1. G107707
How might the study of sound-space and the
development of spatial sound technologies
inform the future works of an aural architect?
Harish Kapil Jariwala 21161691
Creative Sound and Music
Word count 5743
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2. Contents
Introduction
Chapter 1 - The History of Sound-Space
Chapter 2 - The Philosophy of Sound-Space
Chapter 3 - The Technology and Technique of Sound-Space
Chapter 4 - The Virtual Sound-Space
Conclusion
Bibliography
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3. Introduction
We have actually three dimensions in music: horizontal, vertical, and dynamic swelling or
decreasing. I shall add a fourth, sound projection-that feeling that sound is leaving us with no hope
of being reflected back, a feeling akin to that aroused by beams of light sent forth by a powerful
searchlight-for the ear as for the eye, that sense of projection, of a journey into space. (Varèse: p.
17,18. 1936)
This dissertation is a consideration of sound as an “epistemological practice” (O’Dwyer, 2011) and
how the knowledge of space has benefited sound studies theories and compositions. It is an
invitation to experience the world around you through audition mapped out by Pierre Schaeffer; that
is the ability to hear, listen, comprehend and perceive (Chion, 2009) sound-space and to
reinvigorate the importance of human perception in music and sound creation. It is intended for the
development of compositional and mixing practice in music composition and sound design through
the analysis of sound-space.
What is a sound-space? Imagine you are sitting in a busy atrium (say a university building),
students and professors are passing by, in discourse or simply heading towards a destination,
machines are operating, there’s the muffled low rumble of traffic outside, the impact of feet on the
carpeted floor of the library, air conditioning units washing over the ceiling, the elevators on their
vertical trajectory, the typing on computer keyboards, the occasional mobile phone ringtone and the
clatter of plates from the cafe. You cannot see these events unfolding yet you know by some degree
why they are, where they are and what they are:
Sound, as physical energy reflecting and absorbing into the materiality around us, and even one's
self, provides a rich platform for understanding place and emplacement. Sound is always already a
trace of location (Labelle, 2012, p.1)
Sounds can be located with some accuracy through well developed aural perception and particular
attributes can be assigned to them such as size, depth and distance (Barrett, 2010) as well as more
musical characteristics such has rhythm, duration and spectral qualities (Smalley:1997). That the
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4. former attributes can be considered in musical composition is a central topic to this dissertation.
Space in music composition and record production has been a topic of many books and articles
some of which have found their way in to this paper. A historical perspective is taken to give an
overview of where spatial composition theories and methods originated.
The question on how the study of sound-space can benefit the aural architect will attempt to be
answered through the analysis of spatial composition developments in the last century, an
investigation in to the ontological aspect of sound-space, the developments of technologies intended
for the spatialisation of sound and the appearance of the virtual sound-space in compositional
practice.
Sound-space is considered by Denis Smalley in the article ‘Space-form and the Acousmatic
Image’ (2007) in which he states “sounds in general, and source-bonded sounds in particular,
therefore carry their spaces with them - they are space-bearers” (p.38) this draws similarities with
Labelle’s thoughts on sound as “traces of location” (2012). To consider sound in this way, as
objects encoded with information opens up an interesting area in musical composition and how
sound is be perceived by the listener.
Spectromorphology
I have developed the concepts and terminology of spectromorphology as tools for describing and
analysing listening experience. The two parts of the term refer to the interaction between sound
spectra (spectro-) and the ways they change and are shaped through time (-morphology). The
spectro- cannot exist without the -morphology and vice versa: something has to be shaped, and a
shape must have sonic content (Smalley, 1997).
This could be considered the analysis of the timbre of a piece of music but relates more closely to
Schaeffer’s “objet sonore (Chion, 2)”. Since the research carried out at RTF the acousmatic sound
has been of consideration for many theorists. Smalley provides a framework for a much more
advanced method of analysing sound as material. Spectromorphology also applies to the
spatialisation of sounds from their very inception. If “pitch-space” (Campbell, 2010, p.221) is
considered in terms of the spectral and temporal qualities of a sound then it is evident this theory is
of great use for the aural architect.
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5. The understanding and study of spectromorphology provides the aural architect with a vocabulary
to describe the sound object (Blackburn, 2011) and to consider the spatialisation of sound before
spatial technology is even implemented. It is conceivable that the first step in the spatialisation of a
composition is within the pitch-space not at the controls of any advanced spatialisation software
algorithm but in the creation of melody, harmony and analysis of the harmonic content that unfolds.
Acousmatic
Acousmatic is of ancient Greek origins and is a term “indicating a noise which is heard without
seeing causes from which it originates” (Chion, 2009, p.18). It appears in Pierre Schaeffer’s ‘Traité
des objets musicaux (1966)’ (A treaty of musical objects). Inside this treaty is a list of terms that can
be used to describe a musical sound object (acousmatic, mass, fracture, grain, form …) and it is
considered an invaluable resource for any one practicing in the art of sound design (both for the
moving image and musically).
