This document reviews the science, policy, and practices around reducing emissions from forest degradation. It finds that degradation emissions are a significant source of greenhouse gases that have been underestimated. Degradation occurs through logging, fuelwood harvesting, and fires, and the estimates of its emissions vary widely due to limitations in remote sensing and data. Degradation can also catalyze additional emissions and deforestation. Successful strategies for reducing degradation include improved forest management through certification, better fire management, more efficient fuelwood use, and community-based forest protection. Measuring and monitoring degradation emissions is challenging but important for including degradation in REDD+ programs.
This report summarizes the results of a survey conducted by the Hampshire and Hampden Conservation Districts' Local Working Group to understand local conservation priorities. Water quality and loss of agricultural land were the top issues identified. Other high priorities included food security, energy conservation, and fish and wildlife habitat. The survey used various in-person and online methods to gather input from over 300 residents across the two counties. The Natural Resources Conservation Service will consider these priorities when providing farm bill assistance to best address the identified local needs.
Climate Change and Agriculture in the United States: Effects and Adaptationclimate central
This document summarizes the key effects of climate change on U.S. agriculture as identified in the report. It finds that rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns will reduce productivity for most crops, outweighing benefits from increased carbon dioxide. Effects will vary by crop and region but all production systems will be impacted. Livestock are vulnerable to temperature stresses. Climate change will exacerbate existing biotic stresses from weeds, pests and diseases. It will also compromise ecosystem services like soil quality and water resources that support agriculture. The report calls for more research on extreme weather effects and improving agricultural adaptation through new crop varieties, practices and policies.
This document summarizes a Royal Society policy report on global scientific collaboration in the 21st century. It finds that science is increasingly global, occurring in more places and addressing questions of global significance. While traditional scientific powers still lead, new centers of research are emerging around the world, particularly in China, India, and other developing nations. International scientific collaboration is on the rise, driven by researchers seeking to work with the best partners worldwide. The report also examines how global scientific collaboration can help address major challenges like climate change through organizations and initiatives that bring researchers together across borders.
This document is the December 2010 issue of The R Journal, a peer-reviewed publication of the R Foundation for Statistical Computing. It contains 10 peer-reviewed research articles on various statistical modeling and data analysis techniques in R, including solving differential equations, hierarchical generalized linear models, data cloning, string processing, Bayesian time series analysis, and more. It also includes sections on recent changes and updates to R and contributed R packages. Peter Dalgaard steps down as Editor-in-Chief and is succeeded by Heather Turner.
This document describes calculations and software to determine the presence of non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs) in environmental media. It presents the theoretical foundations, including assumptions, solubility limit theory, Raoult's law, and equilibrium partitioning theory. It describes the inputs required and presents 23 equations used in the calculations. Results are shown for three scenarios, including soil saturation, bulk density, media masses, concentrations, volumes, and residual saturation. The conclusions state that the calculations were successfully performed by the software and verified by hand calculations.
This review analyzed studies on the use of neuraminidase inhibitors (NIs) like oseltamivir and zanamivir to prevent and treat influenza in healthy adults. The review found that:
1) NIs have limited effectiveness in preventing influenza-like illnesses when used routinely, but oseltamivir and zanamivir can reduce symptomatic influenza by around 60%.
2) When used to treat influenza after symptoms appear, both oseltamivir and zanamivir can shorten the duration of symptoms by around 1 day.
3) Oseltamivir is associated with side effects like nausea, while zanamivir can cause diarrhea.
4) Due to their low effectiveness,
(Springer optimization and its applications 37) eligius m.t. hendrix, boglárk...ssuserfa7e73
This document provides an introduction to the book "Introduction to Nonlinear and Global Optimization" by Eligius M.T. Hendrix and Boglárka G.-Tóth. It discusses the aims and scope of the book, which is to provide undergraduate and graduate textbooks focusing on algorithms for solving nonlinear optimization problems and their applications. The introduction also notes that optimization has expanded rapidly in recent decades with new techniques developed and its use diffusing into other disciplines. The book will cover topics like nonlinear optimization, network flow problems, stochastic optimization, and more.
Iwokrama MTR - Final Report - EDG for DFID - 2000 TMKTorsten Kowal
The report provides a mid-term review of the Iwokrama International Centre for Rain Forest Conservation and Development in Guyana. Some key points:
1) Iwokrama has made good progress across its three core programs - sustainable forest management, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable human development - despite being about a year behind schedule.
2) Significant achievements include increasing understanding of the forest ecosystem, managing information to support planning, extensive human resource development and capacity building, and strong collaboration with local communities.
3) Moving forward, the main challenge will be achieving financial sustainability to ensure long-term support for conservation and community development goals. The report provides recommendations to address this challenge.
This report summarizes the results of a survey conducted by the Hampshire and Hampden Conservation Districts' Local Working Group to understand local conservation priorities. Water quality and loss of agricultural land were the top issues identified. Other high priorities included food security, energy conservation, and fish and wildlife habitat. The survey used various in-person and online methods to gather input from over 300 residents across the two counties. The Natural Resources Conservation Service will consider these priorities when providing farm bill assistance to best address the identified local needs.
Climate Change and Agriculture in the United States: Effects and Adaptationclimate central
This document summarizes the key effects of climate change on U.S. agriculture as identified in the report. It finds that rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns will reduce productivity for most crops, outweighing benefits from increased carbon dioxide. Effects will vary by crop and region but all production systems will be impacted. Livestock are vulnerable to temperature stresses. Climate change will exacerbate existing biotic stresses from weeds, pests and diseases. It will also compromise ecosystem services like soil quality and water resources that support agriculture. The report calls for more research on extreme weather effects and improving agricultural adaptation through new crop varieties, practices and policies.
This document summarizes a Royal Society policy report on global scientific collaboration in the 21st century. It finds that science is increasingly global, occurring in more places and addressing questions of global significance. While traditional scientific powers still lead, new centers of research are emerging around the world, particularly in China, India, and other developing nations. International scientific collaboration is on the rise, driven by researchers seeking to work with the best partners worldwide. The report also examines how global scientific collaboration can help address major challenges like climate change through organizations and initiatives that bring researchers together across borders.
This document is the December 2010 issue of The R Journal, a peer-reviewed publication of the R Foundation for Statistical Computing. It contains 10 peer-reviewed research articles on various statistical modeling and data analysis techniques in R, including solving differential equations, hierarchical generalized linear models, data cloning, string processing, Bayesian time series analysis, and more. It also includes sections on recent changes and updates to R and contributed R packages. Peter Dalgaard steps down as Editor-in-Chief and is succeeded by Heather Turner.
This document describes calculations and software to determine the presence of non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs) in environmental media. It presents the theoretical foundations, including assumptions, solubility limit theory, Raoult's law, and equilibrium partitioning theory. It describes the inputs required and presents 23 equations used in the calculations. Results are shown for three scenarios, including soil saturation, bulk density, media masses, concentrations, volumes, and residual saturation. The conclusions state that the calculations were successfully performed by the software and verified by hand calculations.
This review analyzed studies on the use of neuraminidase inhibitors (NIs) like oseltamivir and zanamivir to prevent and treat influenza in healthy adults. The review found that:
1) NIs have limited effectiveness in preventing influenza-like illnesses when used routinely, but oseltamivir and zanamivir can reduce symptomatic influenza by around 60%.
2) When used to treat influenza after symptoms appear, both oseltamivir and zanamivir can shorten the duration of symptoms by around 1 day.
