
public-keys in diverse social contexts. For example, it has been
perceived that Bitcoin empowered women to transact and own
their own lobbies as a result of its open social framework.
Therefore, there is no limit to the impact Bitcoin and other
cryptocurrencies have on the social context of the economy.
Cryptocurrencies and the Future
Bitcoin has so far introduced a more efficient system of digital
transactions as banks have innovated for very many years. The
very idea of cryptography in the management and use of
currency introduces some level of simplicity to the common
user that banks have not yet achieved. While the idea of
cryptocurrencies and the success of Bitcoin have done enough
to popularize the idea, it is the new creations like blockchain
that will determine the future of cryptocurrencies in business
(Crosby, Pattanayak, Verma, & Kalyanaraman, 2016).
Advancements in information technology has continued to make
the internet a silo of opportunities and a source of markets for
millions of businesses. The integration of this development to
digital currencies means that the future of centralized currency
systems will be determined by the extent to which businesses
will embrace a more efficient system, in the form of Bitcoin.

6. References
Crosby, M., Pattanayak, P., Verma, S., & Kalyanaraman, V.
(2016). BlockChain Technology: Beyond Bitcoin. Applied
Innovation, 6.
Gervais, A., Karame, G., Capkun, S., & Capkun, V. (2014). Is
Bitcoin a decentralized currency? IEEE security & privacy,
12(3), 54-60.
Reid, F., & Harrigan, M. (2013). An analysis of anonymity in
the bitcoin system. Security and privacy in social networks,
197-223.
Van Alstyne, M. (2014). Why Bitcoin has value.
Communications of the ACM, 57(5), 30-32.
Wallace, B. (2011). The rise and fall of Bitcoin. Wired, 19(12).
Here is the requirement about the second paper
It is time for you to make the world a better place. The second
and last portfolio item is non-traditional. You will identify a
problem that is relevant and real, build on concepts related to
the blockchain and/or cryptocurrency, and you will devise a
solution where this technology plays a significant role. You will
describe the solution, supporting your ideas with facts and
sources. You must convince your reader that, given proper
resources (money, people, and talent), it would be possible to
solve the problem that you have identified with your
technology-based solution.
This assignment requires that you understand the theme rather
well because you are called upon to create with these concepts.
Deliverable
Your deliverable is going to be a 1200-1500 word idea paper
written for an audience of potential supporters/backers. Your
idea must be possible, and not rely exclusively on charity or
government subsidies. It does not need to be a for-profit venture

7. and may be a social enterprise. You do not need to be able to
implement the idea at this time with your current technical
skills, but it must be possible to assemble a team capable to do
so if you were to acquire resources.
Who knows, maybe you can take your idea, reassemble as a
group and make it happen in the real world in the future.
NRS-410V Lecture 2
Genetic Alterations and Cancer
Introduction
Congenital disorders or birth defects and many common
diseases such as cancer are directly related to alterations in the
genetic structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). A general
knowledge of the principles of inheritance, the cell cycle, and
the impact environmental influences have on the genetic
structure are crucial to understanding the disease processes,
ongoing research, and current disease treatments.
Aberrant Chromosomal Numbers
Congenital disorders or birth defects are more common than we
realize. Many spontaneous abortions are due to chromosomal
defects, whether it is the number of chromosomes or the
construction of the chromosomes. Down syndrome, or trisomy
of chromosome 21 (three copies instead of two), is the most
common chromosomal disorder that occurs during meiosis
(Porth, 2007).
Aberrant Chromosomal Structure
During the process of meiosis, chromosomes often exchange
blocks of DNA or alleles, causing variation in the

8. chromosomes. When the exchange is not precise, the alterations
may prove fatal to the gamete. This exchange of chromosomal
material can also occur during mitosis and the cell may die or
the mutation may continue in the cell line. This translocation of
genetic material is implicated as the cause of many cancers. One
example is the Philadelphia chromosome, in which the
translocation of DNA between chromosome 9 and chromosome
22 causes chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). The translocation
results in a novel protein, tyrosine kinase that promotes
unregulated growth of myeloid cells. A drug being used to treat
CML, Gleevec (Novartis), specifically blocks this tyrosine
kinase, slowing the growth of the myeloid cells (McCance &
Heuther, 2006).
Neuroblastoma is associated with duplication of the MYCN
gene. This MYCN gene is an oncogene, meaning that in its
nonmutated state, it directs and controls the proliferation of
certain cells. In its mutated state, proliferation is uncontrolled,
which leads to tumors.
Single Gene Mutations
During mitosis and meiosis, the chromosomes are copied
exactly. If one or more of the base pairs in the DNA sequence
of a gene is altered, there is the possibility of a point mutation
in that gene. This single defective gene on one chromosome
may cause serious alterations in the functioning of the body,
such as Marfan's syndrome. This is an autosomal dominant gene
and has a 50% chance of being transmitted to offspring. The
BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are autosomal dominant and are
linked with breast cancer. The BRCA1 is found on chromosome
17, while the BRCA2 is found on chromosome 13. The HER-
2/neuis also implicated in breast cancer. With overexpression,
this gene causes excessive growth signals to the nucleus. The
drug trastuzumab (Herceptin), a monoclonal antibody, is used to
treat women who have the HER-2/neu alteration because it