The argument whether acousmatic music is “truly acousmatic" (Emmerson:xviii) is worth taking
note of as within spatial compositions the loudspeaker can become “a real instrument” and so a
consideration (at least in electronic and electro-acoustic music) within the compositional process.
The theory and practice of speaker as instrument can be identified as beginning in the works of
20th century composers such as Pierre Schaeffer, Varese, and Stockhausen and continuing today
through the multitude of multichannel speaker systems being implemented in sonic works.
A key concept in terms of identifying and working with acousmatic sound is that of “the four
modes of listening” proposed by Schaeffer:
4.COMPREHENDING[COMPRENDRE] 1. LISTENING[ÉCOUTER]
3. HEARING [ENTENDRE] 2. PERCEIVING [OUÏR]
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6. This matrix can be considered a map for aural perception and is an elegant way of breaking down
the event of sound perceived by a conscious being (human). The term reduced listening is a
“listening attitude which consists in listening to the sound for its own sake, as a sound object, by
removing its real or supposed source and the meaning it may convey (Chion, 30)” and can be
employed when considering this matrix.
Aural Architect
A term borrowed from the book ‘Spaces Speak, are you listening?’ by Barry Blesser and Linda-
Ruth Salter based around the theories of aural architecture referring to “the properties of space that
can be experienced by listening” (2007, p.5).
An aural architect, acting as both an artist and a social engineer, is therefore someone who
selects specific aural attributes of a space based on what is desirable in a particular cultural
framework (p.5).
Chapter 1 - The history of sound-space
“Echoes, reverberations and other then-inexplicable auditory illusions may have inspired mankind's
earliest artists” (Pappas, 2014). Through the discovery of ancient cave paintings researchers such
as Steve Waller have theorised that the sound-space of the caves where integral to deciding where to
paint and that the “unseen sonic phenomena are attributed to the invisible/supernatural (2014).
Wallers experience of hearing his voice echo back in such a cave made him realise that “for the
primal mind, echoes were spirits; the pictures that ancient people painted on the rock faces were of
what they imagined the echo spirits looked like” (Hale, p. 30). The disembodied voice has become
an integral part of understanding spatial music
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7. In the mid-16th century at the Basilica San Marco in Venice “the presence of two organs, facing
each other across the basilica” (Zvonar, 2005) inspired composers such as Adrian Willaert to create
antiphonal works “for two spatially separated choirs and instrumental groups” using the “echo
effects” of the church. The spatialisation of classical music arrangements continued but did not find
much interest until the 20th century where aural perception had evolved with the sound theories of
the scientist Hermann Von Helmholtz who emphasised “the characteristic resemblance between the
relations of the musical scale and of space” (Helmholtz, p. 370). His theories on pitch-space
informed the works of 20th century composers and musical theorists:
It is an essential character of space that at every position within it like bodies can be placed, and
like motions can occur. Everything that is possible to happen in one part of space is equally
possible in every other part of space and is perceived by us in precisely the same way. This is the
case also with the musical scale. Every melodic phrase, every chord, which can be executed at any
pitch, can also be executed at any other pitch in such a way that we immediately perceive the
characteristic marks of their similarity… Such a close analogy consequently exists in all essential
relations between the musical scale and space, that even alteration of pitch has a readily recognised
and unmistakable resemblance to motion in space, and is often metaphorically termed the
ascending or descending motion or progression of a part. Hence, again, it becomes possible for
motion in music to imitate the peculiar characteristics of motive forces in space, that is, to form an
image of the various impulses and forces which lie at the root of motion (p. 370)
One such composer was Edgard Varèse (2006, p. 17,18.) who in 1936 had already envisioned a
future of technological advancement that would allow him to project sound in to space. He wrote of
“three dimensions in music” pertaining to the “horizontal, vertical, and dynamic swelling or
decreasing” of sound pre-dating multichannel speaker systems by 20 years. He was also known to
“appropriate” (Emmerson, p.35) the language of science and leaned specifically towards the works
of Hermann Von Helmholtz (Lalitte, 2011), to describe his theories of soundstage movement in
space:
Helmholtz was the first person to make me perceive music as being a mass of sounds evolving in
space, rather than as an ordered series of notes (as I had been taught) (Varèse, 1983, p. 180).