3) Oseltamivir is associated with side effects like nausea, while zanamivir can cause diarrhea.
4) Due to their low effectiveness,
(Springer optimization and its applications 37) eligius m.t. hendrix, boglárk...ssuserfa7e73
This document provides an introduction to the book "Introduction to Nonlinear and Global Optimization" by Eligius M.T. Hendrix and Boglárka G.-Tóth. It discusses the aims and scope of the book, which is to provide undergraduate and graduate textbooks focusing on algorithms for solving nonlinear optimization problems and their applications. The introduction also notes that optimization has expanded rapidly in recent decades with new techniques developed and its use diffusing into other disciplines. The book will cover topics like nonlinear optimization, network flow problems, stochastic optimization, and more.
Iwokrama MTR - Final Report - EDG for DFID - 2000 TMKTorsten Kowal
The report provides a mid-term review of the Iwokrama International Centre for Rain Forest Conservation and Development in Guyana. Some key points:
1) Iwokrama has made good progress across its three core programs - sustainable forest management, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable human development - despite being about a year behind schedule.
2) Significant achievements include increasing understanding of the forest ecosystem, managing information to support planning, extensive human resource development and capacity building, and strong collaboration with local communities.
3) Moving forward, the main challenge will be achieving financial sustainability to ensure long-term support for conservation and community development goals. The report provides recommendations to address this challenge.
This document contains questions related to statistics, data science, machine learning, deep learning, and miscellaneous topics. Some key areas covered include the central limit theorem, sampling methods, linear and logistic regression, decision trees, neural networks, clustering, dimensionality reduction, and model evaluation.
This document contains questions related to statistics, data science, machine learning, deep learning, and miscellaneous topics. Some key areas covered include the central limit theorem, sampling methods, linear and logistic regression, decision trees, neural networks, clustering, dimensionality reduction, and model evaluation.
This document discusses the growing demand for minerals and metals required for a low carbon future. It finds that the deployment of technologies like renewable energy and electric vehicles will significantly increase the need for certain metals in the coming decades. Key metals that are projected to see substantial demand growth include lithium, cobalt, graphite, and nickel. The report also notes that many developing countries have large reserves of these critical metals and could play a major role in supplying the world's clean energy transition.
The document is Karen Deller's doctoral thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a Doctor of Philosophy degree from the University of Johannesburg. The thesis examines the design and implementation of a Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) programme for the South African insurance sector. It presents the background and context for RPL and the research. The methodology used a qualitative programme evaluation approach involving interviews and case studies to understand participants' experiences of the RPL process. Key findings from the data analysis are also summarized.
This document is an introduction and table of contents for a literature guide about the novel Bud, Not Buddy by Christopher Paul Curtis. It was created by Kristen Bowers for Secondary Solutions to help classroom teachers teach the book. The guide provides lessons, activities, quizzes and tests to help students understand elements of the novel like characters, plot, themes and historical context. It also includes standards-based exercises focused on vocabulary, comprehension, figurative language and other literary elements. Permission is required to reproduce or modify the materials from this guide.
The United Nations Charter provides the foundation for UN peacekeeping operations. While peacekeeping is not explicitly mentioned in the Charter, the Security Council has used its responsibility for international peace and security to authorize peacekeeping missions. The legal basis can be found in Chapters VI and VII, which deal with peaceful dispute resolution and enforcement actions. More recently, Chapter VII has often been invoked to authorize missions in volatile post-conflict environments where the state lacks security control. Peacekeeping must also be grounded in international human rights and humanitarian law to help guide personnel on how their tasks intersect with these norms and how to respond appropriately to violations while protecting civilians.
The document introduces the Resilience-based Earthquake Design Initiative (REDi) Rating System. It was created by a team of experts to provide guidelines for designing buildings to withstand earthquakes and return to functionality quickly. The rating system establishes resilience objectives, defines important terms, and provides criteria for assessing a building's organizational resilience, structural resilience, ability to withstand other earthquake impacts, and estimated losses from downtime and damage. If implemented, the rating system aims to help buildings and communities become more earthquake resilient.
This document provides an overview and definitions related to environmental impact assessments and cumulative impact assessments. It discusses key components of cumulative impact assessments, including defining appropriate spatial and temporal boundaries, scoping analyses, and identifying impacts from past, present and future actions. A five-step procedure is outlined for assessing cumulative impacts that involves determining proximate effects of a proposal, investigating the affected environment resulting from past actions, and assessing the implications of a proposal given the current environmental condition.
This document provides an overview of the FEMA Independent Study course titled "Decision Making and Problem Solving". The 6-unit course aims to improve students' decision-making skills through exploring topics like the decision-making process, decision-making styles, ethical decision making, and applying the skills to emergency management case studies. The course includes activities, knowledge checks, and a final exam. Upon completion, students will be better able to make effective decisions through applying the taught problem-solving model.
Sand dust storms middleeast northafrica MENA sources costs solutions_wb2019PatrickTanz
This document summarizes sources, costs, and solutions related to sand and dust storms in the Middle East and North Africa region. It discusses key findings such as hot spots for dust storms being areas of North Africa and the Middle East near deserts, with increasing trends observed over time. Major sources of dust include desert areas and dry lands impacted by climate change, land degradation, and human activities. Impacts discussed include negative health effects from particulate matter, environmental damage, and significant economic costs. The document also reviews potential interventions like early warning systems, reforestation, and policy approaches to address sand and dust storms in the region.
The Lost Secrets Of The Garden: The Companion Planting Guide For Vegetable Ga...Fayina19z
The document discusses an interview with Mother Earth about her role and mankind's current situation. Mother Earth says her main purpose is to provide a place for souls to develop skills in loving one another. She notes that mankind is at a defining point, on the brink of either destroying itself or realizing its spiritual nature and living in harmony with nature.
This document discusses the challenges facing agriculture and opportunities for greening agriculture. It finds that conventional industrial agriculture has led to environmental degradation while small farms are important for food security and poverty reduction. Greening agriculture through investments in soil, water and biodiversity management can generate economic and environmental benefits. The costs of environmental degradation from agriculture are high, so increased investment in natural capital in the agriculture sector is needed. Global, national and economic policies can help create an enabling environment for green agriculture.
This document provides an overview and introduction to the fifth edition of the book "Root Cause Analysis in Health Care: Tools and Techniques". It lists the executive editor, project manager, reviewers, and details about the mission and standards of Joint Commission Resources. It also includes a table of contents showing the chapters and steps involved in root cause analysis. The introduction explains that the book is designed to provide accurate information to help health care organizations conduct root cause analyses after adverse events.
Jatropha and Sustainable Livelihood of Small-scale FarmersZK8
This document provides an introduction to the thesis topic. It discusses the challenges facing developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa, including high poverty levels, lack of access to modern energy, and the need to provide energy for development while also addressing climate change mitigation. The problem area addressed is how Jatropha production and utilization could impact rural livelihoods for small-scale farmers in Zambia's central province. The research question asks about these livelihood impacts and recommendations for how Jatropha could improve rural livelihoods. The introduction provides context on the energy and development challenges in sub-Saharan Africa to frame the thesis topic.
Study: Impact Analysis of the Marcellus Shale Safe Drilling InitiativeMarcellus Drilling News
A study released by the Regional Economic Studies Institute (RESI) at Towson University says if Maryland would only allow Marcellus Shale drilling, two western MD counties would reap huge benefits. The study, "Impact Analysis of the Marcellus Shale Safe Drilling Initiative" says Allegany and Garrett counties would benefit from thousands of new jobs and hundreds of million dollars in newfound revenue.
