The document discusses vaccines that are being developed for COVID-19, including different types of vaccines like mRNA vaccines. It provides background on coronaviruses and their structure. The objective is to outline vaccination strategies to reduce pressure on healthcare systems, reopen society, and work towards disease elimination through vaccinating high-risk groups and those with many social contacts.

1. VACCINES FOR COVID-19
Project work submitted for partial fulfilment of the degree in
B. Sc. (ZOOLOGY HONOURS)
BY
ANANYA PUHAN
REGD No.- UG-7104/2020
EXAM ROLL NO.- 59R0020003
CLASS ROLL NO.- BS-20-068
RAMA DEVI WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY
VIDYA VIHAR BHUBANESWAR, ODISHA

2. CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project work entitled “Vaccines for corona virus”
submitted to Rama Devi Women’s University, Bhubaneswar in partial fulfilment
for the award of degree of Bachelor of science in Zoology, is a record bonified
project work successfully carried by Miss Ananya Puhan (Exam roll no.
59R0020003) under my supervision at Rama Devi Women’s University,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha. No part of this project work has been submitted to any
other university for the award of any other degree or diploma. The assistance and
help received during this investigation have been duly acknowledged.
Dr. Prakash Chandra Parichha
(HOD, Department of Zoology)
Rama Devi Women’s University
Vidya Vihar, Bhubaneswar,22, Odisha.

3. CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project work entitled “Vaccines for corona virus”
submitted to Rama Devi Women’s University, Bhubaneswar in partial fulfilment
for the award of degree of Bachelor of science in Zoology, is a record bonified
project work successfully carried by Miss Ananya Puhan (Exam roll no.
59R0020003) under my supervision at Rama Devi Women’s University,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha. No part of this project work has been submitted to any
other university for the award of any other degree or diploma. The assistance and
help received during this investigation have been duly acknowledged.
Ms. Sushree Barnamita
(Department of Zoology)
Rama Devi Women’s University
Vidya Vihar, Bhubaneswar,22, Odisha

4. DECLARATION
I do hereby declare that the report entitled “VACCINES FOR COVID-19”
Department of Zoology,BBSR,Odisha in partial fulfilment of requirements for
the award of B.Sc. Degree in zoology is an authentic work carried out by me
during 2023.The work reported in this project has not been submitted to this
university or any other university or institute for the award of B.Sc.Degree.
NAME : ANANYA PUHAN
UNIVERSITY ROLL NO.- BS20-068
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
RAMA DEVI WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY
BHUBANESWAR
Student’s signature Teacher’s signature

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This report through it goes in my name owes its obligation both expresses and
implied to name others those valuable contribution and guidance has shown me
the path of light.
With great sincerity, I acknowledge my deep sense of gratitude for their
encouragement and valuable suggestion for preparing this report. My sincere and
whole hearted thank to the teachers of zoology department for their constant
aspiration and advice for preparing this report. Without their help , this could not
have been possible.
I am also thankful to my classmates as we had worked cooperatively and my
friends too who helped me directly or indirectly for the success of this entire
dissertation work.
Last but not the least I would like to thank my parents and family for their
financial and moral support without which I would not have reached to this end.
NAME : ANANYA PUHAN DATE:
UNIVERSITY ROLL NO.- BS20-068
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
RAMA DEVI WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY,
BHUBANESWAR

6. CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Review of literature
3. Objective
4. Different types of vaccines developed worldwide
5. India’s contribution towards the pandemic
6. Comparison between vaccines
7. Measures to be taken against Covid 19
8. Conclusion
9. Bibliography

7. INTRODUCTION
The Coronavirus has infected millions of people so far all over the world. In addition to that,
millions of people have lost their lives to it. Ever since the outbreak, researchers all over the world
have been working constantly to develop vaccines that will work effectively against the virus. We
will take a look at the Coronavirus vaccine that is present today. Vaccines have the ability to save
people’s lives. Developing the vaccine for Coronavirus was a huge step to end the pandemic. As
of December 2020, there are over 200 vaccine candidates for COVID-19 being developed. Of
these, at least 52 candidate vaccines are in human trials.
As per the traditional methods, vaccines have managed to do this as they introduce a weakened
form of an infectious agent. It enables our immune system to basically build its memory.
As a result, our immune system can then identify it quickly and fight against it before it gets the
chance to harm us or make us ill. Similarly, some of the coronavirus vaccines have been made
like that.
On the other hand, there are other coronavirus vaccines that researchers have developed bymaking
use of new approaches. We refer to them as messenger RNA or mRNA vaccines.
While the vaccines are being developed at a fast pace, they also require rigorous testing. The tests
are done in clinical trials to ensure that they meet the benchmarks for the safety and efficiency of
international standards.