Pierre Schaeffers work at Radiodiffusion- Télévision Française (RTF) his concept of “l’objet
sonore (the sonorous object)” and the invention of ‘musique concrète' is a key point in the history of
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8. spatial sound. At this time he was working alongside a small group of composers, engineers and
theorists with a device called the ‘pupitre d’espace (1951)’ developed by his technical assistant
Jacques Poullin and composer Pierre Henry “which could route sound from five-track tape to five
loudspeakers” (Ouzonian, p.47) arranged in a tetrahedral configuration, with front left and right,
back and overhead (Zvorna, 2005). This speaker array could be seen as an early three dimensional
sound system due to Schaeffers complex routing system (potentiomètre d'espace (1951) that helped
distribute the sounds to each speaker through human gesture as demonstrated by Pierre Henry in the
image below (fig.1).
Further refinement of multichannel speaker systems, the implementation of stereo in popular
recordings, cleaner recordings and the computer system would encourage the further exploration in
to spatial sound design. Mostly in the field of the avantgarde where experimentation was
encouraged. Composers such as Edgard Varese, John Cage, Karlheinz Stockhausen and Pierre
Boulez (all with history at RTF) embraced these new technologies and began to experiment with
space as a compositional consideration.
Stockhausen would be heavily influenced by his time spent at RTF and would go on to compose
groundbreaking works in electronic music such as ‘Gesang der Jünglinge' (1956) intended for a
five speaker configuration with the fifth speaker being suspended above the audience to provide
height, and later at WDR in Cologne, ‘Kontakte' (1960) one of the first true quadrophonic
compositions that used equipment intended for the testing and maintenance of radio stations as well
as designing rotating microphones used to spin sounds in physical space.
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9. In the ‘4 criteria of electronic music’ Stockhausen states that “Movement in space of music becomes
as important as the composition of its melodic lines, meaning changes in pitch, as its rhythmic
characteristics, meaning changes in durations (p. 102)”.
It is well documented (Baalman, p.211) that multichannel, multimedia systems and sound-spaces
took hold of the publics imagination through the World Expo events of 1958 (Brussels) a
collaboration between Le Corbusier, Iannis Xenakis and Edgard Varese for the piece ‘Poeme
Electronique' “where over 300 loudspeakers were used to create spatial trajectories through the
Philips Pavilion (211)”. In 1970 (Osaka) at the German Pavillion with Fritz Bornemann and
Karlheinz Stockhausen designing a spherical auditorium so that they could literally fly sounds
around space using “50 speaker groups (211)”. Architect and composer sparked the imagination and
moved the sound-space in to the 20th century.
Multichannel speaker systems continued to develop as an instrument for composers. Three
dimensional sound became a reality with the two main areas being ambisonics (Gerzon, Fellgett,
1975) and wave field synthesis (Berkhout, p.1988). With the invention and subsequent use of
computer systems in designing music software algorithms at Bell Labs in California and IRCAM in
Paris, programmers began to develop ways to manipulate the motion of sound in space in real time
using software algorithms. Pierre Boulez the founder of IRCAM would compose ‘Répons' that used
pitch following algorithms and a multichannel speaker system to distribute elements around the
auditorium manipulating and extending the musicians and venues pitch-space.
“Répons, where the pitches of the solo instruments are transformed electronically, perhaps comes
closest to achieving a smooth pitch space, or at least a more striated one (Campbell, p. 226)”.
Thanks to the work of the above there are now institutions around the world that have customised
spaces to develop spatialisation methods and concepts. ZKM in Karlsruhe, the Société des Arts
Technologique in Montreal and BEAST in Birmingham are three contemporary examples.
In 1881, Clément Ader demonstrated the world’s first stereo transmission from the stage of the Paris
Opéra using a device called the Theatrophone (Lalwani, 2015). the technique to capture the
performance was coined by Scientific American (1881 pp. 422-423) as “binauricular auduition"
stating “it provided an auditive perspective similar to what the stereoscope provided for vision”
This event altered the publics perception of sound and music and introduced a new virtual sound-
space. This led to the development of binaural audio first introduced in 1933 by the telephone
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10. company AT&T at the Chicago World Fair where participants were invited to listen through the ears
of the first binaural recording device called “Oscar (Lalwani, 2015)”. Binaural techniques and
technologies continued to develop and different forms of capturing human perception appeared
including Hugo Zuccarelli’s patented Holophonics™ (1980).
Binaural techniques are finding a new home in the world of game and virtual reality sound design
through the integration of HRTF and head tracking devices where the need to create three
dimensional sound worlds is central to creating fully immersive user experiences.
In contemporary electronic music practice spatialisation has become a staple part of the aural
architects sonic palette with the use of three dimensional sound being integrated into composition
and mixing practices. With the majority of studio sound-spaces still being represented in the stereo
format there is a drive to start using 3D music software algorithms to design virtual sound spaces
The history of spatial music provides the aural architect a concrete foundation to begin to develop
forward thinking spatial composition in their work. Not only did new musics form but also aural
perception of the audience evolved as they became introduced to artists experimenting with the
plasticity of space.