This document provides Plaintiffs' response to an order to show cause regarding Defendants' alleged modification of policies related to detaining immigrant families. Plaintiffs argue that Defendants' new policies have not significantly reduced detention times or improved detention conditions and continue to violate the Flores settlement. Plaintiffs assert that Defendants have failed to show cause for reconsidering the previous court order finding their family detention policies in breach of the settlement.
This document introduces a handbook on monitoring and evaluation (M&E) for biodiversity conservation and development projects. M&E is an integral part of project implementation that focuses on observing, gathering data, reflecting, and learning. This allows projects to be innovative and improve over time. The handbook provides practical guidance on developing an M&E plan, building learning into projects, gathering and analyzing information, drawing recommendations, and sharing lessons learned. It aims to establish a common language around project management among organizations in the C.A.P.E. partnership and support effective M&E.
The degradation of Philippine marine life and coastal ecosystems like coral reefs and mangroves is outlined. The Philippines has extensive coastline and marine resources but coral reefs have over 70% damage from threats like blast fishing, while mangrove areas have declined sharply from 500,000 hectares to just 117,000 hectares due to activities like aquaculture and development. Specific areas of concern are discussed like the Tubbataha Reef, a UNESCO World Heritage Site that suffered damage when a US naval ship ran aground in the reef in 2013.
Avoiding deforestation and forest degradation under a new climate agreement: ...CIFOR-ICRAF
This document provides an overview and summary of REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation) and its evolution. It discusses key aspects of the Paris Agreement in relation to forests and REDD+. It outlines the history and architecture of REDD+ and examines factors that can hinder or enable transformational change towards reducing deforestation. Finally, it discusses findings from CIFOR's Global Comparative Study on national REDD+ policies and processes in 14 countries.
The document discusses environmental problems in South Asia, including common issues such as water pollution, deforestation, and air pollution. Case studies from various countries provide examples of specific issues, like the Ganges River being polluted with sewage and industrial waste in India. The key causes identified are population growth, lack of urban infrastructure, industries, overexploitation of resources, and impacts of the green revolution. Collective measures and solutions are needed to address the region's environmental challenges.
Drivers of deforestation and forest degradationCIFOR-ICRAF
This presentation by Gabrielle Kissinger and Martin Herold was given on 26 November 2012 at a UNFCCC COP18 side-event in Doha, Qatar. They shared findings from a recently published global assessment on the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation, as well as country experiences of dealing with them in a REDD+ context. To support SBSTA considerations on REDD+, and to support ongoing national-level REDD+ planning and implementation, the assessment explores the importance of drivers, the role of drivers in REDD+ policy development and interventions, and in developing forest reference emission levels.
This document contains questions related to statistics, data science, machine learning, deep learning, and miscellaneous topics. Some key areas covered include the central limit theorem, sampling methods, linear and logistic regression, decision trees, neural networks, clustering, dimensionality reduction, and model evaluation.
This document contains questions related to statistics, data science, machine learning, deep learning, and miscellaneous topics. Some key areas covered include the central limit theorem, sampling methods, linear and logistic regression, decision trees, neural networks, clustering, dimensionality reduction, and model evaluation.
This document discusses the growing demand for minerals and metals required for a low carbon future. It finds that the deployment of technologies like renewable energy and electric vehicles will significantly increase the need for certain metals in the coming decades. Key metals that are projected to see substantial demand growth include lithium, cobalt, graphite, and nickel. The report also notes that many developing countries have large reserves of these critical metals and could play a major role in supplying the world's clean energy transition.
The document is Karen Deller's doctoral thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a Doctor of Philosophy degree from the University of Johannesburg. The thesis examines the design and implementation of a Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) programme for the South African insurance sector. It presents the background and context for RPL and the research. The methodology used a qualitative programme evaluation approach involving interviews and case studies to understand participants' experiences of the RPL process. Key findings from the data analysis are also summarized.
This document is an introduction and table of contents for a literature guide about the novel Bud, Not Buddy by Christopher Paul Curtis. It was created by Kristen Bowers for Secondary Solutions to help classroom teachers teach the book. The guide provides lessons, activities, quizzes and tests to help students understand elements of the novel like characters, plot, themes and historical context. It also includes standards-based exercises focused on vocabulary, comprehension, figurative language and other literary elements. Permission is required to reproduce or modify the materials from this guide.
The United Nations Charter provides the foundation for UN peacekeeping operations. While peacekeeping is not explicitly mentioned in the Charter, the Security Council has used its responsibility for international peace and security to authorize peacekeeping missions. The legal basis can be found in Chapters VI and VII, which deal with peaceful dispute resolution and enforcement actions. More recently, Chapter VII has often been invoked to authorize missions in volatile post-conflict environments where the state lacks security control. Peacekeeping must also be grounded in international human rights and humanitarian law to help guide personnel on how their tasks intersect with these norms and how to respond appropriately to violations while protecting civilians.
The document introduces the Resilience-based Earthquake Design Initiative (REDi) Rating System. It was created by a team of experts to provide guidelines for designing buildings to withstand earthquakes and return to functionality quickly. The rating system establishes resilience objectives, defines important terms, and provides criteria for assessing a building's organizational resilience, structural resilience, ability to withstand other earthquake impacts, and estimated losses from downtime and damage. If implemented, the rating system aims to help buildings and communities become more earthquake resilient.
This document provides an overview and definitions related to environmental impact assessments and cumulative impact assessments. It discusses key components of cumulative impact assessments, including defining appropriate spatial and temporal boundaries, scoping analyses, and identifying impacts from past, present and future actions. A five-step procedure is outlined for assessing cumulative impacts that involves determining proximate effects of a proposal, investigating the affected environment resulting from past actions, and assessing the implications of a proposal given the current environmental condition.
This document provides an overview of the FEMA Independent Study course titled "Decision Making and Problem Solving". The 6-unit course aims to improve students' decision-making skills through exploring topics like the decision-making process, decision-making styles, ethical decision making, and applying the skills to emergency management case studies. The course includes activities, knowledge checks, and a final exam. Upon completion, students will be better able to make effective decisions through applying the taught problem-solving model.
Sand dust storms middleeast northafrica MENA sources costs solutions_wb2019PatrickTanz
This document summarizes sources, costs, and solutions related to sand and dust storms in the Middle East and North Africa region. It discusses key findings such as hot spots for dust storms being areas of North Africa and the Middle East near deserts, with increasing trends observed over time. Major sources of dust include desert areas and dry lands impacted by climate change, land degradation, and human activities. Impacts discussed include negative health effects from particulate matter, environmental damage, and significant economic costs. The document also reviews potential interventions like early warning systems, reforestation, and policy approaches to address sand and dust storms in the region.
The Lost Secrets Of The Garden: The Companion Planting Guide For Vegetable Ga...Fayina19z
The document discusses an interview with Mother Earth about her role and mankind's current situation. Mother Earth says her main purpose is to provide a place for souls to develop skills in loving one another. She notes that mankind is at a defining point, on the brink of either destroying itself or realizing its spiritual nature and living in harmony with nature.
This document discusses the challenges facing agriculture and opportunities for greening agriculture. It finds that conventional industrial agriculture has led to environmental degradation while small farms are important for food security and poverty reduction. Greening agriculture through investments in soil, water and biodiversity management can generate economic and environmental benefits. The costs of environmental degradation from agriculture are high, so increased investment in natural capital in the agriculture sector is needed. Global, national and economic policies can help create an enabling environment for green agriculture.