8. CORONA VIRUS
Coronavirus, any virus belonging to the family Coronaviridae. Coronaviridae is generally
considered to contain two genera, Coronavirus and Torovirus, which differ in
nucleocapsid morphology, the former being helical and the latter being tubular. In humans, a
species known as SARS coronavirus (or Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus) or
SARS-CoV-2 causes a highly contagious respiratory disease that is characterized by symptoms
of fever, cough, and muscle ache, often with progressive difficulty in breathing. The
coronavirus genome consists of a single strand of positive-sense RNA (ribonucleic acid).
Structure
1.RNA – A single stranded genetic blueprint. RNA acts as a molecular messenger enabling
production of other elements of the virus. It is about 30 Kilobase long strand.
2.Nucleoproteins –Bound to RNA, these proteins help give the virus its structure and enable it
to replicate
3.Viral envelope- A waxy barrier containing fat molecules. It protects the virus outside of a
host cell and anchors structure needed to infect a cell.
4.Envelope proteins- Embedded in viral envelope, these proteins aid in the assembly of new
particles once it has affected a cell

9. 5.Spike proteins- These projections give the virus its crown like appearance and the “corona”
moniker. They act as grappling hooks, allowing the virus to latch onto host cells and crack
them open for infection.
Preliminary drugs
Expected against corona virus were drugs used against HIV targeting protease enzyme of HIV.
This is because corona virus express a number of proteases in their replication cycles. So it was
thought to be treated with HIV protease inhibitors.
Another drug used was of nucleoside analog that is used against most RNA virus. In this
method small bases gets incorporated into growing strands of new RNA that’s being
synthesised by the virus. Either it terminates the chain or make mistake. But this was not
effective against corona virus as it does its own proof reading activity.

10. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
“The global COVID-19 vaccination rollout is the biggest and fastest in history but many of
those at greatest risk remain unprotected – only 28% of older people and 37% of health care
workers in low-income countries have received their primary course of vaccines and most have
not received booster doses.Health care workers, over 60s and other at-risk groups must be
reached as priorities on the way to reaching the 70% coverage target.
WHO’s strategy update elevates the targets of vaccinating 100% of health care workers and
100% of the highest risk populations with both primary and booster doses, with the aim of
reducing deaths, keeping societies open and ensuring economies function as transmission
continues.While vaccines have saved countless lives, they have not substantially reduced the
spread of COVID-19. Innovation is needed to develop new vaccines that substantially reduce
transmission, are easier to administer and give broader and longer-lasting protection.” WHO
“This outbreak reminds us of how valuable vaccines are. It shows us that when there is a
vaccine available for a disease, we should keep our children and ourselves up to date with that
vaccination. Without the protection of vaccines, diseases can spread quickly and with terrible
consequences. For example, measles and other diseases remain a constant risk. We are so
fortunate to have the protection of vaccines against these diseases. Vaccines help train our
immune system to fight infections by introducing an inactivated form of a germ (bacteria or
virus) into the body.”. Unicef
“We already have a number of partnerships in India, and we are eager to deepen them, both
government and private -- be it ICMR, DBT or Serum Institute, and other partners. We are
excited about the opportunities that India has through G20 to play an important leadership
role”. CEPI chief and report by Hidustan Times

11. OBJECTIVE
The vaccination strategy required to efficiently achieve each goal is then described in detail.
• Reduction of pressure on the healthcare system; • Reduction of overall COVID-19 severity
and mortality; • Re-opening of society; • Disease elimination
1.Reduction of pressure on the healthcare system - Surveillance data shows that up to 90%
of deaths and 80% of hospitalisations have occurred in older adults and persons with underlying
conditions.
2.Re-opening of society -Once vaccine supplies are readily available, the goal of re-opening
society by lifting non-pharmaceutical interventions will become realistic. The vaccination
strategies employed to achieve this goal will need to facilitate a substantial reduction, not only
in COVID-19 hospitalisations and mortality, but also in the overall morbidity caused by
COVID-19.
3.Disease elimination- In a COVID-19 vaccination elimination strategy, the main focus would
shift from protection of the most vulnerable groups to the targeting of the groups that have the
highest level of contact with others, including young people and children. The strategy is
dependent on the vaccines offering a high level of efficacy against onward transmission.