Chapter 2 - The philosophy of sound-space
The ontology of space is an area of interest for the aural architect (Barrett, 2010). It is widely
considered that philosophical thoughts and ideas benefit sound and music composition. The
pythagorean acousmatic voice from behind “the black curtain (Higgins, p.70)” is a good starting
point to consider the ontological relevance of sound-space. The dis-embodied voice engaged the
student and did not distract from the lessons through visual presentation. By detaching sound from
source more focus can be drawn towards the sound, invoking “flows of imagination (Labelle,
2012)”.
Pierre Schaeffer “gleefully abandoned the space of the concert hall, celebrating the fact that radio
and recording made possible a new experience of sound (Cox, 2001)” and would take from
Pythagorean teachings and Edmund Husserl ’s procedure of phenomenological reduction “which
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11. aimed at isolating the pure datum of experience (2001)” to formulate theories on reduced listening
and acousmatic listening.
The act of acousmatic and reduced listening is now common place in music culture with dis-
embodied sounds emanating from telephones, radios and sound systems. To listen to these sounds
invokes the theories and practice of Schaeffer and later the writings of Michel Chion.
In Western culture since Aristotle, sight has taken precedence over the other senses, this is known
as ocularcentrism (Jay, 1988). However, it is argued (Ponty, p.227) that “it becomes difficult to limit
(my) experience to a single sensory department” and that the experience of one sensory department
“spontaneously overflows to all the rest”. This is an interesting perspective on how our senses are
all interrelated and that there is no hierarchy between them. That each sense relates somehow to the
other.
In non-Western cultures such as that of the Aivilik Eskimo (Carpenter, Mcluhan, 1960) the lack of
visual markers in the open landscapes they reside means that “the non-visual senses play a stronger
role in their experience (Blesser, Salter:4)”. The aural architect must train their ears (Thoresen, p.
129. 2007) to restore some equilibrium. Perhaps through Schaeffers ‘reduced listening’ methods and
by restricting the sense of vision (closing eyes, turning off computer screen and lights, blindfolding)
this is possible. This is an interesting consideration when working with sound-space.
In considering sound-space in film, sound is often used to represent space (Altman, p.63) and in
cinema history this was taken from “pre-exisitng representational systems (46)” such as radio. In
the sound-space design of electronic music pre-existing representational systems come from the
production of many different sound-spaces, from rock to classical, from the club to the concert hall.
Through the ontological and epistemological study of sound-space the aural architect can begin to
represent systems outside of traditional music composition circles. Systems of nature and the
cosmos or of blending virtual sound-spaces manifested in the aural-architects mind with the
physical sound space of the auditorium. An example would be that of Brian Enos “Ambient Music
(Tamm, 1988 p.128)”.
“It was music that could tint the atmosphere of the location where it was played. It was music that
surrounded the listener with a sense of spaciousness and depth, encompassing one on all sides,
instead of coming at the listener (p. 128)”.
Eno merges the pre-existing representational system of the venue with his own sound-space. He
takes a philosophical approach to music making preferring to create complex systems and to think
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12. in an epistemological manner where his works “can be seen as revolving around a meta-idea - a
specific approach to specific problems of style, of group organisation, of musical theory and
presentation (p. 87)”. For the aural architect this process of looking deeply in to ones creative
process can breed good results.
The process of reduced listening to sound (preferably recorded) benefits from the process of dis-
embodiment as visual distractions are removed. Sound becomes the main focus and thorough
analysis can begin. It is possible to challenge aural perception through the extraction of sound from
source as demonstrated in Francisco López work ‘La Selva’ where the actual and natural sounds of
a rainforest in Costa Rica have been captured in great detail using field recording techniques. López
invites the pursuit of listening without context (sometimes blindfolding the audience) moving away
from the bioacoustics culture of analysis for scientific research and experiencing the pureness of
sound itself. To listen to this piece is a great exercise in human perception as by nature sound is
identified by source. It could be argued that this is an ontological approach to listening. An
approach to sound as matter is a concept derivative of Schaeffers objet sonore:
“Naturally, this is “matter” in the ontological sense, so its ontic manifestation remains indeed
delightfully immaterial. That is, when keeping these different levels in mind, what we have is the
(only apparently) paradoxical immaterial sound matter. (López, 2015)”
And so dis-embodied sound is immaterial yet can be defined as matter. The immaterial can be
identified in Labelles dis-embodied voice.
The voice embodies the contradictory, or what I'd propose as the "nondualistic" condition of sound
in general: the voice hinges together self and surrounding in a seeming paradox – I am in the world
only at the moment my voice travels away me (2012)
Marleau Pontys thoughts on spatiality are of significance when considering human perception of a
dis-embodied voice or sound source:
Besides the physical and geometrical distance which stands between myself and all things, a ‘lived’
distance binds me to things which count and exist for me, and links them to each other (p. 286)
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13. Although relating to the phenomenological, this can also be considered when analysing perception
of sound in space for analytical purposes (see phenomenological reduction). If “things” are defined
as sound objects within a sound-space then the lived distance becomes the experience of perceiving
these sonorous blocks in sound-space.
