This document provides guidelines for drinking water quality published by the World Health Organization in 2008. It aims to establish a framework for safe drinking water that incorporates health-based targets, systematic assessment and design of water systems, operational monitoring, management plans, surveillance of water quality, and national drinking water policies and standards. The guidelines contain recommendations on microbial, chemical and radiological aspects of drinking water quality and roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders in ensuring safe drinking water.
This document provides guidelines for drinking-water quality, including recommendations on microbial, chemical and radiological aspects. It summarizes roles and responsibilities in drinking-water safety management for various groups. The guidelines establish a framework for providing safe drinking-water, including health-based targets, system assessment and design, operational monitoring, management plans, documentation, communication and surveillance. It also addresses applying the guidelines in specific circumstances such as emergencies, packaged water, and on aircraft/ships.
This document provides an overview of guidelines for monitoring drinking water quality in small communities, particularly in developing countries. It discusses the importance of linking water quality surveillance to remedial actions to improve water supplies and public health. The guidelines cover planning surveillance programs, conducting sanitary inspections and water sampling/analysis, interpreting results, and using findings to guide technical interventions like water treatment and hygiene education programs. The overall aim is to establish effective surveillance that enhances water services and protects community health.
This document provides an overview of key water quality parameters that are analyzed to assess water quality. It discusses pathogenic microorganisms, organic matter including biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD), dissolved oxygen, and other parameters like temperature, pH and nutrients. BOD measures biodegradable organic matter and is an important parameter to evaluate the pollution of water bodies and its effect on oxygen levels. The presence of certain bacteria like E. coli is used to indicate potential contamination by pathogenic microorganisms from sewage.
This document provides an overview of water quality parameters that are analyzed to assess water quality. It discusses pathogenic microorganisms that can contaminate water and cause disease. The presence of coliform bacteria, specifically E. coli, is used to indicate contamination with sewage and potential pathogens. Organic matter in water is categorized as biodegradable or non-biodegradable, which are measured by biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, and volatile solids. Biochemical oxygen demand measures the amount of oxygen used by microorganisms to break down organic matter. Dissolved oxygen levels are an important indicator of water quality, as sufficient oxygen is required to support aquatic life.
This document summarizes key aspects of water quality assessment. It discusses the importance of monitoring water quality and outlines some common parameters used to assess quality, including biological, chemical, and physical parameters. Specific parameters discussed in detail include dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, and water quality standards for various substances. The overall document provides an overview of approaches and considerations for water quality assessment.
Assessment and surveillance of drinking water qualityjyotinayak44
The WHO published guidelines for drinking water quality to ensure the safety of drinking water supplies. The guidelines relate to acceptability, microbiological, chemical, and radiological aspects of water quality. Key water quality parameters discussed in the document include turbidity, color, pH, chloride, calcium, ammonia, iron, sodium, and bacterial indicators like coliforms and E. coli. Guidelines are provided for acceptable levels of various chemical and radiological constituents in drinking water. Continuous monitoring of water quality is needed to assess safety and protect public health.
The document discusses India's efforts to provide safe drinking water to its population. It notes that in 1975, over 1 billion people globally lacked access to safe water. In response, India developed various five-year plans from 1980-1997 to expand access, with the goal of supplying safe water to all rural villages. Key aspects of ensuring water safety discussed include water quality standards, testing for contaminants, monitoring programs, and strategies like water treatment and sanitation inspections. The document also examines health impacts of contaminated water and international targets for access to improved water sources.
This document provides guidelines for drinking-water quality, including recommendations on approaches and standards. It addresses microbial, chemical and radiological hazards in drinking-water as well as roles and responsibilities in ensuring drinking-water safety. Key aspects covered include health-based targets, implementing water safety plans, surveillance approaches, and applying the guidelines to specific contexts such as emergencies, packaged water, and desalination systems. Treatment options are discussed along with establishing guideline values for individual chemicals and radionuclides. The guidelines are intended to help provide consistently safe drinking-water worldwide.
This document provides guidelines for drinking-water quality, including recommendations on microbial, chemical and radiological aspects. It summarizes roles and responsibilities in drinking-water safety management for various groups. The guidelines establish a framework for providing safe drinking-water, including health-based targets, system assessment and design, operational monitoring, management plans, documentation, communication and surveillance. It also addresses applying the guidelines in specific circumstances such as emergencies, packaged water, and on aircraft/ships.
This document provides an overview of guidelines for monitoring drinking water quality in small communities, particularly in developing countries. It discusses the importance of linking water quality surveillance to remedial actions to improve water supplies and public health. The guidelines cover planning surveillance programs, conducting sanitary inspections and water sampling/analysis, interpreting results, and using findings to guide technical interventions like water treatment and hygiene education programs. The overall aim is to establish effective surveillance that enhances water services and protects community health.
This document provides an overview of key water quality parameters that are analyzed to assess water quality. It discusses pathogenic microorganisms, organic matter including biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD), dissolved oxygen, and other parameters like temperature, pH and nutrients. BOD measures biodegradable organic matter and is an important parameter to evaluate the pollution of water bodies and its effect on oxygen levels. The presence of certain bacteria like E. coli is used to indicate potential contamination by pathogenic microorganisms from sewage.
This document provides an overview of water quality parameters that are analyzed to assess water quality. It discusses pathogenic microorganisms that can contaminate water and cause disease. The presence of coliform bacteria, specifically E. coli, is used to indicate contamination with sewage and potential pathogens. Organic matter in water is categorized as biodegradable or non-biodegradable, which are measured by biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, and volatile solids. Biochemical oxygen demand measures the amount of oxygen used by microorganisms to break down organic matter. Dissolved oxygen levels are an important indicator of water quality, as sufficient oxygen is required to support aquatic life.
This document summarizes key aspects of water quality assessment. It discusses the importance of monitoring water quality and outlines some common parameters used to assess quality, including biological, chemical, and physical parameters. Specific parameters discussed in detail include dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, and water quality standards for various substances. The overall document provides an overview of approaches and considerations for water quality assessment.
Assessment and surveillance of drinking water qualityjyotinayak44
The WHO published guidelines for drinking water quality to ensure the safety of drinking water supplies. The guidelines relate to acceptability, microbiological, chemical, and radiological aspects of water quality. Key water quality parameters discussed in the document include turbidity, color, pH, chloride, calcium, ammonia, iron, sodium, and bacterial indicators like coliforms and E. coli. Guidelines are provided for acceptable levels of various chemical and radiological constituents in drinking water. Continuous monitoring of water quality is needed to assess safety and protect public health.
The document discusses India's efforts to provide safe drinking water to its population. It notes that in 1975, over 1 billion people globally lacked access to safe water. In response, India developed various five-year plans from 1980-1997 to expand access, with the goal of supplying safe water to all rural villages. Key aspects of ensuring water safety discussed include water quality standards, testing for contaminants, monitoring programs, and strategies like water treatment and sanitation inspections. The document also examines health impacts of contaminated water and international targets for access to improved water sources.
This document provides guidelines for drinking-water quality, including recommendations on approaches and standards. It addresses microbial, chemical and radiological hazards in drinking-water as well as roles and responsibilities in ensuring drinking-water safety. Key aspects covered include health-based targets, implementing water safety plans, surveillance approaches, and applying the guidelines to specific contexts such as emergencies, packaged water, and desalination systems. Treatment options are discussed along with establishing guideline values for individual chemicals and radionuclides. The guidelines are intended to help provide consistently safe drinking-water worldwide.
This document provides an overview of water quality parameters that are analyzed to assess water quality. It discusses pathogenic microorganisms that can be present in water and indicate contamination from sewage. It describes how coliform bacteria testing is used to determine bacteriological quality and indicates the possible presence of pathogens. It also discusses parameters used to characterize organic matter content, including biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, and volatile solids. Dissolved oxygen is described as an important indicator of the health of surface waters, with low levels indicating pollution from organic matter.
This document is a volume of the Manual on Hydrological Information Systems that deals with water quality analysis. It provides an overview of key water quality parameters and concepts for analysis. It discusses pathogenic microorganisms, indicator bacteria like coliforms, nutrients, organic matter, major ions, other inorganics, trace elements, and organic contaminants as important parameters. The volume also covers basic concepts in chemistry and microbiology, principles of instrumental analysis, laboratory design, equipment specifications, and quality assurance procedures for water quality testing.
This document provides an overview of water quality parameters that are analyzed to assess water quality. It discusses pathogenic microorganisms that can be present in water and indicate contamination from sewage. It describes how coliform bacteria testing is used to determine bacteriological quality and indicates the possible presence of pathogens. It also discusses parameters used to characterize organic matter content, including biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, and volatile solids. Dissolved oxygen is described as an important indicator of the health of surface waters, with low levels indicating pollution from organic matter.
This document provides an overview of water quality parameters that are analyzed to assess water quality. It discusses pathogenic microorganisms that can indicate contamination from sewage. Escherichia coli is used as an indicator of pathogenic organisms since it is exclusively of fecal origin. The document also discusses parameters used to characterize organic matter content, including biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and volatile solids. BOD measures biologically decomposable organic matter by how much oxygen is consumed. Dissolved oxygen levels are also an important indicator of water quality, as low levels can indicate pollution and impact aquatic life.
This document is a volume of the Manual on Hydrological Information Systems that deals with water quality analysis. It provides an overview of key water quality parameters and concepts for understanding water quality. It discusses pathogenic microorganisms, nutrients, organic matter, major ions, and other parameters important for water quality analysis. The volume also covers basic principles of chemistry, microbiology, and instrumental analysis relevant for laboratories conducting water quality testing.
This document provides an overview of water quality monitoring in India. It discusses key water quality issues for rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, including contamination from faecal matter, organic waste, toxic pollutants, eutrophication, salinization, changes in hydrology, agrochemicals, and mining activities. It also describes the monitoring cycle and key elements of designing a water quality monitoring program, including defining information needs, developing a monitoring strategy, network design, sample collection, laboratory analysis, data handling and analysis, reporting, and information utilization.
This document provides an overview of water quality monitoring in India. It discusses key water quality issues for rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, including contamination from faecal matter, organic waste, toxic pollutants, eutrophication, salinization, changes in hydrology, agrochemicals, and mining activities. It also describes the monitoring cycle and key elements of designing a water quality monitoring program, including defining information needs, developing a monitoring strategy, network design, sample collection, laboratory analysis, data handling and analysis, reporting, and information utilization.
This document provides an overview and summary of the contents of the World Health Organization's handbook on safe management of wastes from health-care activities. The handbook contains 16 chapters that cover topics such as defining and characterizing health-care waste, the health impacts of improper management, legislative and regulatory aspects, planning for waste management, treatment and disposal options, worker safety, and minimal programs for developing countries. It aims to provide comprehensive yet concise guidelines for responsible administrators on managing health-care waste at local facilities around the world.
The document presents a risk management plan for a drinking water system where local drinking water does not meet Canadian standards. It outlines the following steps:
1) Initiation including defining the problem of substandard water quality, establishing a risk management team of local stakeholders, and identifying potential hazards.
2) Preliminary analysis identifying biological (E. coli) and chemical hazards and potential health and economic consequences like illness, hospitalization, and lost income.
3) Risk estimation to determine frequency of hazards and consequences.
4) Risk evaluation including stakeholder perceptions of risk and cost-benefit analysis of options.
5) Risk control by selecting options from table of potential controls.
6) Implementation and
Ebola: preparedness for alert, control and evaluationMario Robusti
This document provides guidance on preparing for, responding to, and recovering from Ebola and Marburg virus disease epidemics. It is intended for use by national and local public health authorities in at-risk countries. The document outlines strategies and activities for each phase of an epidemic - before, during alert, during confirmed epidemic, and after. It aims to strengthen preparedness and coordination between sectors like surveillance, case management, logistics, and community engagement. Annexes provide disease facts, case definitions, ethics guidance, and other technical references to support implementation.
This document provides guidance on designing water quality monitoring programs. It discusses the monitoring cycle, which includes defining information needs, developing a monitoring strategy, network design, sample collection, laboratory analysis, data handling, analysis, reporting, and utilizing information. Key steps in the cycle are identifying water management issues, specifying monitoring objectives, rationalizing existing networks, selecting sites, field techniques, and equipment used for sampling. The document is a manual for technical aspects of developing water quality monitoring programs in India to generate justified, complete and accurate data.
This document provides guidance on designing water quality monitoring programs and networks. It discusses key concepts like the monitoring cycle, identifying management issues and information needs, and objectives for different types of monitoring. In India, several government organizations conduct water quality monitoring, including the Central Ground Water Board, National River Conservation Directorate, and Central Pollution Control Board. Common water quality issues include contamination from fecal matter, toxic pollutants, over-abstraction, and agrochemicals. The document provides detailed recommendations for network design, site selection, field techniques, equipment, and other aspects of effective long-term water quality monitoring.
Ủy ban WHO về tiêu chuẩn hóa chất lượng chế phẩm sinh học nằm trong bộ Technical Report Series no 999. Xem thêm các tài liệu khác trên kênh của Công ty Cổ phần Tư vấn Thiết kế GMP EU.
This document from the World Health Organization provides guidance on pharmaceuticals found in drinking water. It summarizes that trace levels of pharmaceuticals are commonly found in surface waters and wastewater effluent, which can enter drinking water sources. Studies assessing human health risks found that exposure from levels in drinking water is over 1000 times below clinically active doses and unlikely to pose risks. Wastewater treatment removes some pharmaceuticals, ranging from less than 20% to over 90%, while drinking water treatment provides varying removal through processes like chlorination or advanced methods like reverse osmosis and activated carbon. To best manage this issue, following a water safety plan approach through preventative measures is recommended over solely relying on end-product testing and treatment
This document from the World Health Organization provides an overview of pharmaceuticals in drinking water. It finds that while trace levels of pharmaceuticals are detected in surface waters and to a lesser extent drinking water, concentrations are generally below 0.1 μg/L. Risk assessments from the UK, Australia and US conclude that exposure from levels found in drinking water is extremely unlikely to cause adverse health impacts. Wastewater is a major source, and treatment processes can remove varying amounts depending on the pharmaceutical and process, with conventional removal generally between 20-90% and advanced processes achieving higher removal. A water safety plan approach focusing on preventing pharmaceuticals from entering the water system through improved regulations, take-back programs and consumer awareness is recommended over emphas
Water for Pharmaceutical Use........pptxNazim Hussain
Pharmaceutical water production, storage and distribution systems should be designed, installed, commissioned, qualified and maintained to ensure the reliable production of water of an appropriate quality.for pharmaceutical water systems.
Annex 1: Development of monographs for The International Pharmacopoeia Annex 2: WHO good manufacturing practices: water for pharmaceutical use Annex 3: Pharmaceutical development of multisource (generic) pharmaceutical products - point to consider
Annex 4: Guidelines on submission of documentation for a multisource (generic) finished pharmaceutical product for the WHO Prequalification of Medicines Programme: quality part.