12. DIFFERENT TYPES OF VACCINES DEVELOPED
AstraZeneca
The AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine, now called Vaxzevria , is a viral vector vaccine, just like
the Johnson & Johnson vaccine. It uses a chimpanzee adenovirus to carry spike proteins from
the coronavirus into your body to create an immune response.
How does it work?
The AstraZeneca vaccine uses a common cold-causing chimpanzee adenovirus, or a vector, to
transport some of the spike protein in DNA to your cells. Your cells then take that DNA and
convert it into the spike protein of the virus. This is what the virus uses to enter cells and cause
an infection. Your cells set up an immune response. Instead of making the virus, they create its
outer shell. This is because actual coronaviruses are made up of single-strand RNA, not the
DNA in the vaccine. So you do not actually get an infection with the disease .The vaccine is
given in two doses Trusted Source, with a suggested gap of 8 to 12 weeks between doses.
Fig- 2. Mechanism of AstraZeneca vaccine

13. How is it different from other vaccines?
While Moderna and Pfizer are based on mRNA, the AstraZeneca vaccine is a viral vector
vaccine. This means it uses a different mechanism to create an immune response. The second
dose is also given at a longer interval, instead of the 3- to 4-week suggested interval with the
others.
Efficacy
A pooled analysis of four large studies found that in groups that received two standard doses
of the AstraZeneca vaccine, the overall efficacy was 70.4%.
Benefits of the AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine-
1.It’s easy to produce quickly and in large volumes.
2.It’s fairly inexpensive.
3.It can be kept in a regular refrigerator.
Disadvantages of the AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine
1.It’s not available everywhere yet.
2.It may have an overall lower efficacy rate.
3.Individuals at higher risk of blood clots may not be able to take it.
4. Many patients suffered from blood clotting for which vaccination was paused in united
states and several other countries.

14. Fig-3.- astraZeneca
Fig-4.

15. Sputnik V
Sputnik V, officially known as Gam-COVID-Vac, is an adenovirus-based vaccine created by
the Gamaleya National Centre of Epidemiology and Microbiology.
Sputnik V uses a modified version of two different adenoviruses to create immunity against
SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. Adenoviruses cause respiratory, flu-like
illnesses, and there are over 60 types.
Similar to other vaccines such as Pfizer, Sputnik V is administered in two doses, given 21 days
apart. According to results from 2021 clinical trials, Sputnik V is up to 91.8 percent Trusted
Source effective in preventing COVID-19.
How does it work?
When the SARS-CoV-2 virus enters the body, it attaches to human cells using proteins called
spike proteins on its outer surface. After binding to the cell via these spike proteins, the virus
can then change its structure and enter the cell. Once SARS-CoV-2 is inside the cell, it begins
to reproduce.
Sputnik V is a vaccine that contains two different adenovirus vectors, known as rAd26 and
rAd5, which have been modified to contain the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein .When the vaccine
enters the body, the adenovirus vectors within the vaccine enter the cells and recreate the spike
protein found on the SARS-CoV-2 virus. As soon as the cell recognizes this foreign spike
protein, the immune system kicks in and begins to make antibodies against the virus.
After vaccination, the body will have built a natural immunity to SARS-CoV-2 without ever
having encountered the virus. In turn, this helps the cells more easily recognize and protect
against future infection from the real virus.

16. Fig 5. Mechanism of Sputnik V
How is it different from other vaccines?

17. Sputnik V is a combined vector vaccine Trusted Source, which means it uses inactivated
viruses called vectors. These vectors recreate the necessary SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins to
produce an immune system response.
Unlike other types of vaccines Trusted Source, such as those that use inactivated viruses,
Sputnik V does not contain any form of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Instead, it relies on DNA from
another modified virus to give the cells enough information to produce natural immunity via
antibodies and other immune cells.
Efficacy
Most efficient in india , Sputnik V has an efficacy of about 91.8%
Pros of the Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine
1.Sputnik V clinical trials have shown that the tolerability of the vaccine matches other vector
vaccines that have been produced.
2.Sputnik V can be produced in a freeze-dried formulation, which means that the vaccine can
be transported without requiring constant refrigeration.
3.While there are some concerns about antibody levels after full vaccination, the efficacy is
similar to other COVID-19 vector vaccines on the market.
Cons of the Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine
1.Some scientists are concerned that the variability of antibody and T-cell levels in trials may
make it difficult to figure out how effective Sputnik V actually is.
2.Some researchers are concerned that previous immune system response to the adenoviruses
within the vaccine may affect vaccine efficacy.
3.There have also been some concerns about the transparency within clinical trials and the
standards of quality surrounding Sputnik V.