As the voice travels it becomes immaterial, removed from the source. It is encoded with
information and transferred to the acoustic space where further acoustic attributes are applied before
being decoded by any being that perceives it. To think of sound as an object or as matter that can be
encoded with information can be of significance for the sound practitioner who through careful
consideration can communicate their ideas through the spatialisation of sound.
A Deluzian thought on space can be used to decode such sound object. In his thinking Deluze
writes of two spaces, striated space and smooth space. In musical terms these have been identified
in the theories of Pierre Boulez “pitch space (Campbell, p.221)”:
The striated is that which inter-twines fixed and variable elements, produces an order and
succession of distinct forms, and organizes horizontal melodic lines and vertical harmonic planes.
The smooth is the continuous variation, continuous development of form; it is the fusion of harmony
and melody in favor of the production of properly rhythmic values, the pure act of the drawing of a
diagonal across the vertical and the horizontal (Deluze, 478).
In this sense, the diagonal line can be considered the “spectral design (Smalley, p. 44)” of a
sound, that is, the harmonic spectrum in which the sound exists. A language is desired to explain
this phenomena so that it might be used in compositional practice. This will be discussed in chapter
4.
“The concept of spectral space is not based on any a priori subdivision, and admits total freedom of
motion without restriction on spectral type: a note is a specific type of spectrum” (Smalley p.49) To
consider each sonic object as having its own spectrum offers the aural architect sound as material to
design and structure compositions that react and interact within the audible spectrum. Creating a
milieu of sonic events on individual and collective trajectories. To build ones own “spatial reality
(Barrett)”.
And so the ontological study of sound-space can be of use to the aural architect to build a greater
understanding of their and the listeners perception of sound-space. Combined with knowledge of
how sound propagates from its source and the harmonic content it contains within it may lead to
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14. interesting results especially considering the technologies that are now available to convey these
phenomena.
Chapter 3 - The technology and technique of sound-space
It is suggested (Barrett, 2010) that the aural architect benefits from the implementation sound-space
technology in her process. With the development of multichannel speaker systems (quadrophonic,
octophonic, 5.1, 7.1, Ambisonics, Wave Field Synthesis). Recent developments in creating three
dimensional sound fields that incorporate the vertical (height) axis and dis-embodiment of sound
from source (musical instrument, speaker) has led to new studies in how a music maker approaches
her composition as well as new terminologies appearing to relate to the immersive qualities that
these technologies provide:
If we wish to use spatial reality as a way to engage the listener we are interested in communicating
the size, shape, distance, action and interaction of sounding objects, and the context of
environmental cues. Only then can we address real spatial archetypes and subsequently our
physical relationship to the sound-space. In other words we need control over the 3D sound field
(2010, p.3).
As Henke points out a current “turning point (2012)” it has been argued (Barrett, 2010) that
composers still haven’t fully caught up with what these new technologies can offer both in an
aesthetic and creative respect. As apposed to the prophetic 20th century composer ushering a new
age of technology (Varèse, 1936) the 21st century composer must navigate the complexities of
available technologies to realise new creative expressions and gestures.
Ambisonics and Wave Field Synthesis
As mentioned previously the two main advancements in multichannel speaker systems came from
the research and development of ambisonics and wave field synthesis. These ground breaking
discoveries allowed for sound to be realised in three-dimensional space literally allowing the aural
architect to position sound objects anywhere within the physical sound-space.
Ambisonics was considered to be a tool for the representation of natural sound fields. A tetrahedral
microphone called the Soundfield microphone was developed to record 4 channels of ambisonic
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15. sound. The intention was to be able to transfer this recording and recreate it using ambisonic signal
encoding and decoding. Initially intended for the audiophile market ambisonics has found a home in
the works of sonic artists and forward thinking spatial music composers who are developing new
compositional strategies and concepts based around this technology:
“In the artistic milieu, ambisonics is mainly understood in terms of these technical solutions to the
spatial limitations of stereo or conventional surround and multi-channel (Barrett, 2010).”
Sound artist Fraction developed ‘Entropia (2015)’ This project was installed at the Société des Arts
Technologique of Montreal’s Satosphere. “A hemispherical dome of 18 meters in diameter and 13m
in height” inside an ambisonic sound system with 157 speakers and a 360 degree projection screen.
It could be seen as a contemporary take on what Stockhausen and Bornemann set out to do for the
German pavilion at Osaka World Fair. Using IRCAM designed software algorithms SPAT for real
time spatialisation of the ambisonics sound system and IANNIX for a 3D score this could be
considered at the cutting edge of todays technological sound-space.