Annex 5: Development of paediatric medicines: points to consider in formulation
Annex 6: Recommendations for quality requirements for artemisinin as a starting material in the production of antimalarial active pharmaceutical ingredient.
Inspection of water systems
8.2 The following list identifies items and a logical sequence for a WPU system inspection or audit:
– a current drawing of the water system showing all equipment in the system from the inlet to the points of use along with sampling points and their designations;
– approved piping drawings (e.g. orthographic and/or isometric);
– a sampling and monitoring plan with a drawing of all sample points;
– training programme for sample collection and testing;
– the setting of monitoring alert and action levels;
– monitoring results and evaluation of trends;
– inspection of the last annual system review;
– review of any changes made to the system since the last audit and a check that the change control has been implemented;
– review of deviations recorded and their investigation;
– general inspection of system for status and condition;
– review of maintenance, failure and repair logs;
– checking calibration and standardization of critical instruments
The document outlines the key components of a framework for ensuring safe drinking water:
1) Health-based targets to evaluate health concerns and reduce risks
2) System assessment to determine if the water supply can meet health targets
3) Operational monitoring of control measures to maintain water safety
4) Management plans documenting the system and actions to take under normal and incident conditions
5) Independent surveillance to verify proper operations
This document provides guidelines for livestock relief interventions in pastoralist areas of Ethiopia. It is intended to guide government agencies, donors, and NGOs involved in pastoralist development and emergency response. The guidelines emphasize coordination, community participation, and linking emergency response with development using a livelihoods framework and drought cycle management model. They provide guidance on key interventions such as destocking, livestock feed supplementation, water provision, and animal health services. The overall aim is to improve drought risk management and support development policies that anticipate and manage drought impacts on pastoralist livelihoods in Ethiopia.
This document provides an overview of microbiological and chemical contaminants that may be present in water sources for small water supplies. It discusses various microorganisms that can cause outbreaks, including Cryptosporidium and Giardia. A wide range of chemical contaminants are also outlined, including metals, nitrates, solvents and pesticides. The document emphasizes the importance of treating water to remove pathogens given the unknown quality of small supply sources. It recommends using multiple barrier treatment approaches rather than single processes.
The document summarizes a water purification system that includes a reverse osmosis unit, storage tank, and ultrapure water purification unit. The system uses a microprocessor to control purification from a municipal water supply to produce at least 35 liters/hour of water with a resistivity of 18 megohm cm or higher that is at least 99% free of bacteria, ions, organics, and particles. The system is also capable of continuous monitoring and will automatically shut off if the feed water is inadequate or the storage tank reaches capacity.
The document describes a water purifier using ion exchange resin columns that produces reagent-grade water for trace analysis. It has separate cation and anion exchange columns with a capacity of 25 liters each and can purify water at a rate over 1 liter per minute. Accessories include spare columns, instructions, a cover, and vacuum hose. Key features are an inline conductivity monitor and the ability to regenerate the resin columns.
This document provides an overview of water quality parameters that are analyzed to assess water quality. It discusses pathogenic microorganisms that can be present in water and indicate contamination from sewage. It describes how coliform bacteria testing is used to determine bacteriological quality and indicates the possible presence of pathogens. It also discusses parameters used to characterize organic matter content, including biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, and volatile solids. Dissolved oxygen is described as an important indicator of the health of surface waters, with low levels indicating pollution from organic matter.
This document is a volume of the Manual on Hydrological Information Systems that deals with water quality analysis. It provides an overview of key water quality parameters and concepts for analysis. It discusses pathogenic microorganisms, indicator bacteria like coliforms, nutrients, organic matter, major ions, other inorganics, trace elements, and organic contaminants as important parameters. The volume also covers basic concepts in chemistry and microbiology, principles of instrumental analysis, laboratory design, equipment specifications, and quality assurance procedures for water quality testing.
This document provides an overview of water quality parameters that are analyzed to assess water quality. It discusses pathogenic microorganisms that can be present in water and indicate contamination from sewage. It describes how coliform bacteria testing is used to determine bacteriological quality and indicates the possible presence of pathogens. It also discusses parameters used to characterize organic matter content, including biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, and volatile solids. Dissolved oxygen is described as an important indicator of the health of surface waters, with low levels indicating pollution from organic matter.
This document provides an overview of water quality parameters that are analyzed to assess water quality. It discusses pathogenic microorganisms that can indicate contamination from sewage. Escherichia coli is used as an indicator of pathogenic organisms since it is exclusively of fecal origin. The document also discusses parameters used to characterize organic matter content, including biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and volatile solids. BOD measures biologically decomposable organic matter by how much oxygen is consumed. Dissolved oxygen levels are also an important indicator of water quality, as low levels can indicate pollution and impact aquatic life.
This document is a volume of the Manual on Hydrological Information Systems that deals with water quality analysis. It provides an overview of key water quality parameters and concepts for understanding water quality. It discusses pathogenic microorganisms, nutrients, organic matter, major ions, and other parameters important for water quality analysis. The volume also covers basic principles of chemistry, microbiology, and instrumental analysis relevant for laboratories conducting water quality testing.
This document provides an overview of water quality monitoring in India. It discusses key water quality issues for rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, including contamination from faecal matter, organic waste, toxic pollutants, eutrophication, salinization, changes in hydrology, agrochemicals, and mining activities. It also describes the monitoring cycle and key elements of designing a water quality monitoring program, including defining information needs, developing a monitoring strategy, network design, sample collection, laboratory analysis, data handling and analysis, reporting, and information utilization.
This document provides an overview of water quality monitoring in India. It discusses key water quality issues for rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, including contamination from faecal matter, organic waste, toxic pollutants, eutrophication, salinization, changes in hydrology, agrochemicals, and mining activities. It also describes the monitoring cycle and key elements of designing a water quality monitoring program, including defining information needs, developing a monitoring strategy, network design, sample collection, laboratory analysis, data handling and analysis, reporting, and information utilization.
This document provides an overview and summary of the contents of the World Health Organization's handbook on safe management of wastes from health-care activities. The handbook contains 16 chapters that cover topics such as defining and characterizing health-care waste, the health impacts of improper management, legislative and regulatory aspects, planning for waste management, treatment and disposal options, worker safety, and minimal programs for developing countries. It aims to provide comprehensive yet concise guidelines for responsible administrators on managing health-care waste at local facilities around the world.
The document presents a risk management plan for a drinking water system where local drinking water does not meet Canadian standards. It outlines the following steps:
1) Initiation including defining the problem of substandard water quality, establishing a risk management team of local stakeholders, and identifying potential hazards.
2) Preliminary analysis identifying biological (E. coli) and chemical hazards and potential health and economic consequences like illness, hospitalization, and lost income.
3) Risk estimation to determine frequency of hazards and consequences.
4) Risk evaluation including stakeholder perceptions of risk and cost-benefit analysis of options.
5) Risk control by selecting options from table of potential controls.
6) Implementation and
Ebola: preparedness for alert, control and evaluationMario Robusti
This document provides guidance on preparing for, responding to, and recovering from Ebola and Marburg virus disease epidemics. It is intended for use by national and local public health authorities in at-risk countries. The document outlines strategies and activities for each phase of an epidemic - before, during alert, during confirmed epidemic, and after. It aims to strengthen preparedness and coordination between sectors like surveillance, case management, logistics, and community engagement. Annexes provide disease facts, case definitions, ethics guidance, and other technical references to support implementation.
This document provides guidance on designing water quality monitoring programs. It discusses the monitoring cycle, which includes defining information needs, developing a monitoring strategy, network design, sample collection, laboratory analysis, data handling, analysis, reporting, and utilizing information. Key steps in the cycle are identifying water management issues, specifying monitoring objectives, rationalizing existing networks, selecting sites, field techniques, and equipment used for sampling. The document is a manual for technical aspects of developing water quality monitoring programs in India to generate justified, complete and accurate data.
This document provides guidance on designing water quality monitoring programs and networks. It discusses key concepts like the monitoring cycle, identifying management issues and information needs, and objectives for different types of monitoring. In India, several government organizations conduct water quality monitoring, including the Central Ground Water Board, National River Conservation Directorate, and Central Pollution Control Board. Common water quality issues include contamination from fecal matter, toxic pollutants, over-abstraction, and agrochemicals. The document provides detailed recommendations for network design, site selection, field techniques, equipment, and other aspects of effective long-term water quality monitoring.
Ủy ban WHO về tiêu chuẩn hóa chất lượng chế phẩm sinh học nằm trong bộ Technical Report Series no 999. Xem thêm các tài liệu khác trên kênh của Công ty Cổ phần Tư vấn Thiết kế GMP EU.
This document from the World Health Organization provides guidance on pharmaceuticals found in drinking water. It summarizes that trace levels of pharmaceuticals are commonly found in surface waters and wastewater effluent, which can enter drinking water sources. Studies assessing human health risks found that exposure from levels in drinking water is over 1000 times below clinically active doses and unlikely to pose risks. Wastewater treatment removes some pharmaceuticals, ranging from less than 20% to over 90%, while drinking water treatment provides varying removal through processes like chlorination or advanced methods like reverse osmosis and activated carbon. To best manage this issue, following a water safety plan approach through preventative measures is recommended over solely relying on end-product testing and treatment
This document from the World Health Organization provides an overview of pharmaceuticals in drinking water. It finds that while trace levels of pharmaceuticals are detected in surface waters and to a lesser extent drinking water, concentrations are generally below 0.1 μg/L. Risk assessments from the UK, Australia and US conclude that exposure from levels found in drinking water is extremely unlikely to cause adverse health impacts. Wastewater is a major source, and treatment processes can remove varying amounts depending on the pharmaceutical and process, with conventional removal generally between 20-90% and advanced processes achieving higher removal. A water safety plan approach focusing on preventing pharmaceuticals from entering the water system through improved regulations, take-back programs and consumer awareness is recommended over emphas
Water for Pharmaceutical Use........pptxNazim Hussain
Pharmaceutical water production, storage and distribution systems should be designed, installed, commissioned, qualified and maintained to ensure the reliable production of water of an appropriate quality.for pharmaceutical water systems.
Annex 1: Development of monographs for The International Pharmacopoeia Annex 2: WHO good manufacturing practices: water for pharmaceutical use Annex 3: Pharmaceutical development of multisource (generic) pharmaceutical products - point to consider
Annex 4: Guidelines on submission of documentation for a multisource (generic) finished pharmaceutical product for the WHO Prequalification of Medicines Programme: quality part.
Annex 5: Development of paediatric medicines: points to consider in formulation
Annex 6: Recommendations for quality requirements for artemisinin as a starting material in the production of antimalarial active pharmaceutical ingredient.
Inspection of water systems
8.2 The following list identifies items and a logical sequence for a WPU system inspection or audit:
– a current drawing of the water system showing all equipment in the system from the inlet to the points of use along with sampling points and their designations;
– approved piping drawings (e.g. orthographic and/or isometric);
– a sampling and monitoring plan with a drawing of all sample points;
– training programme for sample collection and testing;
– the setting of monitoring alert and action levels;
– monitoring results and evaluation of trends;
– inspection of the last annual system review;
– review of any changes made to the system since the last audit and a check that the change control has been implemented;
– review of deviations recorded and their investigation;
– general inspection of system for status and condition;
– review of maintenance, failure and repair logs;
– checking calibration and standardization of critical instruments
The document outlines the key components of a framework for ensuring safe drinking water:
1) Health-based targets to evaluate health concerns and reduce risks
2) System assessment to determine if the water supply can meet health targets
3) Operational monitoring of control measures to maintain water safety
4) Management plans documenting the system and actions to take under normal and incident conditions
5) Independent surveillance to verify proper operations
This document provides guidelines for livestock relief interventions in pastoralist areas of Ethiopia. It is intended to guide government agencies, donors, and NGOs involved in pastoralist development and emergency response. The guidelines emphasize coordination, community participation, and linking emergency response with development using a livelihoods framework and drought cycle management model. They provide guidance on key interventions such as destocking, livestock feed supplementation, water provision, and animal health services. The overall aim is to improve drought risk management and support development policies that anticipate and manage drought impacts on pastoralist livelihoods in Ethiopia.
This document provides an overview of microbiological and chemical contaminants that may be present in water sources for small water supplies. It discusses various microorganisms that can cause outbreaks, including Cryptosporidium and Giardia. A wide range of chemical contaminants are also outlined, including metals, nitrates, solvents and pesticides. The document emphasizes the importance of treating water to remove pathogens given the unknown quality of small supply sources. It recommends using multiple barrier treatment approaches rather than single processes.
The document summarizes a water purification system that includes a reverse osmosis unit, storage tank, and ultrapure water purification unit. The system uses a microprocessor to control purification from a municipal water supply to produce at least 35 liters/hour of water with a resistivity of 18 megohm cm or higher that is at least 99% free of bacteria, ions, organics, and particles. The system is also capable of continuous monitoring and will automatically shut off if the feed water is inadequate or the storage tank reaches capacity.
The document describes a water purifier using ion exchange resin columns that produces reagent-grade water for trace analysis. It has separate cation and anion exchange columns with a capacity of 25 liters each and can purify water at a rate over 1 liter per minute. Accessories include spare columns, instructions, a cover, and vacuum hose. Key features are an inline conductivity monitor and the ability to regenerate the resin columns.
This document provides specifications for a double distillation water purification unit. It distills water to a conductivity of 1.0 μS/cm or less at 25°C for generating reagent-grade water. The unit is made of quartz glass with a 1.5 liter/hour capacity. It runs on 220V power and includes a metallic stand, ring clamp, and operation manual. Safety features include over-heating protection and indicators.
This document provides specifications for an automatic water distillation unit. The unit distills water to generate reagent water type III with a maximum conductivity of 0.01 mS/cm at 25°C for use in washing and quantitative analysis. It has a stainless steel construction, 1.5 liter per hour capacity, operates on 220VAC power, and has automatic shutoff when water levels are low.
This document specifies a water geyser (heater) that has a 120 liter capacity, heats water to 90°C with thermostatic control, and requires a 220 VAC ±25%, 47 to 53 Hz power supply for operation in a laboratory setting.
A general purpose water bath has an inner size of approximately 0.4 x 0.3 x 0.1 meters, is made of stainless steel inside and stove enameled outside, and can maintain temperatures from ambient to 100°C with an accuracy of ±2°C. It has a stainless steel cover with 12 holes and features a drain cock or plug, double-walled insulation, and a pilot lamp to indicate thermostat operation.
This document describes the specifications of a water bath used for incubating culture tubes in coliform analysis. The water bath has an inner size of approximately 0.4 x 0.3 x 0.15 meters, is made of stainless steel inside and stove enameled outside, and can maintain temperatures from ambient to 50°C with an accuracy of ±0.1°C. It has a double wall for insulation, a dome lid to hold test tubes vertically, and displays the internal water temperature.