18. Fig 6.-Sputnik V vaccine

19. Pfizer- BioNTech
The Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, is an mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccine developed
by the German biotechnology company BioNTech. The vaccine is given by intramuscular
injection. It is composed of nucleoside-modified mRNA (modRNA) encoding a mutated form
of the full-length spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, which is encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles.
The Pfizer vaccine requires two doses and works by providing your body with instructions on
how to make the spike protein unique to this coronavirus. Your immune system processes this
information and then builds an immune response, including antibodies.
Efficacy
The vaccine has shown to have a high efficacy rate after a single dose, up to 95%
How does it work?
Fig-6. Mechanism of Pfizer-BioNTech
The vaccine uses messenger RNA, genetic material that our cells read to make proteins. The
molecule called mRNA for short is fragile and would be chopped to pieces by our natural
enzymes if it were injected directly into the body. To protect their vaccine, Pfizer and
BioNTech wrap the mRNA in oily bubbles made of lipid nanoparticles.

20. After injection, the vaccine particles bump into cells and fuse to them, releasing mRNA. The
cell’s molecules read its sequence and build spike proteins.
The cell presents fragments of the spike protein on its surface. When other cells called helper
T cells detect these fragments, the helper T cells can raise the alarm and help marshal other
immune cells to fight the infection.
Fig-7. Pfizer- BioNTech

21. Moderna
The Moderna COVID-19 vaccine is a COVID-19 vaccine developed by American
company Moderna, the United States National Institute of Allergy and Infectious
Diseases (NIAID), and the Biomedical Advanced Research and ‘Development Authority. It is
designed to be administered as two or three 0.5 mL doses given by intramuscular injection at
an interval of at least 28 days apart.
It is an mRNA vaccine composed of nucleoside-modified mRNA (modRNA) encoding a spike
protein of SARS-CoV-2, which is encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles.
Efficacy
Evidence of vaccine efficacy starts about two weeks after the first dose. High efficacy is
achieved with full immunization, two weeks after the second dose, and was evaluated at
94.1%
How does it work?
Its mechanism is similar to that of Pfizer vaccine.
Fig-8. Mechanism of Moderna vaccine

22. INDIA’S CONTRIBUTION TOWARDS PANDEMIC
Currently, three Indian pharma companies in partnership with foreign or domestic research
institutes are expediting the trials of vaccine.
there was Serum Institute of India), Bharat Biotech, Biological E — there were multiple
home-grown successes in India.
The biggest benefit that India has is that it has a robust immunization program in place and it
is also implementing the largest immunization program of the world, with nearly 27 million
newborns targeted annually
"PPEs, N95 masks, oxygen, ventilators and diagnostic tests kits were developed at a jet pace
to ensure self-sufficiency. Medical infrastructure saw an exponential growth, from having one
lab in March, 2020 to around 2,000 laboratories as on date with nearly half of the labs from the
private sector. The same is true for dedicated ICU facilities and isolation centers.
AarogyaSetu app and ITIHAS, a cellular-based tracking technology has been used for
surveillance and identification of potential clusters, RT-PCR app for testing, facility application
for managing information on admitted patients and all have been integrated with a single
COVID portal.
Following vaccines are approved by india
1.COVISHEID
Deployed under the name “Covishield,” this vaccine was developed by Oxford-AstraZeneca
and manufactured locally by the Serum Institute of India.
The Covishield vaccine is made using a weakened adenovirus (a common cold virus) taken
from chimpanzees. Scientists have then modified that virus to look more like a coronavirus.
While it can’t cause illnesses in a patient, it makes their immune system start producing
antibodies to attack any coronavirus infection.
It is administered in two doses between four and 12 weeks apart. Clinical trials of the Oxford-
AstraZeneca vaccine showed an efficacy of 76% after the first dose, which increased to 81.3%
after the second dose.
In total, phase III trials of the vaccine showed a 79% efficacy at preventing COVID-19
symptoms, and 100% efficacy at preventing severe disease and hospitalization.