9. blocks the receptors for growth factor.
Mutations of the ras gene family prevents the breakdown of
GTP, which then allows the cytoplasmic signaling molecules to
remain active and stimulate cell growth inappropriately. Lung
cancer, leukemia, colon cancer, and ovarian cancer are all
linked to the ras gene (Copstead & Banasik, 2005).
The p53 gene or tumor suppressor gene is responsible for
apoptosis–or programmed cell death–and the repair of damaged
DNA. This gene helps maintain the appropriate number of cells
within tissues. A mutation of this gene allows the cells with
damaged DNA to live and become more aggressive. Many breast
cancers have one or all of these mutations, plus a few more.
The p53 gene mutation is also linked to colon cancer and lung
cancer.
Autosomal recessive diseases require both copies of the gene to
be defective. Cystic fibrosis and phenylketonuria (PKU) are
prime examples of autosomal recessive genes. These disorders
relate to enzymes that are incorrectly made rather than run-away
cell growth. Punett squares and pedigree charts demonstrate the
inheritance patterns of either recessive or dominant genes.
Genetics and Common Diseases
Heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, and many psychiatric
disorders have a familial tendency which is linked to genetics.
In coronary heart disease, lipids are highly involved in the
formation of atherosclerotic plaques. Twenty or more genes
have been identified that play key roles in lipid formation,
transport, coagulation, and hypertension (McCance & Heuther,
2006). An angiotensinogen gene has been implicated as a cause
for hypertension and preeclampsia. These altered genes along
with other environmental and lifestyle risk factors increase the
likelihood of developing the disease.

10. In type I diabetics, the HLA-DR3 and/or HLA-DR4 allele have
been identified. Alterations of genes around the insulin gene on
chromosome 11 also increase the risk of developing type I
diabetes (McCance & Heuther, 2006). For type 2 diabetes,
several genes have been identified that may increase the
susceptibility. One gene is involved in adipocyte differentiation
and glucose metabolism, while mutation of the glucokinase gene
alters glucose conversion in the pancreas.
Environmental and Lifestyle Risk Factors
Environmental Risk Factors
With billions and billions of cells replicating, it is amazing that
the process does not incur more errors. Environmental
influences increase the risk of errors in replication. Known
chemical carcinogens include benzopyrene, which is found in
foods fried in fat. Nitrosamines found in smoked, salted, and
cured foods are also powerful carcinogens. The tars and
nicotines in cigarettes are also cancer promoters. In addition,
the ultraviolet (UV) rays of the sun can cause mutation of the
p53 gene, thereby causing squamous cell carcinoma and a
mutation in the p16 gene related to melanoma. The UV light
also activates tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), which seems to
reduce the immune surveillance system (McCance & Heuther,
2006).
Lifestyle Risk Factors
Obesity has been linked to increasing the risk of cancer. The
adipose tissue produces enzymes that increase the levels of free
estradiol and testosterone. The receptors react to the increased
levels by causing cellular proliferation and inhibiting apoptosis
(McCance & Huether, 2006), increasing the risk of tumor
development.

11. Viruses such as human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus,
and the Epstein-Barr virus have been associated with cancer.
The DNA of HPV becomes integrated into the nucleus of
cervical cells and directs the proliferation of the virus.
Cell Cycle
Now that the chromosomal and gene mutations have been
discussed, the process of cell division and growth as it relates to
cancer needs to be understood. Cells that replicate have a five-
phase cell cycle. During the S phase of the cell cycle,
chromosomes are replicated. It is during this phase that
environmental factors can affect the exact replication and cause
mutations. The end of the G2 phase allows for a quality control
check of the replication. Alterations of the kinases that control
this checkpoint allow mutations to continue rather than be
corrected, increasing the chances of cancer.
Chemotherapy agents have been developed that act on different
phases of the cell cycle with the intent of blocking the
replication of the cancerous cell along with normal cells.
Methotrexate, an antimetabolite, enters the cell and inhibits
DNA synthesis. Cyclophosphamide, an alkylating agent, causes
the DNA strands to cross-link, preventing normal use of the
DNA, as well as its replication. Tamoxifen blocks the estrogen
receptor cells–preventing DNA synthesis–and the cells remain
in the G0 or G1 phase rather than replicating.
Tumor Cell Transformation
Promotion Stage
Once a cell has survived one gene alteration, it must be able to
continue to replicate and survive. Promotion is the stage in
which the altered cells proliferate. In the progression stage,
cancer cells often lose their ability to function and are not like