The document specifies the requirements for a wash bottle used to flush glassware. The wash bottle must be made of polythene, hold 500 ml of liquid, and have a bent nozzle and screw cap. It was last reviewed on October 23, 2007 and is used to wash away any sticking sediment from glassware.
The document specifies volumetric flasks that will be used for sediment analyses in a laboratory. The flasks must comply with IS 915-1975, be made of Corning glass or similar material, and come in sizes of 50, 100, 250, and 500 ml with B class accuracy.
The visual accumulation tube is used to assess particle sizes of sediments. It consists of a vertical transparent settling tube through which sediment samples are passed. Particles settle individually based on terminal velocity related to diameter, and accumulated sediment volume in the tube's narrow end relates to solid weight. It is best for uniform, spherical particles. The analysis involves introducing a small sample and recording accumulated sediment height over time.
This document provides specifications for a vacuum pump for general laboratory use. The pump is a single stage pump with a capacity of 50 l/min, capable of reaching a final vacuum of 0.05 mm Hg without ballast or 2 mm Hg with ballast. It has a 200W motor that operates on 220VAC at 47-53 Hz. Accessories include a filter, regulator, gauge, hose, and valve. The pump is designed for noise free operation.
This document provides specifications for a turbidity meter used to directly measure suspended matter in water samples. The turbidity meter has a range of 0 to 1000 NTU in at least 2 ranges, an accuracy of ±2% full scale deflection, and requires a power supply of 220 VAC ±25%, 47 to 53 Hz. Accessories for the turbidity meter include an ambient light shield, 6 spare tubes, a sensor stand, voltage stabilizer, instruction manual, and dust cover.
This tool kit contains basic tools for minor repairs of electrical laboratory equipment, including a set of screwdrivers, pliers, soldering iron, and multi-meter. The tools come in a lockable storage box for organization and security.
The document specifies the requirements for a microprocessor-controlled TOC analyzer. It must be able to directly measure total carbon, total organic carbon, and purgeable organic carbon in water samples. It uses high temperature catalytic combustion up to 900°C and non-dispersive infrared detection. It must have a measuring range of 1-500 mg/L carbon, precision within 3%, and detection limit of at least 500 ppb carbon. The analyzer and auto-sampler require 240V 50Hz power and it uses nitrogen or high purity air as carrier gases. It includes an auto-sampler, syringes, printer, manuals, spare parts, and application software in English.
This document provides specifications for a tissue grinder used to prepare tissue or sediment samples. The grinder must be able to macerate glass fibre filters and is a manual, porcelain device used to homogenize samples for further analysis such as chemical extraction.
This document specifies a set of thermometers for laboratory use, including mercury-filled glass thermometers with three temperature ranges (0-80oC, 10-150oC, 20-250oC) and an accuracy of ±0.5oC, along with a storage box for the thermometers.
This document specifies test tubes for laboratory use in sediment analysis. It outlines that the test tubes should be made of Corning glass or similar material, and lists two standard sizes - 15 x 125 mm and 25 x 200 mm in diameter and height. The test tubes are intended for general use in analyzing sediments in the laboratory.
The document specifies requirements for test sieves with a shaker. It requires stainless steel sieves that are 200mm in diameter, 50mm in height, and have nominal aperture sizes between 63-250 micrometers. It also requires a shaker capable of holding at least 5 sieves that runs on 220V power. Accessories include a sieve brush and wash bottle. Some sieves can be used manually without the shaker.
This document provides specifications for a magnetic stirrer with a hot plate. It can rotate between 0-1200 rpm and heat with a 300 Watt thermostatically controlled element. The stirrer has a stainless steel top and comes with PTFE coated magnets ranging from 10-50mm in 5mm increments, with two of each size included as accessories.
This document provides specifications for a sterilizer autoclave. The autoclave is 0.3 x 0.5 meters in size, made of stainless steel inside and lid with an enameled outside. It operates at a working pressure of 1 bar with a maximum pressure of 1.5 bars. Accessories include a pressure gauge, steam release cock, safety valve, perforated aluminum basket, water level indicator, and lifting arrangement. The autoclave is powered by 220 VAC at 47-53 Hz and uses approximately 2500 Watts.
How information systems are built or acquired puts information, which is what they should be about, in a secondary place. Our language adapted accordingly, and we no longer talk about information systems but applications. Applications evolved in a way to break data into diverse fragments, tightly coupled with applications and expensive to integrate. The result is technical debt, which is re-paid by taking even bigger "loans", resulting in an ever-increasing technical debt. Software engineering and procurement practices work in sync with market forces to maintain this trend. This talk demonstrates how natural this situation is. The question is: can something be done to reverse the trend?
Digital Banking in the Cloud: How Citizens Bank Unlocked Their MainframePrecisely
Inconsistent user experience and siloed data, high costs, and changing customer expectations – Citizens Bank was experiencing these challenges while it was attempting to deliver a superior digital banking experience for its clients. Its core banking applications run on the mainframe and Citizens was using legacy utilities to get the critical mainframe data to feed customer-facing channels, like call centers, web, and mobile. Ultimately, this led to higher operating costs (MIPS), delayed response times, and longer time to market.
Ever-changing customer expectations demand more modern digital experiences, and the bank needed to find a solution that could provide real-time data to its customer channels with low latency and operating costs. Join this session to learn how Citizens is leveraging Precisely to replicate mainframe data to its customer channels and deliver on their “modern digital bank” experiences.
Introduction of Cybersecurity with OSS at Code Europe 2024Hiroshi SHIBATA
I develop the Ruby programming language, RubyGems, and Bundler, which are package managers for Ruby. Today, I will introduce how to enhance the security of your application using open-source software (OSS) examples from Ruby and RubyGems.
The first topic is CVE (Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures). I have published CVEs many times. But what exactly is a CVE? I'll provide a basic understanding of CVEs and explain how to detect and handle vulnerabilities in OSS.
Next, let's discuss package managers. Package managers play a critical role in the OSS ecosystem. I'll explain how to manage library dependencies in your application.
I'll share insights into how the Ruby and RubyGems core team works to keep our ecosystem safe. By the end of this talk, you'll have a better understanding of how to safeguard your code.
Dandelion Hashtable: beyond billion requests per second on a commodity serverAntonios Katsarakis
This slide deck presents DLHT, a concurrent in-memory hashtable. Despite efforts to optimize hashtables, that go as far as sacrificing core functionality, state-of-the-art designs still incur multiple memory accesses per request and block request processing in three cases. First, most hashtables block while waiting for data to be retrieved from memory. Second, open-addressing designs, which represent the current state-of-the-art, either cannot free index slots on deletes or must block all requests to do so. Third, index resizes block every request until all objects are copied to the new index. Defying folklore wisdom, DLHT forgoes open-addressing and adopts a fully-featured and memory-aware closed-addressing design based on bounded cache-line-chaining. This design offers lock-free index operations and deletes that free slots instantly, (2) completes most requests with a single memory access, (3) utilizes software prefetching to hide memory latencies, and (4) employs a novel non-blocking and parallel resizing. In a commodity server and a memory-resident workload, DLHT surpasses 1.6B requests per second and provides 3.5x (12x) the throughput of the state-of-the-art closed-addressing (open-addressing) resizable hashtable on Gets (Deletes).
Fueling AI with Great Data with Airbyte WebinarZilliz
This talk will focus on how to collect data from a variety of sources, leveraging this data for RAG and other GenAI use cases, and finally charting your course to productionalization.
Conversational agents, or chatbots, are increasingly used to access all sorts of services using natural language. While open-domain chatbots - like ChatGPT - can converse on any topic, task-oriented chatbots - the focus of this paper - are designed for specific tasks, like booking a flight, obtaining customer support, or setting an appointment. Like any other software, task-oriented chatbots need to be properly tested, usually by defining and executing test scenarios (i.e., sequences of user-chatbot interactions). However, there is currently a lack of methods to quantify the completeness and strength of such test scenarios, which can lead to low-quality tests, and hence to buggy chatbots.
To fill this gap, we propose adapting mutation testing (MuT) for task-oriented chatbots. To this end, we introduce a set of mutation operators that emulate faults in chatbot designs, an architecture that enables MuT on chatbots built using heterogeneous technologies, and a practical realisation as an Eclipse plugin. Moreover, we evaluate the applicability, effectiveness and efficiency of our approach on open-source chatbots, with promising results.
Ivanti’s Patch Tuesday breakdown goes beyond patching your applications and brings you the intelligence and guidance needed to prioritize where to focus your attention first. Catch early analysis on our Ivanti blog, then join industry expert Chris Goettl for the Patch Tuesday Webinar Event. There we’ll do a deep dive into each of the bulletins and give guidance on the risks associated with the newly-identified vulnerabilities.
Have you ever been confused by the myriad of choices offered by AWS for hosting a website or an API?
Lambda, Elastic Beanstalk, Lightsail, Amplify, S3 (and more!) can each host websites + APIs. But which one should we choose?
Which one is cheapest? Which one is fastest? Which one will scale to meet our needs?
Join me in this session as we dive into each AWS hosting service to determine which one is best for your scenario and explain why!
zkStudyClub - LatticeFold: A Lattice-based Folding Scheme and its Application...Alex Pruden
Folding is a recent technique for building efficient recursive SNARKs. Several elegant folding protocols have been proposed, such as Nova, Supernova, Hypernova, Protostar, and others. However, all of them rely on an additively homomorphic commitment scheme based on discrete log, and are therefore not post-quantum secure. In this work we present LatticeFold, the first lattice-based folding protocol based on the Module SIS problem. This folding protocol naturally leads to an efficient recursive lattice-based SNARK and an efficient PCD scheme. LatticeFold supports folding low-degree relations, such as R1CS, as well as high-degree relations, such as CCS. The key challenge is to construct a secure folding protocol that works with the Ajtai commitment scheme. The difficulty, is ensuring that extracted witnesses are low norm through many rounds of folding. We present a novel technique using the sumcheck protocol to ensure that extracted witnesses are always low norm no matter how many rounds of folding are used. Our evaluation of the final proof system suggests that it is as performant as Hypernova, while providing post-quantum security.
Paper Link: https://eprint.iacr.org/2024/257
Connector Corner: Seamlessly power UiPath Apps, GenAI with prebuilt connectorsDianaGray10
Join us to learn how UiPath Apps can directly and easily interact with prebuilt connectors via Integration Service--including Salesforce, ServiceNow, Open GenAI, and more.
The best part is you can achieve this without building a custom workflow! Say goodbye to the hassle of using separate automations to call APIs. By seamlessly integrating within App Studio, you can now easily streamline your workflow, while gaining direct access to our Connector Catalog of popular applications.
We’ll discuss and demo the benefits of UiPath Apps and connectors including:
Creating a compelling user experience for any software, without the limitations of APIs.
Accelerating the app creation process, saving time and effort
Enjoying high-performance CRUD (create, read, update, delete) operations, for
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Russell Alfeche, Technology Leader, RPA at qBotic and UiPath MVP
Charlie Greenberg, host
What is an RPA CoE? Session 1 – CoE VisionDianaGray10
In the first session, we will review the organization's vision and how this has an impact on the COE Structure.
Topics covered:
• The role of a steering committee
• How do the organization’s priorities determine CoE Structure?
Speaker:
Chris Bolin, Senior Intelligent Automation Architect Anika Systems
Main news related to the CCS TSI 2023 (2023/1695)Jakub Marek
An English 🇬🇧 translation of a presentation to the speech I gave about the main changes brought by CCS TSI 2023 at the biggest Czech conference on Communications and signalling systems on Railways, which was held in Clarion Hotel Olomouc from 7th to 9th November 2023 (konferenceszt.cz). Attended by around 500 participants and 200 on-line followers.
The original Czech 🇨🇿 version of the presentation can be found here: https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/hlavni-novinky-souvisejici-s-ccs-tsi-2023-2023-1695/269688092 .
The videorecording (in Czech) from the presentation is available here: https://youtu.be/WzjJWm4IyPk?si=SImb06tuXGb30BEH .
HCL Notes und Domino Lizenzkostenreduzierung in der Welt von DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-und-domino-lizenzkostenreduzierung-in-der-welt-von-dlau/
DLAU und die Lizenzen nach dem CCB- und CCX-Modell sind für viele in der HCL-Community seit letztem Jahr ein heißes Thema. Als Notes- oder Domino-Kunde haben Sie vielleicht mit unerwartet hohen Benutzerzahlen und Lizenzgebühren zu kämpfen. Sie fragen sich vielleicht, wie diese neue Art der Lizenzierung funktioniert und welchen Nutzen sie Ihnen bringt. Vor allem wollen Sie sicherlich Ihr Budget einhalten und Kosten sparen, wo immer möglich. Das verstehen wir und wir möchten Ihnen dabei helfen!
Wir erklären Ihnen, wie Sie häufige Konfigurationsprobleme lösen können, die dazu führen können, dass mehr Benutzer gezählt werden als nötig, und wie Sie überflüssige oder ungenutzte Konten identifizieren und entfernen können, um Geld zu sparen. Es gibt auch einige Ansätze, die zu unnötigen Ausgaben führen können, z. B. wenn ein Personendokument anstelle eines Mail-Ins für geteilte Mailboxen verwendet wird. Wir zeigen Ihnen solche Fälle und deren Lösungen. Und natürlich erklären wir Ihnen das neue Lizenzmodell.
Nehmen Sie an diesem Webinar teil, bei dem HCL-Ambassador Marc Thomas und Gastredner Franz Walder Ihnen diese neue Welt näherbringen. Es vermittelt Ihnen die Tools und das Know-how, um den Überblick zu bewahren. Sie werden in der Lage sein, Ihre Kosten durch eine optimierte Domino-Konfiguration zu reduzieren und auch in Zukunft gering zu halten.
Diese Themen werden behandelt
- Reduzierung der Lizenzkosten durch Auffinden und Beheben von Fehlkonfigurationen und überflüssigen Konten
- Wie funktionieren CCB- und CCX-Lizenzen wirklich?
- Verstehen des DLAU-Tools und wie man es am besten nutzt
- Tipps für häufige Problembereiche, wie z. B. Team-Postfächer, Funktions-/Testbenutzer usw.
- Praxisbeispiele und Best Practices zum sofortigen Umsetzen
Monitoring and Managing Anomaly Detection on OpenShift.pdfTosin Akinosho
Monitoring and Managing Anomaly Detection on OpenShift
Overview
Dive into the world of anomaly detection on edge devices with our comprehensive hands-on tutorial. This SlideShare presentation will guide you through the entire process, from data collection and model training to edge deployment and real-time monitoring. Perfect for those looking to implement robust anomaly detection systems on resource-constrained IoT/edge devices.