Wave Field Synthesis is a concept attributed to Professor A.J. Berckhout at the ‘Technological
University of Deft’ and is based on Huygens’ Principle:
…let us consider a simple example. A rock (or primary source) thrown in the middle of a pond
generates a wave front that propagates along the surface. Huygens' principle indicates that an
identical wave front can be generated by simultaneously dropping an infinite number of rocks
(secondary sources) along any position defined by the passage of the primary wave front. This
synthesized wave front will be perfectly accurate outside of the zone delimited by the secondary
source distribution. The secondary sources therefore act as a "relay", and can reproduce the
original primary wave front in absence of a primary source! (IRCAM, Online)
Robert Henke (Monolake) has been working with WFS to give his live electronic music an
immersive quality that is desired and often talked about when discussing the experience of being in
a club.
A huge array of independently controlled speakers is used to create the same pressure wave as a
virtual source located somewhere behind that array of speakers - or, even more impressive, in
between those speakers and the listener. By doing so, WFS allows to create sound sources literally
anywhere in that space (Henke, 2009).
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16. Typically club sound systems are producing a monophonic signal and are more dependent on
frequency range and high volumes to provide the above mentioned immersive experience. With the
use of WFS in his live surround set Henke is able to spatialise his compositions in a live setting.
Club music evolved, and so did modern PA systems. If music production can deal with subtle yet
noticeable details of space and depth, why should this amount of detail not be transmitted to the
dance-floor? It is obviously true that what keeps the dancer moving is the beat, but what creates a
sense of something big, what overwhelms people is also the sound of the music(2009-2011).
Computer Hardware and Software Applications
The first public computer music program family was “Music n” created by Max Matthews at Bell
Labs in 1957. It was his intention to empower creativity through the use of computers and his work
has given him the deserved title of “father of computer music (Park, 2009, p.22)”. From “Music n”
spawned a generation of computer music applications and inspired the technology used today. Jean-
Claude Risset and John Chowning were both inspired to work with Max Matthews (2009, p.11)
after reading a paper he had published in Science Magazine. Out of this came synthesis techniques
such as FM and wave shaping that changed the virtual sound-space forever.
Programs such as Max MSP named after the creator of “Music n” are central to the development
of electronic music including the creation of spatialisation tools that are being used alongside
multichannel sound systems today. Max Msp “a graphic interface for block-diagram compilers
(2009, p.20)” has made it possible for musicians untrained in computer music programming to build
their own instruments and software devices.
Max was developed by Miller Puckette in the 80s initially making use of the 4x computer system
at IRCAM. Created in the same vain as Max Matthews to empower creativity through computers.
It was Puckettes intention to build up a discourse between artists and software writers (Puckette,
2002) just as Mathews had done before him. One of his main concerns was to make the design of
Max as neutral as possible so as to “avoid imposing a stylistic bias on the musician’s output
(2002)”. In reflecting upon this he came to the following conclusion:
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17. Even this blank page carries stylistic and cultural freight in at least one interesting respect: the
whole idea of incorporating paper in the music-making endeavour was an innovation of Western
Art Music, for which many other musics have no use at all (2002).
This includes various spatialisation methods that rely more on visualisation than score writing.
Thanks to Puckettes drive to neutralise Max graphic interface it has been made easier for a diverse
group of users to develop cutting edge spatialisation instruments.
Impulse response creation and 3D binaural advancement with Head Related Transfer
Functions (HRTF)
The ability to create impulse responses (IR) of any sound-space through the analysis and encoding
of a signal has altered the way the sound practitioner can begin to spatialise sound object.
Convolution reverbs contain IR files from all over the world and it is now possible to key in real
world spaces in to musical compositions. The process of IR creation has also helped to develop
binaural for the 21st century.
Head Related Transfer Function
HRTF is a process of using IR generation to map out a complex algorithm of a subjects head. The
subject sits in the centre of a 360 degree array of small matched speakers set up in an anechoic
chamber and each speaker in turn generates a chirp or sine sweep. The result is a filter algorithm
that takes in to consideration the geometry of the human anatomy without any interference from
external spatial coloration.
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18. There are several databases of HRTF files online that are being used within the development of
binaural and 3d spatialisation software. The creative implications of this technique are evident and
although a laborious task will help the sound practitioner to fully develop a 3D immersive sound-
space.
Emmerson points out that there was one major flaw in the development of such sound
localisation and spatialisation technologies:
This perception of location is not equally sensitive in all directions. We turn our heads to face
sounds we want to (or must) focus on, and if there is subtle ambiguity in location we might move
our heads even slightly to see how the information changes. But wearing headphones (as
constituted at present) the entire soundfield moves when we do. We are frustrated in applying such a
fundamental search method as moving the head. Even if the directional information is encoded in
the recording specifically with headphone listening in mind (including so-called (HRTF) Head
Related Transfer Functions) then the scene still moves with the head. Virtual reality applications
will demand there be a fundamental change from ‘head-referenced’ to ‘world-referenced’ sound
stage presentation (p. 146,147).