This document provides an overview and introduction to the fifth edition of the book "Root Cause Analysis in Health Care: Tools and Techniques". It lists the executive editor, project manager, reviewers, and details about the mission and standards of Joint Commission Resources. It also includes a table of contents showing the chapters and steps involved in root cause analysis. The introduction explains that the book is designed to provide accurate information to help health care organizations conduct root cause analyses after adverse events.
Jatropha and Sustainable Livelihood of Small-scale FarmersZK8
This document provides an introduction to the thesis topic. It discusses the challenges facing developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa, including high poverty levels, lack of access to modern energy, and the need to provide energy for development while also addressing climate change mitigation. The problem area addressed is how Jatropha production and utilization could impact rural livelihoods for small-scale farmers in Zambia's central province. The research question asks about these livelihood impacts and recommendations for how Jatropha could improve rural livelihoods. The introduction provides context on the energy and development challenges in sub-Saharan Africa to frame the thesis topic.
Study: Impact Analysis of the Marcellus Shale Safe Drilling InitiativeMarcellus Drilling News
A study released by the Regional Economic Studies Institute (RESI) at Towson University says if Maryland would only allow Marcellus Shale drilling, two western MD counties would reap huge benefits. The study, "Impact Analysis of the Marcellus Shale Safe Drilling Initiative" says Allegany and Garrett counties would benefit from thousands of new jobs and hundreds of million dollars in newfound revenue.
This document provides Plaintiffs' response to an order to show cause regarding Defendants' alleged modification of policies related to detaining immigrant families. Plaintiffs argue that Defendants' new policies have not significantly reduced detention times or improved detention conditions and continue to violate the Flores settlement. Plaintiffs assert that Defendants have failed to show cause for reconsidering the previous court order finding their family detention policies in breach of the settlement.
This document introduces a handbook on monitoring and evaluation (M&E) for biodiversity conservation and development projects. M&E is an integral part of project implementation that focuses on observing, gathering data, reflecting, and learning. This allows projects to be innovative and improve over time. The handbook provides practical guidance on developing an M&E plan, building learning into projects, gathering and analyzing information, drawing recommendations, and sharing lessons learned. It aims to establish a common language around project management among organizations in the C.A.P.E. partnership and support effective M&E.
The degradation of Philippine marine life and coastal ecosystems like coral reefs and mangroves is outlined. The Philippines has extensive coastline and marine resources but coral reefs have over 70% damage from threats like blast fishing, while mangrove areas have declined sharply from 500,000 hectares to just 117,000 hectares due to activities like aquaculture and development. Specific areas of concern are discussed like the Tubbataha Reef, a UNESCO World Heritage Site that suffered damage when a US naval ship ran aground in the reef in 2013.
Avoiding deforestation and forest degradation under a new climate agreement: ...CIFOR-ICRAF
This document provides an overview and summary of REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation) and its evolution. It discusses key aspects of the Paris Agreement in relation to forests and REDD+. It outlines the history and architecture of REDD+ and examines factors that can hinder or enable transformational change towards reducing deforestation. Finally, it discusses findings from CIFOR's Global Comparative Study on national REDD+ policies and processes in 14 countries.
The document discusses environmental problems in South Asia, including common issues such as water pollution, deforestation, and air pollution. Case studies from various countries provide examples of specific issues, like the Ganges River being polluted with sewage and industrial waste in India. The key causes identified are population growth, lack of urban infrastructure, industries, overexploitation of resources, and impacts of the green revolution. Collective measures and solutions are needed to address the region's environmental challenges.
Drivers of deforestation and forest degradationCIFOR-ICRAF
This presentation by Gabrielle Kissinger and Martin Herold was given on 26 November 2012 at a UNFCCC COP18 side-event in Doha, Qatar. They shared findings from a recently published global assessment on the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation, as well as country experiences of dealing with them in a REDD+ context. To support SBSTA considerations on REDD+, and to support ongoing national-level REDD+ planning and implementation, the assessment explores the importance of drivers, the role of drivers in REDD+ policy development and interventions, and in developing forest reference emission levels.
The document provides information about volcanic eruptions, including:
1. It describes the different types of volcanic eruptions such as magmatic, phreatomagmatic, and phreatic eruptions. Specific subtypes of eruptions like Hawaiian, Strombolian, Vulcanian, and Plinian eruptions are also discussed.
2. The causes and mechanisms of different types of eruptions are explained. Magmatic eruptions are caused by gas release during decompression, while phreatomagmatic eruptions result from thermal contraction when magma interacts with water.
3. Details are given about what causes volcanoes, with an overview of the structure of
The document discusses deforestation, including its causes, effects, extent in India, and methods for control. It defines deforestation as the removal of forests and notes its main drivers are shifting agriculture, commercial logging, mining and dams. Deforestation leads to soil erosion, decreased rainfall, loss of biodiversity and plants used in medicine. India has lost over 3 million hectares since 1951 mainly due to population growth, development and dependency on forests. Reforestation efforts, legislation, wildlife sanctuaries and sustainable forest management can help control deforestation.
Business Guide To Low Carbon Economy FinalGreg Mohrman
This document discusses The Business Guide to the Low Carbon Economy: California. It was created by The Climate Group and Arup to provide businesses in California with guidance on reducing their greenhouse gas emissions and participating in the state's emerging low carbon economy. The guide provides background on California's climate change policies and a framework for businesses to measure their emissions, identify reduction opportunities, and report their progress. It aims to help businesses understand how to both comply with regulations and realize financial benefits from lowering their carbon footprint.
This document discusses The Business Guide to the Low Carbon Economy: California. It was created by The Climate Group and Arup to provide businesses with guidance on reducing greenhouse gas emissions in compliance with California's climate policies. The Climate Group and Arup collaborated to produce the guide, with Arup providing expertise and content. The guide aims to help businesses understand California's climate regulations, measure their emissions, and take steps to reduce emissions in a cost-effective manner in order to prepare for regulatory requirements and capitalize on economic opportunities in the low-carbon economy.
This document provides a summary of an international review of waste management policy conducted for the Irish Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government. The review was led by Eunomia Research & Consulting and involved experts from Ireland, Belgium, Germany, Austria, and Italy. The review aims to identify policy changes to help Ireland move towards more sustainable resource and waste management, including reducing waste creation and increasing reuse and recycling. The summary report outlines the review's objectives, scope, approach, key issues for Ireland, policy recommendations, and expected results of implementing the recommendations.
Closing The Loop: the benefits of Circular Economy for developing countries a...Alexandre Fernandes
This report presents evidence to the effect that emerging economies can leapfrog development stages and implement an economic model that is better both for society and for the environment. The circular Cradle
to Cradle® paradigm* is a production model aimed at leveraging steady economic development for the future, without causing environmental damage. If implemented correctly, it is capable of promoting the maintenance of natural ecosystems while at the same time offering benefits to the poorest groups in society.
The report illustrates the tremendous window of opportunity provided for Brazil by the new Solid Waste National Policy. Policies such as this can help low- and middle-income countries to build on and formalise existing informal circular economic activities, thereby taking a development path that avoids many unsustainable elements of the linear production model.
The various case studies included in this report demonstrate the potential of the circular economic model to bring numerous social benefits, such as strengthening local economies, empowering the poorest families and building resilience, through stimulating the entrepreneurial spirit of businesses based on the solidarity economy.
Although the circular economy concept is not yet very well known in Brazil, this system has already taken root in various countries, in innovative businesses and major global production chains.