Key Topics Covered
1. Introduction to Anomaly Detection
- Understand the fundamentals of anomaly detection and its importance in identifying unusual behavior or failures in systems.
2. Understanding Edge (IoT)
- Learn about edge computing and IoT, and how they enable real-time data processing and decision-making at the source.
3. What is ArgoCD?
- Discover ArgoCD, a declarative, GitOps continuous delivery tool for Kubernetes, and its role in deploying applications on edge devices.
4. Deployment Using ArgoCD for Edge Devices
- Step-by-step guide on deploying anomaly detection models on edge devices using ArgoCD.
5. Introduction to Apache Kafka and S3
- Explore Apache Kafka for real-time data streaming and Amazon S3 for scalable storage solutions.
6. Viewing Kafka Messages in the Data Lake
- Learn how to view and analyze Kafka messages stored in a data lake for better insights.
7. What is Prometheus?
- Get to know Prometheus, an open-source monitoring and alerting toolkit, and its application in monitoring edge devices.
8. Monitoring Application Metrics with Prometheus
- Detailed instructions on setting up Prometheus to monitor the performance and health of your anomaly detection system.
9. What is Camel K?
- Introduction to Camel K, a lightweight integration framework built on Apache Camel, designed for Kubernetes.
10. Configuring Camel K Integrations for Data Pipelines
- Learn how to configure Camel K for seamless data pipeline integrations in your anomaly detection workflow.
11. What is a Jupyter Notebook?
- Overview of Jupyter Notebooks, an open-source web application for creating and sharing documents with live code, equations, visualizations, and narrative text.
12. Jupyter Notebooks with Code Examples
- Hands-on examples and code snippets in Jupyter Notebooks to help you implement and test anomaly detection models.
3. iii
Contents
Preface xv
Acknowledgements xviii
Acronyms and abbreviations used in text xx
1. Introduction 1
1.1 General considerations and principles 1
1.1.1 Microbial aspects 3
1.1.2 Disinfection 5
1.1.3 Chemical aspects 6
1.1.4 Radiological aspects 7
1.1.5 Acceptability aspects 7
1.2 Roles and responsibilities in drinking-water safety management 8
1.2.1 Surveillance and quality control 8
1.2.2 Public health authorities 10
1.2.3 Local authorities 11
1.2.4 Water resource management 12
1.2.5 Drinking-water supply agencies 13
1.2.6 Community management 14
1.2.7 Water vendors 15
1.2.8 Individual consumers 15
1.2.9 Certification agencies 16
1.2.10 Plumbing 17
1.3 Supporting documentation to the Guidelines 18
2. The Guidelines: a framework for safe drinking-water 22
2.1 Framework for safe drinking-water: requirements 22
2.1.1 Health-based targets 24
2.1.2 System assessment and design 25
2.1.3 Operational monitoring 26
2.1.4 Management plans, documentation and communication 27
2.1.5 Surveillance of drinking-water quality 28
4. GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
iv
2.2 Guidelines for verification 29
2.2.1 Microbial water quality 29
2.2.2 Chemical water quality 30
2.3 National drinking-water policy 31
2.3.1 Laws, regulations and standards 31
2.3.2 Setting national standards 32
2.4 Identifying priority drinking-water quality concerns 34
2.4.1 Assessing microbial priorities 35
2.4.2 Assessing chemical priorities 35
3. Health-based targets 37
3.1 Role and purpose of health-based targets 37
3.2 Types of health-based targets 39
3.2.1 Specified technology targets 41
3.2.2 Performance targets 41
3.2.3 Water quality targets 42
3.2.4 Health outcome targets 43
3.3 General considerations in establishing health-based targets 43
3.3.1 Assessment of risk in the framework for safe
drinking-water 44
3.3.2 Reference level of risk 44
3.3.3 Disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) 45
4. Water safety plans 48
4.1 System assessment and design 51
4.1.1 New systems 52
4.1.2 Collecting and evaluating available data 53
4.1.3 Resource and source protection 56
4.1.4 Treatment 59
4.1.5 Piped distribution systems 61
4.1.6 Non-piped, community and household systems 64
4.1.7 Validation 67
4.1.8 Upgrade and improvement 67
4.2 Operational monitoring and maintaining control 68
4.2.1 Determining system control measures 68
4.2.2 Selecting operational monitoring parameters 68
4.2.3 Establishing operational and critical limits 70
4.2.4 Non-piped, community and household systems 71
4.3 Verification 71
4.3.1 Verification of microbial quality 72
4.3.2 Verification of chemical quality 73
4.3.3 Water sources 73
4.3.4 Piped distribution systems 74
5. CONTENTS
v
4.3.5 Verification for community-managed supplies 74
4.3.6 Quality assurance and quality control 75
4.4 Management procedures for piped distribution systems 76
4.4.1 Predictable incidents (“deviations”) 77
4.4.2 Unforeseen events 77
4.4.3 Emergencies 78
[4.4.4 Deleted in first addendum to third edition]
4.4.5 Preparing a monitoring plan 80
4.4.6 Supporting programmes 80
4.5 Management of community and household water supplies 81
4.6 Documentation and communication 82
5. Surveillance 84
5.1 Types of approaches 85
5.1.1 Audit 86
5.1.2 Direct assessment 87
5.2 Adapting approaches to specific circumstances 88
5.2.1 Urban areas in developing countries 88
5.2.2 Surveillance of community drinking-water supplies 88
5.2.3 Surveillance of household treatment and storage systems 89
5.3 Adequacy of supply 90
5.3.1 Quantity (service level) 90
5.3.2 Accessibility 91
5.3.3 Affordability 92
5.3.4 Continuity 92
5.4 Planning and implementation 93
5.5 Reporting and communicating 95
5.5.1 Interaction with community and consumers 96
5.5.2 Regional use of data 96
6. Application of the Guidelines in specific circumstances 99
6.1 Large buildings 99
6.1.1 Health risk assessment 100
6.1.2 System assessment 100
6.1.3 Management 101
6.1.4 Monitoring 101
6.1.5 Independent surveillance and supporting programmes 102
6.1.6 Drinking-water quality in health care facilities 102
6.1.7 Drinking-water quality in schools and day care centres 103
6.2 Emergencies and disasters 104
6.2.1 Practical considerations 105
6.2.2 Monitoring 106
6.2.3 Microbial guidelines 107
6. GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
vi
6.2.4 Sanitary inspections and catchment mapping 108
6.2.5 Chemical and radiological guidelines 108
6.2.6 Testing kits and laboratories 109
6.3 Safe drinking-water for travellers 109
6.4 Desalination systems 111
6.5 Packaged drinking-water 113
6.5.1 Safety of packaged drinking-water 113
6.5.2 Potential health benefits of bottled drinking-water 114
6.5.3 International standards for bottled drinking-water 114
6.6 Food production and processing 115
6.7 Aircraft and airports 116
6.7.1 Health risks 116
6.7.2 System risk assessment 116
6.7.3 Operational monitoring 116
6.7.4 Management 117
6.7.5 Surveillance 117
6.8 Ships 117
6.8.1 Health risks 117
6.8.2 System risk assessment 118
6.8.3 Operational monitoring 119
6.8.4 Management 119
6.8.5 Surveillance 120
6.9 Temporary water supplies 120
6.9.1 Planning and design 120a
6.9.2 Operation and maintenance 120b
6.9.3 Monitoring, sanitary inspection and surveillance 120b
6.10 Vended water 120b
6.10.1 System risk assessment 120d
6.10.2 Operational monitoring 120d
6.10.3 Management 120e
6.10.4 Surveillance 120e
6.11 Rainwater harvesting 120e
6.11.1 Water quality and health risk 120e
6.11.2 System risk assessment 120f
6.11.3 Operational monitoring 120g
6.11.4 Verification 120h
6.11.5 Management 120h
6.11.6 Surveillance 120h
6.12 Non-piped water supplies 120h
7. Microbial aspects 121
7.1 Microbial hazards associated with drinking-water 121
7. GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
via
7.1.1 Waterborne infections 121
7.1.2 Persistence and growth in water 124
7.1.3 Public health aspects 125
7.2 Health-based target setting 126
7.2.1 Health-based targets applied to microbial hazards 126
7.2.2 Risk assessment approach 126
7.2.3 Risk-based performance target setting 131
7.2.4 Presenting the outcome of performance target
development 133
7.2.5 Issues in adapting risk-based performance target setting
to national/local circumstances 133
7.2.6 Health outcome targets 134
7.3 Occurrence and treatment of pathogens 135
7.3.1 Occurrence 136
7.3.2 Central treatment 137
7.3.3 Household treatment 141
7.4 Verification of microbial safety and quality 142
7.5 Methods of detection of faecal indicator bacteria 143
7.6 Identifying local actions in response to microbial water
quality problems and emergencies 144
7.6.1 Boil water and water avoidance advisories 144
7.6.2 Actions following an incident 144c
8. CONTENTS
vii
8. Chemical aspects 145
8.1 Chemical hazards in drinking-water 145
8.2 Derivation of chemical guideline values 147
8.2.1 Approaches taken 148
8.2.2 Threshold chemicals 149
8.2.3 Alternative approaches 152
8.2.4 Non-threshold chemicals 154
8.2.5 Data quality 154
8.2.6 Provisional guideline values 155
8.2.7 Chemicals with effects on acceptability 156
8.2.8 Non-guideline chemicals 156
8.2.9 Mixtures 156
8.2.10 Guidance values for use in emergencies 156a
8.3 Analytical aspects 157
8.3.1 Analytical achievability 157
8.3.2 Analytical methods 158
8.4 Treatment 166
8.4.1 Treatment achievability 166
8.4.2 Chlorination 171
8.4.3 Ozonation 172
8.4.4 Other disinfection processes 172
8.4.5 Filtration 173
8.4.6 Aeration 175
8.4.7 Chemical coagulation 175
8.4.8 Activated carbon adsorption 176
8.4.9 Ion exchange 177
8.4.10 Membrane processes 178
8.4.11 Other treatment processes 178
8.4.12 Disinfection by-products – process control measures 179
8.4.13 Treatment for corrosion control 180a
8.4.14 Household treatment 184
8.5 Guideline values for individual chemicals, by source category 184a
8.5.1 Naturally occurring chemicals 184a
8.5.2 Chemicals from industrial sources and human dwellings 185
8.5.3 Chemicals from agricultural activities 187
8.5.4 Chemicals used in water treatment or from materials in
contact with drinking-water 188
8.5.5 Pesticides used in water for public health purposes 190
8.5.6 Cyanobacterial toxins 192
8.6 Identifying local actions in response to chemical water quality
problems and emergencies 196
8.6.1 Trigger for action 196a
9. CONTENTS
viia
8.6.2 Investigating the situation 196a
8.6.3 Talking to the right people 196b
8.6.4 Informing the public 196b
8.6.5 Evaluating the significance to public health and
individuals 196b
8.6.6 Determining appropriate action 196e
8.6.7 Consumer acceptability 196e
8.6.8 Ensuring remedial action, preventing recurrence and
updating the water safety plan 196e
8.6.9 Mixtures 196f
8.6.10 Water avoidance advisories 196f
9. Radiological aspects 197
9.1 Sources and health effects of radiation exposure 198
9.1.1 Radiation exposure through drinking-water 200
9.1.2 Radiation-induced health effects through drinking-water 200
10. GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
viii
9.2 Units of radioactivity and radiation dose 201
9.3 Guidance levels for radionuclides in drinking-water 202
9.4 Monitoring and assessment for dissolved radionuclides 204
9.4.1 Screening of drinking-water supplies 204
9.4.2 Strategy for assessing drinking-water 205
9.4.3 Remedial measures 205
9.5 Radon 206
9.5.1 Radon in air and water 206
9.5.2 Risk 207
9.5.3 Guidance on radon in drinking-water supplies 207
9.5.4 Treatment and control methods and technical
achievability 207a
9.6 Sampling, analysis and reporting 207a
9.6.1 Measuring gross alpha and gross beta activity
concentrations 207a
[9.6.2 Deleted in first addendum to third edition]
9.6.3 Measuring radon 208
9.6.4 Sampling 209
9.6.5 Reporting of results 209
10. Acceptability aspects 210
10.1 Taste, odour and appearance 211
10.1.1 Biologically derived contaminants 211
10.1.2 Chemically derived contaminants 213
10.1.3 Treatment of taste, odour and appearance problems 219
10.2 Temperature 220
11. Microbial fact sheets 221
11.1 Bacterial pathogens 222
11.1.1 Acinetobacter 222
11.1.2 Aeromonas 224
11.1.3 Bacillus 225
11.1.4 Burkholderia pseudomallei 226
11.1.5 Campylobacter 228
11.1.5(a) Enterobacter sakazakii 229
11.1.6 Escherichia coli pathogenic strains 229a
11.1.7 Helicobacter pylori 231
11.1.8 Klebsiella 232
11.1.9 Legionella 233
11.1.9(a) Leptospira 235
11.1.10 Mycobacterium 235b
11.1.11 Pseudomonas aeruginosa 237
18. GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
xiia
12.124 Xylenes 458
12.125 Zinc 459
12.126 Pesticides used for vector control in drinking-water sources
and containers 460
12.126.1 Diflubenzuron 460
12.126.2 Methoprene 460b
12.126.3 Novaluron 460c
12.126.4 Pirimiphos-methyl 460d
12.126.5 Pyriproxyfen 460e
19. CONTENTS
xiii
Annex 1 Bibliography 461
Annex 2 Contributors to the development of the third edition of the
Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality 467
[Annex 3Deleted in first addendum to third edition]
Annex 4 Chemical summary tables 488
Index 494
20.
21. xv
Preface
Access to safe drinking-water is essential to health, a basic human right and a com-
ponent of effective policy for health protection.
The importance of water, sanitation and hygiene for health and development has
been reflected in the outcomes of a series of international policy forums. These have
included health-oriented conferences such as the International Conference on
Primary Health Care, held in Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan (former Soviet Union), in 1978.
They have also included water-oriented conferences such as the 1977 World Water
Conference in Mar del Plata, Argentina, which launched the water supply and sanita-
tion decade of 1981–1990, as well as the Millennium Development Goals adopted by
the General Assembly of the United Nations (UN) in 2000 and the outcome of the
Johannesburg World Summit for Sustainable Development in 2002. Most recently,
the UN General Assembly declared the period from 2005 to 2015 as the International
Decade for Action, “Water for Life.”
Access to safe drinking-water is important as a health and development issue at a
national, regional and local level. In some regions, it has been shown that investments
in water supply and sanitation can yield a net economic benefit, since the reductions
in adverse health effects and health care costs outweigh the costs of undertaking the
interventions. This is true for major water supply infrastructure investments through
to water treatment in the home. Experience has also shown that interventions in
improving access to safe water favour the poor in particular, whether in rural or urban
areas, and can be an effective part of poverty alleviation strategies.