12. the original tissue cells. These cells are considered anaplastic.
Contact inhibition is lost and the cancer cells overwhelm the
area in which they began. These malignant cells secrete
proteases that destroy healthy cells and allow space for the
cancerous cells to grow.
Cancer Cell Growth
Continued growth of the cancer cells depends on an adequate
blood supply. Tumor cells can secrete vascular endothelial
growth factor (VEGF) along with other growth factors that
promote angiogenesis. As the blood supply increases to the
tumor, the metastatic potential increases. Research is directed
toward developing agents that can block the enzymes that
support angiogenesis. Without a good blood supply, cancer cells
die.
Cancer Expansion
Cancer cells do not adhere to each other as do the cells in
normal tissue. Given a good blood supply or a lymphatic
channel, the cancer cells can break away from the primary site
and metastasize to other areas in the body. It may take years for
the cancer cells to overcome the normal cells in the new site, so
they can go undetected.
Cancer Signs and Symptoms
Early Stages
In the early stages of cancer, there are usually not noticeable
symptoms. Fatigue-like pain is very subjective and the reason
for the fatigue is being researched. Pain is due to inflammation,
stretching of visceral surfaces, compression of nerve endings,
and bone metastasis. In addition, pain control is an ongoing
problem in treating patients with cancer.

13. Later Stages
Cachexia or severe malnutrition is found in the later stages of
cancer and is often the cause of death. TNF-α produced by
macrophages has been implicated as a cause for the depression
of protein synthesis and the increase in protein degradation.
Anemia is also a common finding, as are leucopenia and
thrombocytopenia due to suppression of the bone marrow.
Cancer Therapy Research
Throughout the lecture, different treatment therapies have been
mentioned. Surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation continue as
mainstay treatments. Immunomodulation therapy uses
interferons, interleukins, monoclonal antibodies, and
hematopoietic growth factors to destroy cancer cells. The
interferons inhibit cancer cell proliferation and stimulate NK
cells, T cells, and macrophages. Interleukin 2 stimulates the
proliferation of T cells, NK cells, and macrophages, increasing
the number available to destroy cancer cells. Monoclonal
antibodies are specific to certain tumor cell receptors blocking
growth factors as well as identifying the cell to the NK cells as
foreign. The hematopoietic growth factors are used to stimulate
production of neutrophils, macrophages, erythrocytes, and
platelets in order to support the tissues during the tumor
destruction.
Research into gene therapy involves attempting to alter the
genetic structure of the tumor cells, making them more
susceptible to the immune system, or replacing the
missing p53 gene by transporting it into the tumor cell using an
inactivated virus. Stem cell transplant involves harvesting stem
cells from the bone marrow of a closely matched donor and
transplanting the stem cells. The therapy serves to restore the
function of the once cancerous bone marrow. In addition,

14. research is being done on vaccines for specific cancers. The
HPV vaccine, Gardisil, is a beginning, whereas another area of
research is being studied to inhibit the protelytic enzymes that
allow the cancer cells to expand and metastasize.
Conclusion
Understanding genetics is important for the clinician who works
with families who are or wish to become pregnant in order to
explain the risks of birth defects and other genetically linked
diseases. Every nurse needs to be able to educate patients on the
environmental and lifestyle risks associated with cancer along
with the genetic link. For those patients who are already being
treated for cancer, the nurse should be able to explain how the
medications and radiation help treat the disease.
References
Copstead, L. E., & Banasik, J. L.
(2005). Pathophysiology (3rd ed.). St. Louis, MO: Saunders
Elsevier.
McCance, K. L., & Huether, S. E. (2006). Pathophysiology: The
biological basis fordisease in adults and children (5th ed.). St.
Louis, MO: Mosby Elsevier.
Porth, C. M. (2007). Essentials of pathophysiology: Concepts of
altered health states (2nd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins.
© 2013. Grand Canyon University. All Rights Reserved.

15. 1