Rapport de la Banque Mondiale sur la Production et la Consommation du Charbon...Stanleylucas
This document summarizes a national assessment of charcoal production and consumption trends in Haiti. It was conducted by an interdisciplinary team led by the World Bank and included field research, interviews, and data collection on charcoal production and trade over three sampling periods. The results found that charcoal production and trade is highly concentrated around Port-au-Prince and varies significantly within days of the week and across regions of Haiti. Production in more remote areas is supplemented by "feeder roads" that transport additional charcoal into urban areas.
The Scoping Plan document outlines California's strategy to achieve the 2020 greenhouse gas emissions reduction target mandated by the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 (AB 32). The plan calls for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020, which is approximately 30% below business-as-usual emission levels projected for 2020, or about 15% from today's levels. The plan proposes a wide range of potential policies and measures to reduce emissions across all sectors of the economy, including energy, transportation, agriculture, and recycling and waste. It also discusses the public process undertaken to develop the plan and opportunities for further reductions post-2020.
The report aims to make the case for adopting a green growth agenda in Mediterranean countries. It does this by highlighting how environmental policies can generate economic and social co-benefits, and by providing recommendations and case studies on implementing policies and tools to enhance productivity of natural assets while dealing with trade-offs. The objective is to share sustainable economic options with decision makers and present evidence that green growth can create jobs and promote social cohesion in the region.
Publication: Space Debris: Applied Technologies and Policy Prescriptionsstephaniclark
This document provides a comprehensive analysis of the problem of space debris and recommendations to facilitate debris elimination. It finds that tens of millions of pieces of debris exist in low Earth orbit, posing a threat to satellites and human spaceflight. While larger debris can be tracked, millions of smaller pieces cannot. The document examines debris detection and removal technologies and policies at international and domestic levels. It recommends that demonstration of technologies like ground-based lasers for small debris removal should be a priority, and that establishing agreed upon definitions through the UN would enhance international space policy. Overall, the analysis finds that cooperation is needed between countries and organizations to fully address the growing issue of space debris.
Harvesting, Storing and Treating Rainwater - Texas EPAD6Z
This document provides guidance on harvesting, storing, and treating rainwater for domestic indoor use in Texas. It discusses contaminants that may be present in rainwater and guidelines for setting up a roof-based collection system with gutters and downspouts to direct water into a storage tank. It also covers sizing rainwater collection and storage components based on water demand and rainfall patterns. The document reviews treatment options for microbes, such as filtration and disinfection using UV light or chlorine. It discusses dual distribution systems to safely provide both potable and nonpotable water.
The Green Roof Advisory Group was charged with exploring incentives to encourage green roofs in Austin. They established committees, reviewed other city policies, and created a database of Austin green roofs. Key findings include: green roofs provide multiple benefits but benefits are difficult to quantify; Austin is in the early stages of green roof policy development; and density bonuses are effective incentives used elsewhere. The group developed initial design considerations and a five-year policy implementation plan to advance green roof adoption in Austin.
This document provides an updated biological foundation for the Canadian Intermountain Joint Venture (CIJV) by outlining conservation goals for three priority habitat types: wetlands, lakes and rivers; riparian areas; and grasslands. It identifies priority bird species for each habitat, sets population objectives, discusses threats, and recommends conservation actions and habitat objectives. The document builds on the CIJV's original prospectus and implementation plan for wetlands to expand conservation planning to additional habitats that support important bird populations in the region.
A Guide to Louisiana-Friendly Landscaping - Louisiana State UniversityKama158x
This document provides an overview of the Louisiana-Friendly Landscaping program and guidelines for creating sustainable landscapes. It discusses planning considerations like soil quality, plant selection, efficient watering practices, and mulching. The document is intended as a guide for homeowners and landscapers to design yards that are both beautiful and protective of water resources. It emphasizes using native plants, limiting turfgrass areas, proper planting and care techniques, efficient irrigation, and natural yard waste management. The overall goal is to help people landscape their property in an environmentally-friendly way that reduces pollution and conserves water.
This document provides an introduction, definitions, and literature review for a thesis on integrating Community Cultural Development (CCD) practices into high school Social Justice Education (SJE). The introduction discusses the shared goals of community artists, activists, and educators in empowering youth to transform society. It presents the hypothesis that integrating CCD practices into SJE will increase youth participation in social transformation. Definitions of key terms are also provided, such as SJE, CCD, and how they relate. The literature review covers research methods and existing literature on SJE, CCD, and their relationships.
This document provides guidance on the handling and use of biodiesel and biodiesel blends. It discusses biodiesel basics including its composition as a non-petroleum, renewable fuel derived from plant or animal fats. The document also covers biodiesel properties including energy content, low-temperature properties, stability, and compatibility with engine systems. It provides specifications and considerations for using pure biodiesel (B100) as well as blends with petroleum diesel from B5 to B20. The guidance aims to support safe and effective use of biodiesel and adherence to fuel quality standards.
This document discusses methane pollution from the oil and gas industry and its threats. It finds that methane accounts for over 10% of US greenhouse gas emissions, with oil and gas systems being the largest source. Methane is released at multiple points during production, processing, storage and distribution of natural gas and oil. This wasted methane pollutes the environment and contributes to climate change impacts threatening wildlife like warmer streams harming trout. The document calls for stronger regulations to reduce the estimated 8 million tons of methane emitted annually from oil and gas operations.
Dod Protecting The Force Web Security Hr 13 Jan10mpbeames
This document outlines the findings and recommendations from an independent review related to the Fort Hood shooting conducted by the Department of Defense (DoD). It is led by Secretary of Defense Robert Gates and includes high-ranking military personnel. The executive summary provides an overview and discusses lessons learned regarding identifying threats, sharing information, force security, command responsibilities, and emergency response procedures. It finds issues with oversight of the alleged perpetrator, personnel policies for identifying and addressing concerning behaviors, and force protection measures. The full report contains more details across multiple chapters on these topics.
This document contains four appendices that provide supplemental information to a report on practical terrorism prevention efforts. Appendix A presents case studies of counterterrorism prevention programs in seven other countries. Appendix B summarizes lessons learned from visits to five U.S. cities. Appendix C discusses potential measures and metrics for evaluating national terrorism prevention efforts. Appendix D provides additional analysis on resourcing and spending related to terrorism prevention.
The document provides an introduction and overview of the Plumas County General Plan update process. It outlines the goals of the process, which include preserving the natural environment and cultural/historical resources while supporting economic development. It also gives background on Plumas County's history and landscapes. The briefing report aims to provide context and baseline information to inform the public engagement process for the General Plan update.
The document provides an introduction and overview of the Plumas County General Plan update process. It outlines the goals of the process, which include preserving the natural environment and cultural/historical resources while supporting economic development. It also gives background on Plumas County's history and landscapes. The briefing report aims to provide context and baseline information to inform the public engagement process for the General Plan update.
The Military Compensation and Retirement Modernization Commission (MCRMC) retirement
reform plan is a blended approach that includes a defined benefit (DB), a defined contribution
(DC) plan, and higher current compensation in the form of continuation pay at year
of service (YOS) 12. In addition, the plan allows active component (AC) service members—at
the time of their retirement from the military—a choice regarding the DB annuity receivable
from the time of retirement to age 67.1 The member may choose a full DB annuity, a full
lump-sum payment in lieu of the annuity, or partial DB annuity and partial lump sum. The
DB is like today’s DB, except with a multiplier of 2.0 percent instead of 2.5 percent in today’s
system. Reserve component (RC) retirees could elect to receive (1) a full DB annuity starting
at age 60; (2) a lump sum paid at the time of retirement from the RC in lieu of the annuity to
age 67; or (3) a partial DB annuity from ages 60 to 67 and a partial lump sum paid at the time
of retirement from the RC, then receive the full annuity starting at age 67. The DC plan vests
at YOS 3, the Department of Defense (DoD) makes an automatic contribution of 1 percent of
basic pay from years 1 to 20, and DoD matches the member’s contribution up to 5 percent of
basic pay over years 3–20.