In 1983–1984 and in 1993–1997, the World Health Organization (WHO) published
the first and second editions of the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality in three
volumes as successors to previous WHO International Standards. In 1995, the
decision was made to pursue the further development of the Guidelines through a
process of rolling revision. This led to the publication of addenda to the second edition
of the Guidelines, on chemical and microbial aspects, in 1998, 1999 and 2002; the
publication of a text on Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water; and the preparation of expert
reviews on key issues preparatory to the development of a third edition of the
Guidelines.
22. GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
xvi
In 2000, a detailed plan of work was agreed upon for development of the third
edition of the Guidelines. As with previous editions, this work was shared between
WHO Headquarters and the WHO Regional Office for Europe (EURO). Leading the
process of the development of the third edition were the Programme on Water
Sanitation and Health within Headquarters and the European Centre for Environ-
ment and Health, Rome, within EURO. Within WHO Headquarters, the Programme
on Chemical Safety provided inputs on some chemical hazards, and the Programme
on Radiological Safety contributed to the section dealing with radiological aspects. All
six WHO Regional Offices participated in the process.
This revised Volume 1 of the Guidelines is accompanied by a series of publications
providing information on the assessment and management of risks associated with
microbial hazards and by internationally peer-reviewed risk assessments for specific
chemicals. These replace the corresponding parts of the previous Volume 2. Volume
3 provides guidance on good practice in surveillance, monitoring and assessment of
drinking-water quality in community supplies. The Guidelines are also accompanied
by other publications explaining the scientific basis of their development and pro-
viding guidance on good practice in implementation.
This volume of the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality explains requirements to
ensure drinking-water safety, including minimum procedures and specific guideline
values, and how those requirements are intended to be used. The volume also
describes the approaches used in deriving the guidelines, including guideline values.
It includes fact sheets on significant microbial and chemical hazards. The develop-
ment of this third edition of the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality includes a sub-
stantive revision of approaches to ensuring microbial safety. This takes account of
important developments in microbial risk assessment and its linkages to risk man-
agement. The development of this orientation and content was led over an extended
period by Dr Arie Havelaar (RIVM, Netherlands) and Dr Jamie Bartram (WHO).
Since the second edition of WHO’s Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, there
have been a number of events that have highlighted the importance and furthered
understanding of various aspects of drinking-water quality and health. These are
reflected in this third edition of the Guidelines.
These Guidelines supersede those in previous editions (1983–1984, 1993–1997 and
addenda in 1998, 1999 and 2002) and previous International Standards (1958, 1963
and 1971). The Guidelines are recognized as representing the position of the UN
system on issues of drinking-water quality and health by “UN-Water,” the body that
coordinates amongst the 24 UN agencies and programmes concerned with water
issues. This edition of the Guidelines further develops concepts, approaches and infor-
mation in previous editions:
• Experience has shown that microbial hazards continue to be the primary concern
in both developing and developed countries. Experience has also shown the value
23. PREFACE
xvii
of a systematic approach towards securing microbial safety. This edition includes
significantly expanded guidance on ensuring microbial safety of drinking-water,
building on principles – such as the multiple-barrier approach and the importance
of source protection – considered in previous editions. The Guidelines are accom-
panied by documentation describing approaches towards fulfilling requirements
for microbial safety and providing guidance to good practice in ensuring that safety
is achieved.
• Information on many chemicals has been revised. This includes information on
chemicals not considered previously; revisions to take account of new scientific
information; and, in some cases, lesser coverage where new information suggests a
lesser priority.
• Experience has also shown the necessity of recognizing the important roles of many
different stakeholders in ensuring drinking-water safety. This edition includes dis-
cussion of the roles and responsibilities of key stakeholders in ensuring drinking-
water safety.
• The need for different tools and approaches in supporting safe management of
large piped supplies versus small community supplies remains relevant, and this
edition describes the principal characteristics of the different approaches.
• There has been increasing recognition that only a few key chemicals cause large-
scale health effects through drinking-water exposure. These include fluoride,
arsenic and nitrate. Other chemicals, such as lead, selenium and uranium, may also
be significant under certain conditions. Interest in chemical hazards in drinking-
water was highlighted by recognition of the scale of arsenic exposure through
drinking-water in Bangladesh and elsewhere. The revised Guidelines and associ-
ated publications provide guidance on identifying local priorities and on manage-
ment of the chemicals associated with large-scale effects.
• WHO is frequently approached for guidance on the application of the Guidelines
for Drinking-water Quality to situations other than community supplies or
managed utilities. This revised edition includes information on application of the
Guidelines to several specific circumstances and is accompanied by texts dealing
with some of these in greater detail.
The Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality are kept up to date through a process of
rolling revision, which leads to periodic release of documents that may add to or
supersede information in this volume. This version of the Guidelines integrates the
third edition, which was published in 2004, with both the first addendum to the third
edition, published in 2005, and the second addendum to the third edition, published
in 2008.
The Guidelines are addressed primarily to water and health regulators, policy-
makers and their advisors, to assist in the development of national standards. The
Guidelines and associated documents are also used by many others as a source of
information on water quality and health and on effective management approaches.
24. Acknowledgements
The preparation of the current edition of the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality
and supporting documentation covered a period of eight years and involved the
participation of over 490 experts from 90 developing and developed countries. The
contributions of all who participated in the preparation and finalization of the Guide-
lines for Drinking-water Quality, including those individuals listed in Annex 2, are
gratefully acknowledged.
The work of the following Working Groups was crucial to the development of the
third edition of the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality:
Microbial aspects working group
Ms T. Boonyakarnkul, Department of Health, Thailand (Surveillance and control)
Dr D. Cunliffe, SA Department of Human Services, Australia (Public health)
Prof. W. Grabow, University of Pretoria, South Africa (Pathogen-specific information)
Dr A. Havelaar, RIVM, The Netherlands (Working Group coordinator; Risk
assessment)
Prof. M. Sobsey, University of North Carolina, USA (Risk management)
Chemical aspects working group
Mr J.K. Fawell, United Kingdom (Organic and inorganic constituents)
Ms M. Giddings, Health Canada (Disinfectants and disinfection by-products)
Prof. Y. Magara, Hokkaido University, Japan (Analytical achievability)
Dr E. Ohanian, EPA, USA (Disinfectants and disinfection by-products)
Dr P. Toft, Canada (Pesticides)
Protection and control working group
Dr I. Chorus, Umweltbundesamt, Germany (Resource and source protection)
Dr J. Cotruvo, USA (Materials and additives)
Dr G. Howard, DfID, Bangladesh, and formerly Loughborough University, United
Kingdom (Monitoring and assessment)
Mr P. Jackson, WRc-NSF, United Kingdom (Treatment achievability)
xviii
25. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
xix
The WHO coordinators were:
—Dr J. Bartram, Coordinator, Programme on Water Sanitation and Health, WHO
Headquarters, and formerly WHO European Centre for Environmental Health
—Mr P. Callan, Programme on Water Sanitation and Health, WHO Headquarters, on
secondment from National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia
Ms C. Vickers acted as a liaison between the Working Groups and the International
Programme on Chemical Safety, WHO Headquarters.
Ms Marla Sheffer of Ottawa, Canada, was responsible for the editing of the Guide-
lines. Mr Hiroki Hashizume provided support to the work of the Chemical Aspects
Working Group. Ms Mary-Ann Lundby, Ms Grazia Motturi and Ms Penny Ward pro-
vided secretarial and administrative support throughout the process and to individ-
ual meetings.
The preparation of these Guidelines would not have been possible without the gen-
erous support of the following, which is gratefully acknowledged: the Ministry of
Health of Italy; the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan; the National
Health and Medical Research Council, Australia; the Swedish International Develop-
ment Cooperation Agency, Sweden; and the United States Environmental Protection
Agency.
26. Acronyms and abbreviations
used in text
AAS atomic absorption spectrometry
AD Alzheimer disease
ADI acceptable daily intake
AES atomic emission spectrometry
AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
AMPA aminomethylphosphonic acid
ARfD acute reference dose
BaP benzo[a]pyrene
BDCM bromodichloromethane
BMD benchmark dose
bw body weight
CAC Codex Alimentarius Commission
CAS Chemical Abstracts Service
cfu colony-forming unit
CICAD Concise International Chemical Assessment Document
CSAF chemical-specific adjustment factor
Ct product of disinfectant concentration and contact time
DAEC diffusely adherent E. coli
DALY disability-adjusted life-year
DBCM dibromochloromethane
DBCP 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane
DBP disinfection by-product
DCA dichloroacetic acid
DCB dichlorobenzene
DCP dichloropropane
DDT dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DEHA di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate
xx
28. ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS USED IN TEXT
xxi
EAAS electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry
EAEC enteroaggregative E. coli
EBCT empty bed contact time
EC electron capture
ECD electron capture detector
EDTA edetic acid; ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
EHC Environmental Health Criteria monograph
EHEC enterohaemorrhagic E. coli
EIEC enteroinvasive E. coli
ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
EPEC enteropathogenic E. coli
ETEC enterotoxigenic E. coli
EURO WHO Regional Office for Europe
FAAS flame atomic absorption spectrometry
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FD fluorescence detector
FID flame ionization detector
FPD flame photodiode detector
GAC granular activated carbon
GAE granulomatous amoebic encephalitis
GC gas chromatography
GL guidance level (used for radionuclides in drinking-water)
GV guideline value
HACCP hazard analysis and critical control points
HAd human adenovirus
HAstV human astrovirus
HAV hepatitis A virus
Hb haemoglobin
HCB hexachlorobenzene
HCBD hexachlorobutadiene
HCH hexachlorocyclohexane
HEV hepatitis E virus
HIV human immunodeficiency virus
HPC heterotrophic plate count
HPLC high-performance liquid chromatography
HRV human rotavirus
HuCV human calicivirus
HUS haemolytic uraemic syndrome
HWT household water treatment
29. GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
xxii
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer
IC ion chromatography
ICP inductively coupled plasma
ICRP International Commission on Radiological Protection
IDC individual dose criterion
IPCS International Programme on Chemical Safety
ISO International Organization for Standardization
JECFA Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives
JMPR Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues
Kow octanol/water partition coefficient
LC liquid chromatography
LI Langelier Index
LOAEL lowest-observed-adverse-effect level
LRV log10 reduction value
MCB monochlorobenzene
MCPA 4-(2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxy)acetic acid
MCPP 2(2-methyl-chlorophenoxy) propionic acid; mecoprop
metHb methaemoglobin
MMT methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl
MS mass spectrometry
MTBE methyl tertiary-butyl ether
MX 3-chloro-4-dichloromethyl-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone
NAS National Academy of Sciences (USA)
NDMA N-nitrosodimethylamine
NOAEL no-observed-adverse-effect level
NOEL no-observed-effect level
NTA nitrilotriacetic acid
NTP National Toxicology Program (USA)
NTU nephelometric turbidity unit
P/A presence/absence
PAC powdered activated carbon
PAH polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon
PAM primary amoebic meningoencephalitis
PCP pentachlorophenol
PCR polymerase chain reaction
30. GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
xxiia
PD photoionization detector
PMTDI provisional maximum tolerable daily intake
PPA protein phosphatase assay
PT purge and trap
PTDI provisional tolerable daily intake
31. ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS USED IN TEXT
xxiii
PTWI provisional tolerable weekly intake
PVC polyvinyl chloride
QMRA quantitative microbial risk assessment
RDL reference dose level
RIVM Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu (Dutch National Insti-
tute of Public Health and Environmental Protection)
RNA ribonucleic acid
SI Système international d’unités (International System of Units)
SOP standard operating procedure
SPADNS sulfo phenyl azo dihydroxy naphthalene disulfonic acid
TBA terbuthylazine
TCB trichlorobenzene
TCU true colour unit
TD05 tumorigenic dose05, the intake or exposure associated with a 5% excess
incidence of tumours in experimental studies in animals
TDI tolerable daily intake
TDS total dissolved solids
THM trihalomethane
TID thermal ionization detector
TPH total petroleum hydrocarbons
UF uncertainty factor
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNSCEAR United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic
Radiation
USA United States of America
US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
UV ultraviolet
UVPAD ultraviolet photodiode array detector
WHO World Health Organization
WHOPES World Health Organization Pesticide Evaluation Scheme
WQT water quality target
WSP water safety plan
YLD years of healthy life lost in states of less than full health, i.e., years lived
with a disability
YLL years of life lost by premature mortality
32.
33. 1
1.1 General considerations and principles
The primary purpose of the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality is the protection
of public health.
Water is essential to sustain life, and a
satisfactory (adequate, safe and accessi-
ble) supply must be available to all.
Improving access to safe drinking-water
can result in tangible benefits to health.
Every effort should be made to achieve
a drinking-water quality as safe as
practicable.
Safe drinking-water, as defined by the Guidelines, does not represent any signifi-
cant risk to health over a lifetime of consumption, including different sensitivities that
may occur between life stages. Those at greatest risk of waterborne disease are infants
and young children, people who are debilitated or living under unsanitary conditions
and the elderly. Safe drinking-water is suitable for all usual domestic purposes, includ-
ing personal hygiene. The Guidelines are applicable to packaged water and ice
intended for human consumption. However, water of higher quality may be required
for some special purposes, such as renal dialysis and cleaning of contact lenses, or for
certain purposes in food production and pharmaceutical use. Those who are severely
immunocompromised may need to take additional steps, such as boiling drinking-
water, due to their susceptibility to organisms that would not normally be of concern
through drinking-water. The Guidelines may not be suitable for the protection of
aquatic life or for some industries.
The Guidelines are intended to support the development and implementation of
risk management strategies that will ensure the safety of drinking-water supplies
through the control of hazardous constituents of water. These strategies may include
national or regional standards developed from the scientific basis provided in the
Guidelines. The Guidelines describe reasonable minimum requirements of safe prac-
tice to protect the health of consumers and/or derive numerical “guideline values” for
1
Introduction
Diseases related to contamination of
drinking-water constitute a major burden
on human health. Interventions to im-
prove the quality of drinking-water pro-
vide significant benefits to health.
34. GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
2
constituents of water or indicators of water quality. In order to define mandatory
limits, it is preferable to consider the guidelines in the context of local or national
environmental, social, economic and cultural conditions.
The main reason for not promoting the adoption of international standards for
drinking-water quality is the advantage provided by the use of a risk–benefit approach
(qualitative or quantitative) in the establishment of national standards and regulations.