This demand by virtual reality applications to change from ‘head-referenced’ to ‘world-
referenced’ sound stage presentation is being met with the use of HRTF alongside head tracking
technologies introduced through popular gaming devices such as Microsofts Kinect and more
recently the Oculus Rift. Early examples of how musicians will take on these technologies as they
did with the Kinect are promising with projects like Becks live version of ‘Sound and Vision (1977)’
a fully immersive 360 experience (Watercutter, 2013) of David Bowies track. In collaboration with
VR and music video producer Chris Milk. Building upon the framework of the above binaural
audio techniques and VR head tracking devices Milk invented the first 360 sound experience of a
live performance and alongside 360 cameras (2013) invited users to explore Becks live performance
as if they were at the venue and able to freely walk around experience the performance from
different vantage points.
18

19. Loudspeaker design and algorithms for signal processing such as ambisonics, wave field synthesis,
cross talk cancellation and 3D binaural recording are opening up new compositional strategies for
music makers. In the worlds of film, gaming and virtual reality sound is being objectified and
attached with meaning and spatialisation and localisation is being used to trigger a greater
psychological responses from the audience.
The emotional affect on the mind of new spatialisation technologies is also being pushed to its
limits in the world of sound art and cross platform interactive installations where these different
technologies are being married to other media to push the boundaries of human perception.
It is clear that technology has caught up with (and in some cases over taken) many of the ideas
and concepts in discourse throughout electronic music and sound design. As Henke (2012) points
out it is more important now to master the technology already available instead of waiting for the
next new idea to come along. With programs like Max still empowering creativity and cutting edge
ideas and technologies like ambisonics, WFS and binaural still being applied to contemporary
works the question is now how might the sound practitioner develop his and his audience
perception of sound? Max Matthews stated that the future of music was in a greater understanding
of the human brain. It could be argued that this is the greatest technology that the sound practitioner
has available and there is still a long way to fully understanding how it works.
Chapter 4 - The Virtual Sound-space
“Whether modelling reality or creating a fantasy, the creator of a virtual space is an aural architect
(Blesser, Salter: 132).”
A virtual space can be considered when observing the aural architects working sound-space, the
studio. When working with speakers or headphones the virtual sound-space becomes clear, it is a
space that can be defined by the aural architects actions. Through the use of spatialisation and
19

20. localisation alongside other compositional techniques as discussed in the previous chapter a virtual
sound-space can be deconstructed. Moylan (2012, p.164) would suggest that there are “two primary
structure levels” to the spatial qualities of music:
1. Overall sound - Sound stage dimensions, perceived performance environment.
2. Individual sound sources - Distance location, image size (width), lateral location, environment
characteristics.
These are considerations for a stereo sound field. To consider the virtual 3D sound-space one
could also consider the depth and perceived height of a sound object within a given soundstage.
Moylan’s “perceived performance environment (p. 164)” relates to the virtual sound-space and is
considered “the overall space where the ‘performance’ that is the music ‘recording’ is heard as
taking place (p. 164)”
It is important here to draw a distinction between natural spatial hearing and virtual spatial
hearing:
Natural spatial hearing refers to how we hear sounds spatially in everyday hearing, with our ears
uncovered, our head moving, and in interaction with other sensory input… A special case of
binaural hearing is virtual spatial hearing; this refers here to the formation of synthetic spatial
acoustic imagery using a 3-D sound system and stereo headphones (Begault, p.4).
Begault continues “natural spatial hearing seldom involves a single source, whereas virtual
spatial hearing with a 3-D sound system involves the positioning of each of a number of sources
individually”.
To be able to distinguish between the two it becomes clear as to the process of working within a
virtual three dimensional sound-space and how through the creation and use of individual sound
objects alongside Moylan’s deconstruction of ‘spatial qualities’ a complex system can be designed
and perceived within a virtual sound-space.
It would be beneficial for the aural architect working in virtual sound-space to consider Hulse’s
(p. 56) argument that “actual music far exceeds anything that could possibly be represented by
conventional Western notation”.
20

21. “…During the course of listening, an extraordinary field of temporal objects—past, present, and yet
to come (and all these as in some sense present)—develops concurrently with whatever sound is
actually engaging the ear at any given moment (p. 56)”
To consider what is perceived on paper is not representative of what is ‘actually’ perceived in
practice brings up once more the downfalls of an ocularcentric culture that relies on the visual
representation of perception to begin to understand and use in a practical sense.