Similar to The Hidden Frontier of Forest Degradation (20)
7. O
ne of the critical sources of global greenhouse gas Change (IPCC). We suspect this difference is due to the lim-
emissions can be addressed through conservation itations of existing global remote sensing studies and United
of the highest biodiversity ecosystem on earth, Nations Food and Agriculture Organization information that
tropical forests, by channeling funds to developing countries form the basis of the IPCC estimates.
at a cost-savings for developed countries. We have an historic None of these estimates account for the catalytic effect of
opportunity to accomplish this four-dimensional win by degradation. In many systems degradation such as logging
building an effective structure of incentives and standards to increases the likelihood of additional emissions from degrada-
reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation tion (e.g. fire) and subsequent deforestation, and highlights
(REDD) as part of both international negotiations for a post- the importance of addressing degradation.
2012 climate treaty and national policy development. We While reliable data exists for major sources of degradation
review here why it is essential to include the second “D” in in some parts of the world, there is a great need for improved
REDD, forest degradation (e.g. logging, fire, fuelwood har- estimates of global emissions from forest degradation. This
vest), in order to construct an effective REDD mechanism, can be achieved by scaling up the implementation of recent
and how it can be done. advances in remote sensing imagery analysis, expanding field
Forest degradation represents at least 20 percent of forest measurements, and improving the consistency of accounting
carbon emissions and acts as a catalyst of deforestation. Despite methods, as discussed below.
the growing recognition of the importance of reducing degra-
dation, there is still some skepticism about its inclusion in policy, 2a. Credible and affordable methods for measuring
especially within U.S. domestic legislation. This skepticism major forms of forest degradation exist.
stems from a general lack of understanding about the magni- New methods for detecting major forms of degradation
tude and importance of degradation as a source of emissions, (selective logging and partial canopy fires) using free satellite
and about the availability of credible accounting methods and imagery allow for credible measurement and monitoring of
effective strategies to reduce degradation. forest degradation. However, affordable remotely-sensed
monitoring that can differentiate between improved logging
We have concluded from a review of both published literature practices, as opposed to conventional logging, remains elusive.
and practitioner experience that: Existing forest certification systems, (e.g. Forest Stewardship
1. We must include major forms of degradation in a REDD Council—FSC) employing ground-based auditing of specific
mechanism because of the magnitude of these emissions; logging practices, offer a solution to this missing piece. We
2. We can include major forms of degradation in a REDD recommend customizing existing forest certification systems
mechanism thanks to the availability of both (a) reliable so that they verify practices designed to reduce emissions,
accounting methods and (b) effective, sustainable strategies; balanced with social and ecological co-benefits.
3. Credible methodologies exist and are emerging to verify
emissions reductions from avoided degradation; and 2b. Effective strategies for reducing emissions from
4. Solutions to many of the challenges of credibly reducing forest degradation exist.
emissions from forest degradation (i.e. baselines, monitor- A variety of strategies exist to address each of the three major
ing, verification, and sustainable strategies) have been drivers of forest degradation: logging, fire, and fuelwood col-
demonstrated by existing initiatives. lection. For logging, we review aspects of “Improved Forest
Management” (IFM) and focus on how IFM is operational-
We summarize our conclusions on each of these four points ized through certification by the Forest Stewardship Council
as follows: (FSC). FSC includes IFM practices that reduce emissions by
(1) reducing area logged, (2) reducing emissions per unit vol-
1. Forest degradation produces large direct forest ume harvested, and (3) reducing the probability of subsequent
carbon emissions, and catalyzes additional emissions forest conversion. There are other elements of IFM practices
from deforestation. associated with FSC that can offset these emissions reductions;
We find that degradation emissions represent at least 20 per- however, under most conditions the net impact of FSC certifi-
cent of total tropical forest emissions, based on values ranging cation is likely to reduce emissions. Larger and more consistent
from 20 percent to over 50 percent found in a variety of emissions reductions from FSC certification can be achieved
regional studies across the three major tropical forest regions, by (i) more explicit requirements for specific logging practices,
and in a global logging emissions study. Our estimate is more and (ii) identification of a set of regionally appropriate emissions-
than twice that of global studies referenced by the Fourth reducing practices that can be audited as part of certification.
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
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8. Fire management strategies can be implemented in both 4. Existing conservation projects have demonstrated the
fire-sensitive and fire-dependent systems to reduce the risk of viability of reducing emissions by avoiding forest degra-
unexpected fire emissions that can undermine the permanence dation associated with timber extraction, fire, and
of forest carbon emissions reductions. Fire management prac- fuelwood collection.
tices in fire-dependent systems (such as seasonally dry forests) Accounting for avoided emissions from degradation can be
are fundamentally different from fire management practices in essential to the viability of climate initiatives such as the Noel
fire-sensitive systems (such as rainforests). Emissions reductions Kempff Mercado Climate Action Project in Bolivia, the Garcia
resulting from fire management practices are often difficult to River Forest Project in the United States, and the West Arnhem
quantify; however, in some fire-dependent systems where fire Land Fire Abatement project in Australia. Accounting for
behavior is highly predictable, management practices can be avoided emissions from degradation can be essential to the
linked to quantifiable emissions reductions. viability of climate initiatives such as the Noel Kempff
Integrated Fire Management offers a comprehensive frame- Mercado Climate Action Project in Bolivia, the Garcia River
work for planning fire management strategies to reduce CO2 Forest Project in the United States, the West Arnhem Land
emissions and reduce the risk of non-permanence. National- Fire Abatement project in Australia, and the Cambodian
scale REDD programs should consider fire management as an Efficient Cook Stove Project.
integral part of REDD initiatives, given the magnitude of The Noel Kempff Mercado Climate Action Project has
emissions in both fire-dependant and fire-sensitive systems, demonstrated methods to (i) account for the avoided emissions
and the range of co-benefits associated with good fire man- from stopping logging, (ii) address leakage and permanence
agement practices. issues, and (iii) verify tradable emissions reductions. The
Fuelwood harvest emissions can be addressed with efficient Garcia River Forest Project is demonstrating that emissions
cook stove programs that reduce fuelwood demand, and/or reductions through Improved Forest Management (IFM)
through a variety of strategies that increase fuelwood supply efforts, which maintain sustainable timber production, are
including woodlot development, agroforestry, and commu- viable even in a context of relatively good “business as usual”
nity-based forest management. baseline practices and the occurrence of unplanned fires. The
West Arnhem Land Fire Abatement project has demonstrated
3. Credible methodologies exist and are emerging to both (i) accounting methods for quantifying the emission
verify emissions reductions from avoided degradation. reductions resulting from fire management practices in a fire-
Currently, standards and methodologies to verify reduced dependent savanna system, and (ii) the viability of a strategy
emissions from forest degradation are at an early stage of that engages indigenous groups in traditional fire management
development, with the exception of fuelwood strategies covered activities to reduce fire emissions. The Cambodian Efficient
under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). Lessons Cook Stove Project has demonstrated that emissions reduc-
from forest certification can be used to complement existing tions from efficient cook stoves can be real, measurable, and
and emerging carbon standards and methodologies. While not verifiable with existing standards and methodologies, while
created to address carbon emissions, FSC certification is a well improving local job opportunities.
developed forest management standard designed to minimize
ecological impacts resulting from timber harvest, while recog-
nizing the ecological context of different tropical forest systems
and achieving standards of social justice. We recommend the
development of explicit links between existing forest manage-
ment standards (e.g. FSC) and carbon standards (e.g. Voluntary
Carbon Standard). As part of this process, research is needed
to evaluate regionally specific forest practices that achieve
quantified carbon benefits and are balanced with ecological
and social concerns.