Further, the Guidelines are best implemented through an integrated preventive man-
agement framework for safety applied from catchment to consumer. The Guidelines
provide a scientific point of departure for national authorities to develop drinking-
water regulations and standards appropriate for the national situation. In developing
standards and regulations, care should be taken to ensure that scarce resources are not
unnecessarily diverted to the development of standards and the monitoring of sub-
stances of relatively minor importance to public health.The approach followed in these
Guidelines is intended to lead to national standards and regulations that can be readily
implemented and enforced and are protective of public health.
The nature and form of drinking-water standards may vary among countries and
regions. There is no single approach that is universally applicable. It is essential in the
development and implementation of standards that the current and planned legisla-
tion relating to water, health and local government are taken into account and that
the capacity to develop and implement regulations is assessed. Approaches that may
work in one country or region will not necessarily transfer to other countries or
regions. It is essential that each country review its needs and capacities in developing
a regulatory framework.
The judgement of safety – or what is an acceptable level of risk in particular cir-
cumstances – is a matter in which society as a whole has a role to play. The final judge-
ment as to whether the benefit resulting from the adoption of any of the guidelines
and guideline values as national or local standards justifies the cost is for each country
to decide.
Although the Guidelines describe a quality of water that is acceptable for lifelong
consumption, the establishment of these Guidelines, including guideline values,
should not be regarded as implying that the quality of drinking-water may be
degraded to the recommended level. Indeed, a continuous effort should be made to
maintain drinking-water quality at the highest possible level.
An important concept in the allocation of resources to improving drinking-water
safety is that of incremental improvements towards long-term targets. Priorities set
to remedy the most urgent problems (e.g., protection from pathogens; see
section 1.1.1) may be linked to long-term targets of further water quality im-
provements (e.g., improvements in the acceptability of drinking-water; see section
1.1.5).
The basic and essential requirements to ensure the safety of drinking-water are a
“framework” for safe drinking-water, comprising health-based targets established by
35. 1. INTRODUCTION
3
a competent health authority; adequate and properly managed systems (adequate
infrastructure, proper monitoring and effective planning and management); and a
system of independent surveillance.
A holistic approach to drinking-water supply risk assessment and risk management
increases confidence in the safety of drinking-water. This approach entails systematic
assessment of risks throughout a drinking-water supply – from the catchment and its
source water through to the consumer – and identification of the ways in which these
risks can be managed, including methods to ensure that control measures are working
effectively. It incorporates strategies to deal with day-to-day management of water
quality, including upsets and failures.
The Guidelines are applicable to large metropolitan and small community piped
drinking-water systems and to non-piped drinking-water systems in communities and
in individual dwellings. The Guidelines are also applicable to a range of specific cir-
cumstances, including large buildings, travellers and conveyances.
The great majority of evident water-related health problems are the result of micro-
bial (bacteriological, viral, protozoan or other biological) contamination. Neverthe-
less, an appreciable number of serious health concerns may occur as a result of the
chemical contamination of drinking-water.
1.1.1 Microbial aspects
Securing the microbial safety of drinking-water supplies is based on the use of
multiple barriers, from catchment to consumer, to prevent the contamination of
drinking-water or to reduce contamination to levels not injurious to health. Safety is
increased if multiple barriers are in place, including protection of water resources,
proper selection and operation of a series of treatment steps and management of dis-
tribution systems (piped or otherwise)
to maintain and protect treated water
quality. The preferred strategy is a
management approach that places the
primary emphasis on preventing or
reducing the entry of pathogens into
water sources and reducing reliance on
treatment processes for removal of
pathogens.
In general terms, the greatest microbial risks are associated with ingestion of water
that is contaminated with human or animal (including bird) faeces. Faeces can be a
source of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminths.
Faecally derived pathogens are the principal concerns in setting health-based
targets for microbial safety. Microbial water quality often varies rapidly and over a
wide range. Short-term peaks in pathogen concentration may increase disease risks
considerably and may trigger outbreaks of waterborne disease. Furthermore, by the
time microbial contamination is detected, many people may have been exposed. For
The potential health consequences of
microbial contamination are such that
its control must always be of para-
mount importance and must never be
compromised.
36. GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
4
these reasons, reliance cannot be placed solely on end-product testing, even when
frequent, to ensure the microbial safety of drinking-water.
Particular attention should be directed to a water safety framework and imple-
menting comprehensive water safety plans (WSPs) to consistently ensure drinking-
water safety and thereby protect public health (see chapter 4). Management of
microbial drinking-water safety requires a system-wide assessment to determine
potential hazards that can affect the system (see section 4.1); identification of the
control measures needed to reduce or eliminate the hazards, and operational moni-
toring to ensure that barriers within the system are functioning efficiently (see section
4.2); and the development of management plans to describe actions taken under both
normal and incident conditions. These are the three components of a WSP.
Failure to ensure drinking-water safety may expose the community to the risk of
outbreaks of intestinal and other infectious diseases. Drinking-water-borne outbreaks
are particularly to be avoided because of their capacity to result in the simultaneous
infection of a large number of persons and potentially a high proportion of the
community.
In addition to faecally borne pathogens, other microbial hazards (e.g., guinea worm
[Dracunculus medinensis], toxic cyanobacteria and Legionella) may be of public health
importance under specific circumstances.
The infective stages of many helminths, such as parasitic roundworms and flat-
worms, can be transmitted to humans through drinking-water. As a single mature
larva or fertilized egg can cause infection, these should be absent from drinking-water.
However, the water route is relatively unimportant for helminth infection, except in
the case of the guinea worm.
Legionella bacteria are ubiquitous in the environment and can proliferate at the
higher temperatures experienced at times in piped drinking-water distribution
systems and more commonly in hot and warm water distribution systems. Exposure
to Legionella from drinking-water is through inhalation and can be controlled through
the implementation of basic water quality management measures in buildings and
through the maintenance of disinfection residuals throughout the piped distribution
system.
Public health concern regarding cyanobacteria relates to their potential to produce
a variety of toxins, known as “cyanotoxins.” In contrast to pathogenic bacteria,
cyanobacteria do not proliferate within the human body after uptake; they prolifer-
ate only in the aquatic environment before intake. While the toxic peptides (e.g.,
microcystins) are usually contained within the cells and thus may be largely elimi-
nated by filtration, toxic alkaloids such as cylindrospermopsin and neurotoxins are
also released into the water and may break through filtration systems.
Some microorganisms will grow as biofilms on surfaces in contact with water. With
few exceptions, such as Legionella, most of these organisms do not cause illness in
healthy persons, but they can cause nuisance through generation of tastes and odours
or discoloration of drinking-water supplies. Growth following drinking-water treat-
37. 1. INTRODUCTION
5
ment is often referred to as “regrowth.” It is typically reflected in measurement of
increasing heterotrophic plate counts (HPC) in water samples. Elevated HPC occur
especially in stagnant parts of piped distribution systems, in domestic plumbing, in
some bottled water and in plumbed-in devices such as softeners, carbon filters and
vending machines.
While water can be a very significant source of infectious organisms, many of the
diseases that may be waterborne may also be transmitted by other routes, including
person-to-person contact, droplets and aerosols and food intake. Depending on cir-
cumstance and in the absence of waterborne outbreaks, these routes may be more
important than waterborne transmission.
Microbial aspects of water quality are considered in more detail in chapter 7, with
fact sheets on specific microorganisms provided in chapter 11.
1.1.2 Disinfection
Disinfection is of unquestionable importance in the supply of safe drinking-water.
The destruction of microbial pathogens is essential and very commonly involves the
use of reactive chemical agents such as chlorine.
Disinfection is an effective barrier to many pathogens (especially bacteria) during
drinking-water treatment and should be used for surface waters and for groundwa-
ter subject to faecal contamination. Residual disinfection is used to provide a partial
safeguard against low-level contamination and growth within the distribution system.
Chemical disinfection of a drinking-water supply that is faecally contaminated will
reduce the overall risk of disease but may not necessarily render the supply safe. For
example, chlorine disinfection of drinking-water has limitations against the proto-
zoan pathogens – in particular Cryptosporidium – and some viruses. Disinfection effi-
cacy may also be unsatisfactory against pathogens within flocs or particles, which
protect them from disinfectant action. High levels of turbidity can protect microor-
ganisms from the effects of disinfection, stimulate the growth of bacteria and give rise
to a significant chlorine demand. An effective overall management strategy incorpo-
rates multiple barriers, including source water protection and appropriate treatment
processes, as well as protection during storage and distribution in conjunction with
disinfection to prevent or remove microbial contamination.
The use of chemical disinfectants in water treatment usually results in the forma-
tion of chemical by-products. However, the risks to health from these by-products are
extremely small in comparison with the
risks associated with inadequate disin-
fection, and it is important that disinfec-
tion not be compromised in attempting
to control such by-products.
Some disinfectants such as chlorine can be easily monitored and controlled as a
drinking-water disinfectant, and frequent monitoring is recommended wherever
chlorination is practised.
Disinfection should not be compromised
in attempting to control disinfection by-
products (DBPs).
38. GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
6
Disinfection of drinking-water is considered in more detail in chapter 8, with fact
sheets on specific disinfectants and DBPs provided in chapter 12.
1.1.3 Chemical aspects
The health concerns associated with chemical constituents of drinking-water differ
from those associated with microbial contamination and arise primarily from the
ability of chemical constituents to cause adverse health effects after prolonged periods
of exposure. There are few chemical constituents of water that can lead to health prob-
lems resulting from a single exposure, except through massive accidental contamina-
tion of a drinking-water supply. Moreover, experience shows that in many, but not all,
such incidents, the water becomes undrinkable owing to unacceptable taste, odour
and appearance.
In situations where short-term exposure is not likely to lead to health impairment,
it is often most effective to concentrate the available resources for remedial action on
finding and eliminating the source of contamination, rather than on installing expen-
sive drinking-water treatment for the removal of the chemical constituent.
There are many chemicals that may occur in drinking-water; however, only a few
are of immediate health concern in any given circumstance. The priority given to both
monitoring and remedial action for chemical contaminants in drinking-water should
be managed to ensure that scarce resources are not unnecessarily directed towards
those of little or no health concern.
Exposure to high levels of fluoride, which occurs naturally, can lead to mottling of
teeth and, in severe cases, crippling skeletal fluorosis. Similarly, arsenic may occur
naturally, and excess exposure to arsenic in drinking-water may result in a significant
risk of cancer and skin lesions. Other naturally occurring chemicals, including
uranium and selenium, may also give rise to health concern when they are present in
excess.
The presence of nitrate and nitrite in water has been associated with methaemo-
globinaemia, especially in bottle-fed infants. Nitrate may arise from the excessive
application of fertilizers or from leaching of wastewater or other organic wastes into
surface water and groundwater.
Particularly in areas with aggressive or acidic waters, the use of lead pipes and fit-
tings or solder can result in elevated lead levels in drinking-water, which cause adverse
neurological effects.
There are few chemicals for which the contribution from drinking-water to overall
intake is an important factor in preventing disease. One example is the effect of flu-
oride in drinking-water in increasing prevention against dental caries. The Guidelines
do not attempt to define minimum desirable concentrations for chemicals in drink-
ing-water.
Guideline values are derived for many chemical constituents of drinking-water. A
guideline value normally represents the concentration of a constituent that does not
result in any significant risk to health over a lifetime of consumption. A number of
39. 1. INTRODUCTION
7
provisional guideline values have been established based on the practical level of treat-
ment achievability or analytical achievability. In these cases, the guideline value is
higher than the calculated health-based value.
The chemical aspects of drinking-water quality are considered in more detail in
chapter 8, with fact sheets on specific chemical contaminants provided in chapter 12.
1.1.4 Radiological aspects
The health risk associated with the presence of naturally occurring radionuclides in
drinking-water should also be taken into consideration, although the contribution of
drinking-water to total exposure to radionuclides is very small under normal
circumstances.
Formal guideline values are not set for individual radionuclides in drinking-water.
Rather, the approach used is based on screening drinking-water for gross alpha and
gross beta radiation activity. While finding levels of activity above screening values
does not indicate any immediate risk to health, it should trigger further investigation
into determining the radionuclides responsible and the possible risks, taking into
account local circumstances.
The guidance values recommended in this volume do not apply to drinking-water
supplies contaminated during emergencies arising from accidental releases of radioac-
tive substances to the environment.
Radiological aspects of drinking-water quality are considered in more detail in
chapter 9.
1.1.5 Acceptability aspects
Water should be free of tastes and odours that would be objectionable to the major-
ity of consumers.
In assessing the quality of drinking-water, consumers rely principally upon their
senses. Microbial, chemical and physical water constituents may affect the appearance,
odour or taste of the water, and the consumer will evaluate the quality and accept-
ability of the water on the basis of these criteria. Although these substances may have
no direct health effects, water that is highly turbid, is highly coloured or has an objec-
tionable taste or odour may be regarded by consumers as unsafe and may be rejected.
In extreme cases, consumers may avoid aesthetically unacceptable but otherwise safe
drinking-water in favour of more pleasant but potentially unsafe sources. It is there-
fore wise to be aware of consumer perceptions and to take into account both health-
related guidelines and aesthetic criteria when assessing drinking-water supplies and
developing regulations and standards.
Changes in the normal appearance, odour or taste of a drinking-water supply may
signal changes in the quality of the raw water source or deficiencies in the treatment
process and should be investigated.
Acceptability aspects of drinking-water quality are considered in more detail in
chapter 10.
40. GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
8
1.2 Roles and responsibilities in drinking-water
safety management
Preventive management is the preferred approach to drinking-water safety and should
take account of the characteristics of the drinking-water supply from catchment and
source to its use by consumers. As many aspects of drinking-water quality manage-
ment are often outside the direct responsibility of the water supplier, it is essential that
a collaborative multiagency approach be adopted to ensure that agencies with respon-
sibility for specific areas within the water cycle are involved in the management of
water quality. One example is where catchments and source waters are beyond the
drinking-water supplier’s jurisdiction.
Consultation with other authorities will
generally be necessary for other elements
of drinking-water quality management,
such as monitoring and reporting
requirements, emergency response plans
and communication strategies.
Major stakeholders that could affect or be affected by decisions or activities of the
drinking-water supplier should be encouraged to coordinate their planning and man-
agement activities where appropriate. These could include, for example, health and
resource management agencies, consumers, industry and plumbers. Appropriate
mechanisms and documentation should be established for stakeholder commitment
and involvement.
1.2.1 Surveillance and quality control
In order to protect public health, a dual-role approach, differentiating the roles and
responsibilities of service providers from those of an authority responsible for inde-
pendent oversight protective of public health (“drinking-water supply surveillance”),
has proven to be effective.
Organizational arrangements for the maintenance and improvement of drinking-
water supply services should take into account the vital and complementary roles of
the agency responsible for surveillance and of the water supplier. The two functions
of surveillance and quality control are best performed by separate and independent
entities because of the conflict of interest that arises when the two are combined. In
this:
—national agencies provide a framework of targets, standards and legislation to
enable and require suppliers to meet defined obligations;
—agencies involved in supplying water for consumption by any means should be
required to ensure and verify that the systems they administer are capable of
delivering safe water and that they routinely achieve this; and
—a surveillance agency is responsible for independent (external) surveillance
through periodic audit of all aspects of safety and/or verification testing.