The invention of the computer interface attempted to actualise a virtual world of perception and
brought closer the potential to visualise this virtual experience of listening. Waveform analysis,
frequency spectrum analysers (fig. 2) and graphic interfaces depicting a virtual sound-space are just
three examples of how the computer has (to some degree) made it possible to visualise the above
phenomena. Yet these are still just graphical representations and the experience of human
perception is still an area of great interest in the academic world.
The 21st century aural architect is traversing the virtual sound-space, formulating ideas and
realising them through sound. The spatialisation and localisation of sound with in the virtual 3d
space is an integral part of electronic music composition and knowledge of how the mind/body
interacts with sound is valuable for compositional improvement.
Research into Smalleys spectromorphology theory and cognitive embodiment is opening up new
concepts of human perception in regards to sound objects:
21

22. Denis Smalley discusses ways of generating meaning in electronic music by creating morphologies
that suggest an action and an object; for example, a string vibrating when plucked, a human
sobbing, or the smooth mechanical acceleration of a motor (Zagorski-Thoma, 2008, p.195).
Zargoski-Thomas (p.195) continues to relate this to the theories of embodied cognition and
perception. Claiming that studio recording techniques can be used to invoke particular emotions
such as the use of distortion to make a guitar sound appear aggressive and angry. It is suggested that
the spectromorphlogy of the sound would be similar to the timbral shape of a “shouting voice (p.
195)”. If one considers the spatialisation of sound in regards to human perception of the ‘lived in
world’ then it becomes clear that it is possible to invoke meaning through such compositional
practices.
Cognitive embodiment continues the discussion of the mind/body relationship (McNerney, 2011)
“[the mind] arises from the nature of our brains, bodies, and bodily experiences. This is not just the
innocuous and obvious claim that we need a body to reason; rather, it is the striking claim that the
very structure of reason itself comes from the details of our embodiment... Thus, to understand
reason we must understand the details of our visual system, our motor system, and the general
mechanism of neural binding” (Lakoff, Nez, 2011).
The mechanism of neural binding according to George Lakoff can be related to the arts through
the use of metaphors (Jimes, 2012) . In music an example would be the use of the terminology used
by Helmholtz of “ascending and descending” to describe the movement of pitch or in the case of
spatialisation sound objects in a 3d sound-space.
This is especially the case in spatialisation and localisation techniques used in virtual reality sound
design where sound is used to create the illusion of embodiment within a virtual space.
Development in VR is gaining pace (Lalwani:2015) and to coincide with the visual aspect VR audio
is also being taken seriously. Binaural techniques are being implemented in to their workflow with
software algorithms such as Realspace 3D, Wave Arts Panorama and IRCAM SPAT. The topic is
how to make a fully immersive virtual world and the realisation that sound is integral to actualising
this is opening up many discussions on the topic both practical and ontological.
It is argued here that these methods being developed to create 360 degree 3D sound-spaces in VR
will leak into the compositions of electronic music makers and there is evidence of this happening
22

23. already. Tracks are appearing that are using the new technologies and concepts of 3D audio to
enhance the sound-space. This is having an affect on how the listener perceives electronic music
which is understandable considering the connection between human perception and spatialisation of
sounds.
Conclusion
This dissertation has examined the research carried out by a selection of theorists and practitioners
in the field of spatial composition. It is clear that the technological hurdle experienced in the 20th
century by composers such as Stockhausen and Varèse has been clear. Lakoffs theories on cognitive
embodiment and Smalleys spectromorphology are blending together as musician and scientist
continue to work towards a greater understanding of sounds relationship with the perceived
environment. This in turn is having an affect on the wider community of music makers and will no
doubt continue to do so in to the future.
With technologies available to manipulate sound in three-dimensional space this again is having
an affect on how sound is perceived, the jumping between psychoacoustic and physiological
experience. Thanks to the work of theorists and scientists like Helmholtz, Schaeffer and Smalley, it
is possible to analyse sound as object through its complex harmonic relationships and with 3-D technologies
like ambisonics, WFS and binaural we are starting to realise how subtle changes in real and virtual sound-
space can effect the spatialisation of sound. An advanced language has formed to help the aural architect
build complex structures that Varèse could only dream about in 1939.
To consider the ontology of sound is to question our very being, it is through our memory of sound-space
that we navigate both the physical and virtual spaces. If music is to have meaning, express emotions and
stimulate the mind then in conclusion the use of spatialisation is central to achieve these goals. The aural
architect can tap in to ancient traits developed in the caves of pre-history, can create space with sound and
develop movement through analysing and changing the spectral qualities of each sound object. Through
listening to sound-space the aural architect can develop and reclaim essential skills relating to the
23

24. composition and production of music. Perception is an invaluable tool that we all possess and one that should
be taught from the very beginning of a musical education. To train ones ears to not only hear but also to
comprehend, perceive and listen will open up a new dimension of sound-space.
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