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10. W
e are in the midst of a critical period of negotia- 4. Solutions to many of the challenges of credibly reducing
tions to develop a framework for crediting reduced emissions from forest degradation (ie. baselines, monitoring,
emissions from deforestation and forest degrada- verification, sustainable strategies) have been demonstrated
tion (REDD) as part of a post-2012 international climate change by existing conservation projects addressing emissions from
agreement. Negotiations for a new climate treaty are expected logging, fire, and fuelwood harvest.
to reach a crescendo over the coming year as we advance from
the December 2009 fifteenth Conference of the Parties of the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change In the following chapters we examine the basis for these four
(UNFCCC-COP 15) towards COP 16 in Mexico. statements. In order to do this we organize each chapter around
The issue of deforestation commands the center of attention the following questions:
in negotiations over mitigation policies intended to reduce the
approximately 15 percent of annual carbon dioxide emissions Chapter 2: What is the magnitude of emissions from forest degradation?
produced from converting or degrading forests (van der Werf We review literature on global and regional estimates of forest
et. al., 2009; Canadell et. al., 2007). While emissions from degradation, and the causal links between various types of
forest degradation, the “second D in REDD,” are more difficult degradation and deforestation.
to measure, the inclusion of forest degradation in a REDD
framework is critical for robust and credible REDD account- Chapter 3: What are the best available methods to credibly and affordably
ing, as well as effective implementation of REDD programs. account for avoided emissions from degradation, and what gaps remain?
We review the advantages and limitations of existing and
We have concluded from a review of the literature and practi- emerging methods, and the context in which different
tioner experience with REDD pilot projects that: methods are appropriate.
1. We must include major forms of degradation in a REDD Chapter 4: What strategies are currently available to address degradation
mechanism in order to credibly measure and effectively on the ground? We review challenges, discuss solutions, and
reduce forest carbon emissions because (a) emissions from consider the context in which a given strategy has been
forest degradation are a major component of total forest demonstrated to be effective.
carbon emissions, and (b) degradation often acts as a cata-
lyst for deforestation. Chapter 5: Can lessons from forest certification be used in the development
of carbon standards and methodologies for reducing emissions from forest
2. We can include major forms of degradation in a REDD degradation? We focus on the case of logging, where standards
mechanism thanks to both (a) credible and affordable and associated methodologies are further along, but where
methods for measuring major forms of forest degradation, gaps remain.
and (b) effective strategies for sustainably reducing emis-
sions from forest degradation, with additional benefits for Chapter 6: What cases exist where strategies to reduce degradation have
reducing deforestation. been effectively implemented, and the carbon benefits have been credibly mea-
sured? We present four case studies where degradation is being
3. Credible methodologies exist and are emerging to verify included in initiatives that avoid forest carbon emissions and/or
emissions reductions from avoided degradation, while enhance sequestration. We touch on the issues discussed in
ensuring ecological and social co-benefits. These can be other chapters in the context of each case study.
advanced by linking carbon standards with existing forest
certification systems. We conclude in Chapter 7 with a synthesis of the critical
messages from chapters 2-6 for policymakers heading to the
December 2009 COP-15, and beyond.
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11. box one » what is “degradation?”
The definition of forest degradation is perhaps the most basic of the policy challenges that must be resolved to include degradation in a
REDD mechanism.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) does not have an officially adopted definition of degrada-
tion. The UNFCCC and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) differentiate between forest and non-forests based on
percent crown cover. Deforestation has occurred if crown cover is reduced below a minimum threshold varying from 10 percent to 30
percent (each national government selects a threshold value within this range). Forest degradation, on the other hand, occurs when
emissions from forests are generated without reducing forest cover below 10-30 percent. In general terms then, “degradation” refers
to the loss of forest carbon stocks in forests that remain forests. Accordingly, in a nation with a 10 percent crown cover threshold, as
much as 90 percent of the forest could be cleared without being identified as deforestation.
The 2003 IPCC Special Report on Definitions and Methodological Options to Inventory Emissions from Direct Human Induced
Degradation of Forests and Devegetation of Other Vegetation Types offers a more comprehensive definition of forest degradation which
reads, “direct human-induced long-term loss (persisting for X years or more) of at least Y percent of forest carbon stocks [and forest
values] since time T and not qualifying as deforestation or an elected activity under Article 3.4 of the Kyoto Protocol.”1
This definition is a move in the right direction, but by excluding activities included under Article 3.4 of the Kyoto Protocol, forest man-
agement would not count as a degrading activity. Forest management clearly results in significant reductions in carbon stocks within
a forest. Therefore, we would propose the following definition: forest degradation is:
A direct, human-induced reduction in the forest carbon stocks from the natural carbon carrying capacity2 of natural forest ecosys-
tems which persists for a specified performance period and does not qualify as deforestation.
This carbon-based definition should not be confused with references to degradation in the context of biodiversity or timber value,
which are often but not always correlated with carbon degradation.
In maintaining consistency with the Kyoto Protocol, we stress the importance of limiting definitions of forest degradation to anthro-
pogenic activities, such as logging, fire, and fuelwood harvest. The emphasis on carbon stocks provides a real means to measure
degradation. Natural carbon stock fluctuations (such as natural fire and hurricane damage) are not designated as degradation in our
definition and would be encompassed within the natural carbon carrying capacity. Time-averaged natural carbon carrying capacities
vary with landscape, and provide the best indicator of the appropriate baseline state from which to gauge degradation. The use of a
different indicator than carbon carrying capacity risks reducing incentives to maintain forests in their natural state and could result in
diminished opportunity for credited emissions reductions. In specifying performance periods as the time frame, we exclude temporary
changes in carbon stocks, while at the same time provide a realistic means to operationalize the definition. By excluding areas that
would be considered “deforested” by current definitions, we avoid double counting issues.
1
An elected activity under Article 3.4 refers to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions by sources and removals by sinks that are reported under the Convention. In Decision
16/CMP.1 (2005), these elected activities were specified as: revegetation, forest management, cropland management and grazing land management.
2
We define “natural carbon carrying capacity (CCC)” here as the mass of carbon expected to be stored in a forest ecosystem under prevailing environmental conditions and natural
disturbance regimes, averaged over large enough spatial and temporal scales to capture the range of natural disturbance, but excluding anthropogenic disturbance; Also see Gupta, R.K.
& Rao, D.L.N. (1994) Potential of wastelands for sequestering carbon by reforestation. Current Science, 66, 378–380.
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13. SUMMARY FOR POLICY & PRACTICE
» Degradation emissions represent at least 20 percent of total tropical forest emissions. This estimate is based on a review of regional estimates
from all three major tropical forest zones (Amazonia, Congo basin, Southeast Asia) which find that degradation emissions represent from 20 to 57
percent of total emissions from deforestation and degradation.