A preventive integrated management
approach with collaboration from all rele-
vant agencies is the preferred approach to
ensuring drinking-water safety.
41. 1. INTRODUCTION
9
In practice, there may not always be a clear division of responsibilities between the
surveillance and drinking-water supply agencies. In some cases, the range of profes-
sional, governmental, nongovernmental and private institutions may be wider and
more complex than that discussed above. Whatever the existing framework, it is
important that clear strategies and struc-
tures be developed for implementing
WSPs, quality control and surveillance,
collating and summarizing data, report-
ing and disseminating the findings and
taking remedial action. Clear lines of
accountability and communication are
essential.
Surveillance is an investigative activity undertaken to identify and evaluate poten-
tial health risks associated with drinking-water. Surveillance contributes to the pro-
tection of public health by promoting improvement of the quality, quantity,
accessibility, coverage (i.e., populations with reliable access), affordability and conti-
nuity of drinking-water supplies (termed “service indicators”). The surveillance
authority must have the authority to determine whether a water supplier is fulfilling
its obligations.
In most countries, the agency responsible for the surveillance of drinking-water
supply services is the ministry of health (or public health) and its regional or depart-
mental offices. In some countries, it may be an environmental protection agency; in
others, the environmental health departments of local government may have some
responsibility.
Surveillance requires a systematic programme of surveys, which may include audit-
ing, analysis, sanitary inspection and/or institutional and community aspects. It
should cover the whole of the drinking-water system, including sources and activities
in the catchment, transmission infrastructure, treatment plants, storage reservoirs and
distribution systems (whether piped or unpiped).
Ensuring timely action to prevent problems and ensure the correction of faults
should be an aim of a surveillance programme. There may at times be a need for
penalties to encourage and ensure compliance. The surveillance agency must there-
fore be supported by strong and enforce-
able legislation. However, it is important
that the agency develops a positive and
supportive relationship with suppliers,
with the application of penalties used as
a last resort.
The surveillance agency should be empowered by law to compel water suppliers to
recommend the boiling of water or other measures when microbial contamination
that could threaten public health is detected.
Surveillance of drinking-water quality can
be defined as“the continuous and vigilant
public health assessment and review of
the safety and acceptability of drinking-
water supplies” (WHO, 1976).
Drinking-water suppliers are responsible
at all times for the quality and safety of the
water that they produce.
42. GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
10
1.2.2 Public health authorities
In order to effectively support the protection of public health, a national entity with
responsibility for public health will normally act in four areas:
• Surveillance of health status and trends, including outbreak detection and investi-
gation, generally directly but in some instances through a decentralized body.
• Directly establish drinking-water norms and standards. National public health
authorities often have the primary responsibility for setting norms on drinking-
water supply, which may include the setting of water quality targets (WQTs), per-
formance and safety targets and directly specified requirements (e.g., treatment).
Normative activity is not restricted to water quality but also includes, for example,
regulation and approval of materials and chemicals used in the production and dis-
tribution of drinking-water (see section 8.5.4) and establishing minimum stan-
dards in areas such as domestic plumbing (see section 1.2.10). Nor is it a static
activity, because as changes occur in drinking-water supply practice, in technolo-
gies and in materials available (e.g., in plumbing materials and treatment
processes), so health priorities and responses to them will also change.
• Representing health concerns in wider policy development, especially health policy
and integrated water resource management (see section 1.2.4). Health concerns will
often suggest a supportive role towards resource allocation to those concerned with
drinking-water supply extension and improvement; will often involve lobbying for
the primary requirement to satisfy drinking-water needs above other priorities; and
may imply involvement in conflict resolution.
• Direct action, generally through subsidiary bodies (e.g., regional and local envi-
ronmental health administrations) or by providing guidance to other local entities
(e.g., local government) in surveillance of drinking-water supplies. These roles vary
widely according to national and local structures and responsibilities and fre-
quently include a supportive role to community suppliers, where local authorities
often intervene directly.
Public health surveillance (i.e., surveillance of health status and trends) contributes
to verifying drinking-water safety. It takes into consideration disease in the entire pop-
ulation, which may be exposed to pathogenic microorganisms from a range of sources,
not only drinking-water. National public health authorities may also undertake or
direct research to evaluate the role of water as a risk factor in disease – for example,
through case–control, cohort or intervention studies. Public health surveillance teams
typically operate at national, regional and local levels, as well as in cities and rural
health centres. Routine public health surveillance includes:
—ongoing monitoring of reportable diseases, many of which can be caused by
waterborne pathogens;
—outbreak detection;
—long-term trend analysis;
43. 1. INTRODUCTION
11
—geographic and demographic analysis; and
—feedback to water authorities.
Public health surveillance can be enhanced in a variety of ways to identify possi-
ble waterborne outbreaks in response to suspicion about unusual disease incidence
or following deterioration of water quality. Epidemiological investigations include:
—outbreak investigations;
—intervention studies to evaluate intervention options; and
—case–control or cohort studies to evaluate the role of water as a risk factor in
disease.
However, public health surveillance cannot be relied upon to provide information
in a timely manner to enable short-term operational response to control waterborne
disease. Limitations include:
—outbreaks of non-reportable disease;
—time delay between exposure and illness;
—time delay between illness and reporting;
—low level of reporting; and
—difficulties in identifying causative pathogens and sources.
The public health authority operates reactively, as well as proactively, against the
background of overall public health policy and in interaction with all stakeholders. In
accounting for public health context, priority will normally be afforded to disadvan-
taged groups. This will generally entail balancing drinking-water safety management
and improvement with the need to ensure access to reliable supplies of safe drinking-
water in adequate quantities.
In order to develop an understanding of the national drinking-water situation, the
national public health authority should periodically produce reports outlining the
state of national water quality and highlighting public health concerns and priorities
in the context of overall public health priorities. This implies the need for effective
exchange of information between local, regional and national agencies.
National health authorities should lead or participate in formulation and imple-
mentation of policy to ensure access to some form of reliable, safe drinking-water
supply. Where this has not been achieved, appropriate tools and education should be
made available to implement individual or household-level treatment and safe storage.
1.2.3 Local authorities
Local environmental health authorities often play an important role in managing
water resources and drinking-water supplies. This may include catchment inspection
and authorization of activities in the catchment that may impact on source water
quality. It can also include verifying and auditing (surveillance) of the management
of formal drinking-water systems. Local environmental health authorities will also
give specific guidance to communities or individuals in designing and implementing
44. GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
12
community and household drinking-water systems and correcting deficiencies, and
they may also be responsible for surveillance of community and household drinking-
water supplies. They have an important role to play in educating consumers where
household water treatment is necessary.
Management of household and small community drinking-water supplies gener-
ally requires education programmes about drinking-water supply and water quality.
Such programmes should normally include:
—water hygiene awareness raising;
—basic technical training and technology transfer in drinking-water supply and
management;
—consideration of and approaches to overcoming sociocultural barriers to accept-
ance of water quality interventions;
—motivation, mobilization and social marketing activities; and
—a system of continued support, follow-up and dissemination of the water quality
programme to achieve and maintain sustainability.
These programmes can be administered at the community level by local health
authorities or other entities, such as nongovernmental organizations and the private
sector. If the programme arises from other entities, the involvement of the local health
authority in the development and implementation of the water quality education and
training programme is strongly encouraged.
Approaches to participatory hygiene and sanitation education and training pro-
grammes are described in other WHO documents (see Simpson-Hébert et al., 1996;
Sawyer et al., 1998; Brikké, 2000).
1.2.4 Water resource management
Water resource management is an integral aspect of the preventive management of
drinking-water quality. Prevention of microbial and chemical contamination of
source water is the first barrier against drinking-water contamination of public health
concern.
Water resource management and potentially polluting human activity in the catch-
ment will influence water quality downstream and in aquifers. This will impact on
treatment steps required to ensure safe water, and preventive action may be prefer-
able to upgrading treatment.
The influence of land use on water quality should be assessed as part of water
resource management. This assessment is not normally undertaken by health author-
ities or drinking-water supply agencies alone and should take into consideration:
—land cover modification;
—extraction activities;
—construction/modification of waterways;
—application of fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides and other chemicals;
—livestock density and application of manure;
45. 1. INTRODUCTION
13
—road construction, maintenance and use;
—various forms of recreation;
—urban or rural residential development, with particular attention to excreta dis-
posal, sanitation, landfill and waste disposal; and
—other potentially polluting human activities, such as industry, military sites,
etc.
Water resource management may be the responsibility of catchment management
agencies and/or other entities controlling or affecting water resources, such as indus-
trial, agricultural, navigation and flood control entities.
The extent to which the responsibilities of health or drinking-water supply agen-
cies include water resource management varies greatly between countries and com-
munities. Regardless of government structures and sector responsibilities, it is
important that health authorities liaise and collaborate with sectors managing the
water resource and regulating land use in the catchment.
Establishing close collaboration between the public health authority, water supplier
and resource management agency assists recognition of the health hazards potentially
occurring in the system. It is also important for ensuring that the protection of drink-
ing-water resources is considered in decisions for land use or regulations to control
contamination of water resources. Depending on the setting, this may include involve-
ment of further sectors, such as agriculture, traffic, tourism or urban development.
To ensure the adequate protection of drinking-water sources, national authorities
will normally interact with other sectors in formulating national policy for integrated
water resource management. Regional and local structures for implementing the
policy will be set up, and national authorities will guide regional and local authori-
ties by providing tools.
Regional environmental or public health authorities have an important task in par-
ticipating in the preparation of integrated water resource management plans to ensure
the best available drinking-water source quality. For further information, see the sup-
porting documents Protecting Surface Waters for Health and Protecting Groundwaters
for Health (section 1.3).
1.2.5 Drinking-water supply agencies
Drinking-water supplies vary from very large urban systems servicing populations
with tens of millions to small community systems providing water to very small pop-
ulations. In most countries, they include community sources as well as piped means
of supply.
Drinking-water supply agencies are responsible for quality assurance and quality
control (see section 1.2.1). Their key responsibilities are to prepare and implement
WSPs (for more information, see chapter 4).
In many cases, the water supplier is not responsible for the management of the
catchment feeding sources of its supplies. The roles of the water supplier with respect
46. GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
14
to catchments are to participate in interagency water resource management activities;
to understand the risks arising from potentially contaminating activities and inci-
dents; and to use this information in assessing risks to the drinking-water supply and
developing and applying appropriate management. Although drinking-water suppli-
ers may not undertake catchment surveys and pollution risk assessment alone, their
roles include recognizing the need for them and initiating multiagency collaboration
– for example, with health and environmental authorities.
Experience has shown that an association of stakeholders in drinking-water supply
(e.g., operators, managers and specialist groups such as small suppliers, scientists, soci-
ologists, legislators, politicians, etc.) can provide a valuable non-threatening forum
for interchange of ideas.
For further information, see the supporting document Water Safety Plans (section
1.3).
1.2.6 Community management
Community-managed drinking-water systems, with both piped and non-piped dis-
tribution, are common worldwide in both developed and developing countries. The
precise definition of a community drinking-water system will vary. While a definition
based on population size or the type of supply may be appropriate under many con-
ditions, approaches to administration and management provide a distinction between
the drinking-water systems of small communities and those of larger towns and cities.
This includes the increased reliance on often untrained and sometimes unpaid com-
munity members in the administration and operation of community drinking-water
systems. Drinking-water systems in periurban areas in developing countries – the
communities surrounding major towns and cities – may also have the characteristics
of community systems.
Effective and sustainable programmes for the management of community drink-
ing-water quality require the active support and involvement of local communities.
These communities should be involved at all stages of such programmes, including
initial surveys; decisions on siting of wells, siting of off-takes or establishing protec-
tion zones; monitoring and surveillance of drinking-water supplies; reporting faults,
carrying out maintenance and taking remedial action; and supportive actions, includ-
ing sanitation and hygiene practices.
A community may already be highly organized and taking action on health or drink-
ing-water supply issues. Alternatively, it may lack a well developed drinking-water
system; some sectors of the community, such as women, may be poorly represented;
and there may be disagreements or factional conflicts. In this situation, achieving com-
munity participation will take more time and effort to bring people together, resolve
differences, agree on common aims and take action. Visits, possibly over several years,
will often be needed to provide support and encouragement and to ensure that the
structures created for safe drinking-water supply continue to operate.This may involve
setting up hygiene and health educational programmes to ensure that the community:
47. 1. INTRODUCTION
15
—is aware of the importance of drinking-water quality and its relation to health
and of the need for safe drinking-water in sufficient quantities for domestic use
for drinking, cooking and hygiene;
—recognizes the importance of surveillance and the need for a community
response;
—understands and is prepared to play its role in the surveillance process;
—has the necessary skills to perform that role; and
—is aware of requirements for the protection of drinking-water supplies from
pollution.
For further information, see WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, second
edition, Volume 3; the supporting document Water Safety Plans (section 1.3);
Simpson-Hébert et al. (1996); Sawyer et al. (1998); and Brikké (2000).
1.2.7 Water vendors
Vendors selling water to households or at collection points are common in many parts
of the world where scarcity of water or faults in or lack of infrastructure limits access
to suitable quantities of drinking-water. Water vendors use a range of modes of trans-
port to carry drinking-water for sale directly to the consumer, including tanker trucks
and wheelbarrows/trolleys. In the context of these Guidelines, water vending does not
include bottled or packaged water (which is considered in section 6.5) or water sold
through vending machines.
There are a number of health concerns associated with water supplied to consumers
by water vendors. These include access to adequate volumes and concern regarding
inadequate treatment or transport in inappropriate containers, which can result in
contamination.
More detailed information on treatment of vended water, undertaking a risk assess-
ment of vended water supplies, operational monitoring of control measures, man-
agement plans and independent surveillance is included in section 6.10.
1.2.8 Individual consumers
Everyone consumes water from one source or another, and consumers often play
important roles in the collection, treatment and storage of water. Consumer actions
may help to ensure the safety of the water they consume and may also contribute to
48. GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
16
improvement or contamination of the water consumed by others. Consumers have
the responsibility for ensuring that their actions do not impact adversely on water
quality. Installation and maintenance of household plumbing systems should be
undertaken preferably by qualified and authorized plumbers (see section 1.2.10) or
other persons with appropriate expertise to ensure that cross-connection or backflow
events do not result in contamination of local water supplies.