23. Common side effects include headache, fatigue, muscle or joint pain, fever, chills, and nausea.
Fig-9. Covishield
2.Covaxin
The Covaxin vaccine was developed by Bharat Biotech in collaboration with the Indian
Council of Medical Research (ICMR) and India's National Institute of Virology.
It is made using inactivated coronaviruses that are safe to be injected into patients. The deadly
virus is recognized by the immune system, which begins to make antibodies against the
coronavirus.
Covaxin is given in two doses, four weeks apart. In March 2021, preliminary data from
its phase III trial showed that the vaccine has an efficacy rate of 81%.
Possible side effects include pain, swelling, itching, fever, rashes, overall weakness, nausea,
vomiting, and in rare cases, difficulty in breathing and swelling of the throat and face.

24. Fig 10. Covaxin

25. COMPARISON BETWEEN VACCINES
Fig-11. Comparison between vaccines

26. MEASURES TO BE TAKEN
1. Wash your hands frequently with soap and water or thoroughly clean your hands with an
alcohol-based hand rub. Washing your hands with soap and water for around 20 seconds or
using alcohol-based hand rub kills viruses.
2. Maintain at least 1 metre (3 feet) distance between yourself and anyone who is coughing or
sneezing. This is advisable because when someone coughs or sneezes they spray small liquid
droplets from their nose or mouth which may contain virus.
3. Avoid touching eyes, nose and mouth because hands touch many surfaces and can pick up
viruses. Once contaminated, hands can transfer the virus to your eyes, nose or mouth and the
virus can enter your body from there too.
4. Practice respiratory hygiene and ensure that the people around you follow good respiratory
hygiene. You can do this by covering your mouth and nose with your bent elbow or tissue
when you cough or sneeze.
5. If you have fever, cough and difficulty breathing, seek medical care early and stay home if
you feel unwell. Follow the directions of your local health authority as it will allow your
health care provider to quickly direct you to the right health facility.
6. Clean and disinfect frequently touched surfaces like tables, doorknobs, light switches,
handles, desks, computers, phones, keyboards, sinks, toilets and countertops daily.
7. Wear a facemask if you are sick and also when you are around other people (e.g., sharing a
room or vehicle).
8. Keep in mind the travel advisory set out by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.

27. Fig 12- Measures taken at individual level to prevent covid 19

28. CONCLUSION
 Vaccination has to a great extend saved people from getting worse health condition.
 Even though the direct level of threat from COVID-19 has reduced (for some
people), there is still concern about the longer term harm and disruption
that COVID-19 has caused to people and communities, and worry about the threat
of future waves of infection.
 Mechanism of working of vaccines, its affects, comparison and a number of specific
suggestions are required for the people to understand the importance of vaccines.
For example, support for key workers, creating safer public environments, wide-
scale financial support, greater awareness around the experiences of those who are
at higher risk to COVID-19 and putting in place robust processes for learning and
reflection on the impact of the pandemic.
 Corona virus mutates rapidly so its information varues from time to time.
 Besides taking vaccines people should be careful and take necessary precautions to
reduce transmission of disease.
 We can only hope a reduction in the number of patients as the permanent solution
is yet to come into light
 Vaccination being the ultimate saviour for the current scenario should be religiously
taken by people.

29. BIBLIOGRAPHY
https://zeenews.india.com/india/here-are-some-basic-preventive-measures-against-covid-19-
coronavirus-2271078.html/amp
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34935921/
https://www.unicef.org/northmacedonia/what-you-need-know-about-covid-19-vaccine
https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.statista.com/chart/amp/24191/number-of-countries-
using-selected-covid-19-vaccines/
https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/covid-vaccine-rollout-covishield-covaxin-
coronavirus-mass-vaccination-7132877/lite/
https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.godigit.com/health-insurance/diseases/novel-
coronavirus/covid-19-vaccines-in-india.amp.html
https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/indias-contribution-to-covid-vaccines-has-been-
tremendous-101677093761033-amp.html
https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/objectives-vaccination-strategies-against-
covid-19
https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/indias-contribution-will-be-critical-in-fighting-covid-19-
health-minister-2313781/amp/1
https://www.healthline.com/health/vaccinations/pfizer-vaccine-efficacy
https://www.healthline.com/health/vaccinations/moderna-vaccine-efficacy
https://www.healthline.com/health/adult-vaccines/sputnik-v
https://www.healthline.com/health/adult-vaccines/astrazeneca-vaccine
https://www.britannica.com/science/coronavirus-virus-group
https://europepmc.org/article/MED/34446699
https://covid19.who.int/
https://www.nejm.org/covid-vaccine
https://academic.oup.com/aje/article/191/8/1383/6511811

30. THE END