In most countries, there are populations whose water is derived from household
sources, such as private wells and rainwater. In households using non-piped water
supplies, appropriate efforts are needed to ensure safe collection, storage and perhaps
treatment of their drinking-water. In some circumstances, households and individ-
uals may wish to treat water in the home to increase their confidence in its safety, not
only where community supplies are absent, but also where community supplies are
known to be contaminated or causing waterborne disease (see chapter 7). Public
health, surveillance and/or other local authorities may provide guidance to support
households and individual consumers in ensuring the safety of their drinking-water
(see section 6.3). Such guidance is best provided in the context of a community
education and training programme.
1.2.9 Certification agencies
Certification is used to verify that devices and materials used in the drinking-water
supply meet a given level of quality and safety. Certification is a process in which an
independent organization validates the claims of the manufacturers against a formal
standard or criterion or provides an independent assessment of possible risks of con-
tamination from a material or process. The certification agency may be responsible
for seeking data from manufacturers, generating test results, conducting inspections
and audits and possibly making recommendations on product performance.
Certification has been applied to technologies used at household and community
levels, such as hand pumps; materials used by water supplies, such as treatment chem-
icals; and devices used in the household for collection, treatment and storage.
Certification of products or processes involved in the collection, treatment, storage
and distribution of water can be overseen by government agencies or private
organizations. Certification procedures will depend on the standards against
which the products are certified, certification criteria and the party that performs the
certification.
National, local government or private (third-party auditing) certification pro-
grammes have a number of possible objectives:
—certification of products to ensure that their use does not threaten the safety of
the user or the general public, such as by causing contamination of drinking-
water with toxic substances, substances that could affect consumer acceptability
or substances that support the growth of microorganisms;
—product testing, to avoid retesting at local levels or prior to each procurement;
49. 1. INTRODUCTION
17
—ensuring uniform quality and condition of products;
—certification and accreditation of analytical and other testing laboratories;
and
—control of materials and chemicals used for the treatment of drinking-water,
including the performance of devices for household use.
An important step in any certification procedure is the establishment of standards,
which must form the basis of assessment of the products. These standards should also
– as far as possible – contain the criteria for approval. In procedures for certification
on technical aspects, these standards are generally developed in cooperation with the
manufacturers, the certifying agency and the consumers. The national public health
authorities should have responsibility for developing the parts of the approval process
or criteria relating directly to public health. For further information, see section 8.5.4.
1.2.10 Plumbing
Significant adverse health effects have been associated with inadequate plumbing
systems within public and private buildings arising from poor design, incorrect instal-
lation, alterations and inadequate maintenance.
Numerous factors influence the quality of water within a building’s piped distri-
bution system and may result in microbial or chemical contamination of drinking-
water. Outbreaks of gastrointestinal disease can occur through faecal contamination
of drinking-water within buildings arising from deficiencies in roof storage tanks and
cross-connections with wastewater pipes, for example. Poorly designed plumbing
systems can cause stagnation of water and provide a suitable environment for the pro-
liferation of Legionella. Plumbing materials, pipes, fittings and coatings can result in
elevated heavy metal (e.g., lead) concentrations in drinking-water, and inappropriate
materials can be conducive to bacterial growth. Potential adverse health effects may
not be confined to the individual building. Exposure of other consumers to contam-
inants is possible through contamination of the local public distribution system,
beyond the particular building, through cross-contamination of drinking-water and
backflow.
The delivery of water that complies with relevant standards within buildings gen-
erally relies on a plumbing system that is not directly managed by the water supplier.
Reliance is therefore placed on proper installation and servicing of plumbing and, for
larger buildings, on building-specific WSPs (see section 6.1).
To ensure the safety of drinking-water supplies within the building system, plumb-
ing practices must prevent the introduction of hazards to health. This can be achieved
by ensuring that:
—pipes carrying either water or wastes are watertight, durable, of smooth and
unobstructed interior and protected against anticipated stresses;
—cross-connections between the drinking-water supply and the wastewater
removal systems do not occur;
50. GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
18
—water storage systems are intact and not subject to intrusion of microbial and
chemical contaminants;
—hot and cold water systems are designed to minimize the proliferation of
Legionella (see also sections 6.1 and 11.1.9);
—appropriate protection is in place to prevent backflow;
—the system design of multistorey buildings minimizes pressure fluctuations;
—waste is discharged without contaminating drinking-water; and
—plumbing systems function efficiently.
It is important that plumbers are appropriately qualified, have the competence
to undertake necessary installation and servicing of plumbing systems to ensure
compliance with local regulations and use only materials approved as safe for use with
drinking-water.
Design of the plumbing systems of new buildings should normally be approved
prior to construction and be inspected by an appropriate regulatory body during con-
struction and prior to commissioning of the buildings.
For more information on the essential roles of proper drinking-water system and
waste system plumbing in public health, see the supporting document Health Aspects
of Plumbing (section 1.3).
1.3 Supporting documentation to the Guidelines
These Guidelines are accompanied by separate texts that provide background infor-
mation substantiating the derivation of the guidelines and providing guidance on
good practice towards effective implementation. These are available as published texts
and electronically through the Internet (http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_
health/dwq/en/) and CD-ROM. Reference details are provided in Annex 1.
Assessing Microbial Safety of Drinking Water: Improving Approaches and Methods
This book provides a state-of-the-art review of approaches and methods used in
assessing the microbial safety of drinking-water. It offers guidance on the selection
and use of indicators alongside operational monitoring to meet specific informa-
tion needs and looks at potential applications of “new” technologies and emerging
methods.
Calcium and Magnesium in Drinking-water: Public Health Significance
Many fresh waters are naturally low in minerals, and water softening and desali-
nation technologies remove minerals from water. This monograph reviews the pos-
sible contribution of drinking-water to total daily intake of calcium and
magnesium and examines the case that drinking-water could provide important
health benefits, including reducing cardiovascular disease mortality (magnesium)
and reducing osteoporosis (calcium), at least for many people whose dietary intake
is deficient in either of those nutrients.
51. GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
18a
Chemical Safety of Drinking-water: Assessing Priorities for Risk Management
This document provides tools that assist users to undertake a systematic assessment
of their water supply system(s) locally, regionally or nationally; to prioritize the
chemicals likely to be of greatest significance; to consider how these might
be controlled or eliminated; and to review or develop standards that are
appropriate.
Domestic Water Quantity, Service Level and Health
This paper reviews the requirements for water for health-related purposes to deter-
mine acceptable minimum needs for consumption (hydration and food prepara-
tion) and basic hygiene.
52. 1. INTRODUCTION
19
Evaluation of the H2S Method for Detection of Fecal Contamination of Drinking Water
This report critically reviews the scientific basis, validity, available data and other
information concerning the use of “H2S tests” as measures or indicators of faecal
contamination in drinking-water.
Hazard Characterization for Pathogens in Food and Water: Guidelines
This document provides a practical framework and structured approach for the
characterization of microbial hazards, to assist governmental and research
scientists.
Health Aspects of Plumbing
This publication describes the processes involved in the design, installation and
maintenance of effective plumbing systems and recommends effective design and
installation specifications as well as a model plumbing code of practice. It also
examines microbial, chemical, physical and financial concerns associated with
plumbing and outlines major risk management strategies that have been employed,
as well as the importance of measures to conserve supplies of safe drinking-water.
Heterotrophic Plate Counts and Drinking-water Safety: The Significance of HPCs for
Water Quality and Human Health
This document provides a critical assessment of the role of the HPC measurement
in drinking-water safety management.
Legionella and the Prevention of Legionellosis
This book provides a comprehensive overview on the sources, ecology and labora-
tory detection of Legionella bacteria. Guidance is provided on risk assessment and
risk management of susceptible environments. The necessary measures to prevent
or adequately control the risk from exposure to Legionella are identified for each
natural and artificial aquatic environment where they are found. The policies and
practices for outbreak management and the institutional roles and responsibilities
of an outbreak control team are reviewed. This book will be useful to all those con-
cerned with Legionella and health, including environmental and public health offi-
cers, health care workers, the travel industry, researchers and special interest groups.
Managing Water in the Home: Accelerated Health Gains from Improved Water Supply
This report describes and critically reviews the various methods and systems for
household water collection, treatment and storage. It assesses the ability of house-
hold water treatment and storage methods to provide water with improved micro-
bial quality.
53. 1. INTRODUCTION
19a
Pathogenic Mycobacteria in Water: A Guide to Public Health Consequences, Monitoring
and Management
This book describes the current knowledge about the distribution of pathogenic
environmental mycobacteria (PEM) in water and other parts of the environment.
Included are discussions of the routes of transmission that lead to human infec-
tion, the most significant disease symptoms that can follow infection and the clas-
sical and modern methods of analysis of PEM species. The book concludes with a
discussion of the issues surrounding the control of PEM in drinking-water and the
assessment and management of risks.
Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality of Drinking-water Sources
This monograph describes a structured approach to analysing hazards to ground-
water quality, assessing the risk they may cause for a specific supply, setting prior-
ities in addressing these hazards and developing management strategies for their
control. The book presents tools for developing strategies to protect groundwater
for health by managing the quality of drinking-water sources. For health profes-
sionals, it provides access to necessary environmental information; for profession-
als from other sectors, it gives a point of entry for understanding health aspects of
groundwater management.
Quantifying Public Health Risk in the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality:
A Burden of Disease Approach
This report provides a discussion paper on the concepts and methodology of
Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) as a common public health metric and its
usefulness for drinking-water quality and illustrates the approach for several
drinking-water contaminants already examined using the burden of disease
approach.
Safe Piped Water: Managing Microbial Water Quality in Piped Distribution Systems
The development of pressurized pipe networks for supplying drinking-water to
individual dwellings, buildings and communal taps is an important component in
54. GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
20
the continuing development and health of many communities. This publication
considers the introduction of microbial contaminants and growth of microorgan-
isms in distribution networks and the practices that contribute to ensuring drink-
ing-water safety in piped distribution systems.
Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water: A Guide to their Public Health Consequences, Monitor-
ing and Management
This book describes the state of knowledge regarding the impact of cyanobacteria
on health through the use of water. It considers aspects of risk management and
details the information needed for protecting drinking-water sources and recre-
ational water bodies from the health hazards caused by cyanobacteria and their
toxins. It also outlines the state of knowledge regarding the principal considera-
tions in the design of programmes and studies for monitoring water resources and
supplies and describes the approaches and procedures used.
Upgrading Water Treatment Plants
This book provides a practical guide to improving the performance of water treat-
ment plants. It will be an invaluable source of information for those who are
responsible for designing, operating, maintaining or upgrading water treatment
plants.
Water Safety Plans
The improvement of water quality control strategies, in conjunction with improve-
ments in excreta disposal and personal hygiene, can be expected to deliver sub-
stantial health gains in the population. This document provides information on
improved strategies for the control and monitoring of drinking-water quality.
Water Treatment and Pathogen Control: Process Efficiency in Achieving Safe
Drinking-water
This publication provides a critical analysis of the literature on removal and inac-
tivation of pathogenic microbes in water to aid the water quality specialist and
design engineer in making decisions regarding microbial water quality.
Texts in preparation or in revision:
Arsenic in Drinking-water: Assessing and Managing Health Risks (in preparation)
Desalination for Safe Drinking-water Supply (in preparation)
Guide to Hygiene and Sanitation in Aviation (in revision)
Guide to Ship Sanitation (in revision)
Guidelines for the Microbiological Performance Evaluation of Point-of-Use Drinking-
water Technologies (in preparation)
55. 1. INTRODUCTION
21
Protecting Surface Waters for Health – Managing the Quality of Drinking-water Sources
(in preparation)
Rapid Assessment of Drinking-water Quality: A Handbook for Implementation (in
preparation)
56. 22
The quality of drinking-water may be controlled through a combination of pro-
tection of water sources, control of treatment processes and management of the
distribution and handling of the water. Guidelines must be appropriate for national,
regional and local circumstances, which requires adaptation to environmental, social,
economic and cultural circumstances and priority setting.
2.1 Framework for safe drinking-water: requirements
The Guidelines outline a preventive management “framework for safe drinking-
water” that comprises five key components:
—health-based targets based on an evaluation of health concerns (chapter 3);
—system assessment to determine whether the drinking-water supply (from
source through treatment to the point of consumption) as a whole can deliver
water that meets the health-based targets (section 4.1);
—operational monitoring of the control measures in the drinking-water supply
that are of particular importance in securing drinking-water safety (section 4.2);
—management plans documenting the system assessment and monitoring plans
and describing actions to be taken in normal operation and incident conditions,
including upgrade and improvement, documentation and communication (sec-
tions 4.4–4.6); and
—a system of independent surveillance that verifies that the above are operating
properly (chapter 5).
In support of the framework for safe drinking-water, the Guidelines provide a range
of supporting information, including microbial aspects (chapters 7 and 11), chemi-
cal aspects (chapters 8 and 12), radiological aspects (chapter 9) and acceptability
aspects (chapter 10). Figure 2.1 provides an overview of the interrelationship of the
individual chapters of the Guidelines in ensuring drinking-water safety.
There is a wide range of microbial and chemical constituents of drinking-water
that can cause adverse human health effects. The detection of these constituents in
both raw water and water delivered to consumers is often slow, complex and costly,
2
The Guidelines: a framework
for safe drinking-water
57. 2.THE GUIDELINES: A FRAMEWORK FOR SAFE DRINKING-WATER
23
which limits early warning capability and affordability. Reliance on water quality
determination alone is insufficient to protect public health. As it is neither physically
nor economically feasible to test for all drinking-water quality parameters, the use of
monitoring effort and resources should be carefully planned and directed at signifi-
cant or key characteristics.
Some characteristics not related to health, such as those with significant impacts
on acceptability of water, may also be of importance. Where water has unacceptable
aesthetic characteristics (e.g., appearance, taste and odour), further investigation may
be required to determine whether there are problems with significance for health.
The control of the microbial and chemical quality of drinking-water requires the
development of management plans, which, when implemented, provide the basis for
system protection and process control to ensure that numbers of pathogens and con-
centrations of chemicals present a negligible risk to public health and that water is
acceptable to consumers. The management plans developed by water suppliers are
Water safety plans
(Chapter 4)
Introduction
(Chapter 1)
The guideline requirements
(Chapter 2)
SUPPORTING
INFORMATION
Microbial
aspects
(Chapters 7 and 11)
Chemical
aspects
(Chapters 8 and 12)
Radiological
aspects
(Chapter 9)
Acceptability
aspects
(Chapter 10)
FRAMEWORK FOR SAFE DRINKING-WATER
Health-based targets
(Chapter 3)
MonitoringSystem
assessment
Management and
communication
Surveillance
(Chapter 5)
Public health context
and health outcome
Application of the Guidelines
in specific circumstances
(Chapter 6)
Large buildings
Emergencies and disasters
Travellers
Desalination systems
Packaged drinking-water
Food production
Planes and ships
Figure 2.1 Interrelationship of the chapters of the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality in
ensuring drinking-water safety