» Degradation emissions appear to represent (i) the majority of emissions from tropical forests in Africa, and (ii) a magnitude similar to deforestation
in tropical Asia.
» Global estimates referenced by the IPCC Assessment Report 4 appear to underestimate emissions from degradation due to technical limita-
tions of global estimates to date. Work is needed to (i) improve the consistency of methods used to estimate degradation emissions, and (ii)
improve the accuracy of global estimates.
» Degradation often increases the likelihood of deforestation. Thus, including emissions from degradation in a REDD mechanism is important
not only to address direct emissions resulting from degradation, but also to link incentives for mitigation towards the first steps in a chain of events
leading to deforestation.
E
stimates of the amount of global emissions from tropical
forest degradation vary by almost an order of magnitude.
Studies referenced by the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report (Nabuurs
et al., 2007) estimate that forest degradation emissions repre-
sent 4.4 percent (Achard et al., 2004) to seven to nine percent
(Houghton, 2003; DeFries et al., 2002) of total tropical forest
carbon emissions. In contrast, a recent study attributes about 35
percent of tropical forest emissions to legal selective logging
alone (0.51 Gt C/yr), in just the 20 percent of tropical forests
identified as “production estate” by the International Tropical
Timber Organization (Putz et al., 2008).
Degradation from Logging
Logging is the only type of forest degradation with global tropi-
cal emissions estimates (Putz et al. 2008, Houghton 2003).
Tropical Asia was identified by Putz et al. (2008) as the FIGURE 1. Spatial distribution of selective logging in five timber-production states of
the Brazilian Amazon for the year intervals 1999 (red), 2000-2001 (blue), and 2001-
largest source of logging emissions. New methods to detect 2002 (green). The states of Amazonas (AM), Amapa (AP), Tocantins (TO), Maranhao
selective logging activities (Asner et. al. 2005), and partial (MA), and the southern non-forested part of Mato Grosso were not included in the
analysis. Light grey areas show the extent of indigenous reserves; dark grey areas
canopy fire (Souza et. al. 2005), have revolutionized the delineate federal conservation lands as of 1999. RR, Roraima; PA, Pará; MT, Mato
detection of degradation emissions (Curran et al., 2006); Grosso; RO, Rondônia; AC, Acre. This figure is reproduced, with permission of the
authors, from Asner et. al. 2005.
however these methods have not yet been applied globally.
Asner et al. (2005) determined that emissions from selective
logging in major portions of the Brazilian Amazon add up to
0.08 GtC to the atmosphere each year, increasing the estimated Degradation from Fuelwood Harvest
gross annual anthropogenic flux of carbon from Amazonian It is clear that fire and fuelwood harvest, though not yet
forests by 25 percent over carbon losses from deforestation measured globally, represent two other major sources of
(Figure 1). It was also found that annual logging activities degradation emissions. Fuelwood harvesting accounts for 40
cover an area similar in size to the area deforested each year. percent of global removal of wood from forests according to
These new analytical methods have thus revealed that selec- the FAO (2006); however, it is not yet clear how to translate
tive logging represents about 20 percent of emissions from this activity to actual greenhouse gas emissions caused by fuel-
degradation and deforestation in the Amazon region3. wood harvesting. An analysis by Gaston et al. (1998) concluded
3
We arrive at this “about 20 percent” figure simply by adding the Asner et. al. (2005) estimate of selective logging emissions to deforestation emissions. It appears that Asner et.
al.(2005) have accounted for the average annual area logged that is subsequently deforested in generating their 0.08 GtC value (they find that 19% of the total area logged was subse-
quently deforested three years later).
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15. FIGURE 2. Stylized example of interactions between degradation processes leading to conversion. The order and nature of these transitions depends upon
location. For example, in Indonesia, the “ranching” phase may instead be palm oil, or another tree crop.
emissions,” that is all the emissions that are certain to occur The problem of lumping emissions from degradation with
eventually as a result of a given degradation activity (Putz those from deforestation may be greatest where degradation
et al., 2008). For example, the majority of emissions from acts as a catalyst for deforestation. It is these situations where
selective logging activities generally come from dead trees it is particularly important to identify emissions from degra-
left in the forest that rot or burn years after the actual log- dation so that REDD incentives can be directed to the first
ging event. step in the chain reaction of land use change.
Despite these challenges, from our review of (i) regional
2. Forest re-growth: Some studies account for “net” emissions studies from all the major tropical forest zones finding that
from logging by subtracting the expected increase in tree forest degradation emissions from logging, fire, and fuelwood
growth and sequestration rates after logging events from collection represent 20-57 percent of forest emissions, (ii) a
the emissions (Houghton 2003). Others do not make this pan-tropical study on emissions from legal logging (Putz et. al.
“growth offset” subtraction (Putz et al., 2008). 2008), and (iii) the limitations of global remote sensing analy-
ses in detecting degradation, we infer that emissions from
3. Lumping Degradation with Deforestation: Some deforesta- tropical forest degradation represent at least 20 percent of
tion estimates include some degradation emissions because total tropical forest emissions, the low end of the regional
they assume that forests being cleared are not degraded, studies. While more research is needed to identify a single
even though forests are often degraded before they are value for the magnitude of degradation emissions, we are sug-
converted. This problem results in underestimates of gesting that the studies referenced by the IPCC (Nabuurs et
degradation emissions and complicates full accounting of al., 2007), reporting that degradation emissions represent less
emissions from deforestation and degradation. The critical than 10 percent of forest emissions, are making a conservative
issue is to avoid double counting of emissions when adding underestimate.
estimates of deforestation and forest degradation.
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16. Degradation as a Catalyst Selective logging also can catalyze fire use and deforesta-
Some forms of degradation may be responsible for additional tion by creating road access to unoccupied and protected lands
emissions through a causal chain of events. For example, a com- (Veríssimo et al., 1995). Roads have been identified as a strong
mon causal chain begins with logging, which (i) increases the predictor of frontier expansion and accompanying deforestation
likelihood of fire by leaving dead wood which is dried by sun and degradation in a variety of tropical forest regions. More
exposure, (ii) increases the exposure of remaining trees to than two-thirds of Amazon deforestation has taken place
blow-down, and (iii) creates roads offering access to ranchers within 50km of major paved highways (Nepstad et al., 2001).
and farmers. Thus, while conventional logging is only directly Harris et al. (2008) identified various indicators of accessibil-
responsible for emitting a portion of the total forest carbon ity, including roads, as the leading predictors of deforestation
stocks, it may increase the likelihood of additional emissions spatial patterns in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. As paved roads
from other forms of degradation (e.g. fire, storms) and conver- expand into untouched forests, there is a higher likelihood of
sion (e.g. pasture, agriculture) (Figure 2). The extent to which degradation because it gives access to logging communities
a degradation event actually causes subsequent degradation and and other resource exploitation. Logging creates additional
deforestation in a given location is complicated by both the labyrinths of forest roads that then allow further access deeper
role of other drivers, and the elasticity of demand for forest into forests (Laurance, 1999). This improved access may trig-
products and/or cleared land. For this reason, it is usually safer ger emergent human pressures, including gold mining, massive
to derive the magnitude of emissions from degradation only from immigration, illegal hunting, illegal logging, and land squatting
the emissions directly associated with degradation activities and/or slash and burn agriculture.
(as done in the above section). Nevertheless, it is valuable to Deforestation can also catalyze degradation. Tree mortality
consider the extent to which degradation acts as a catalyst in a and forest flammability are higher along forest edges (Balch et
larger forest transition process, and thus may offer opportunities al., 2008; Blate 2005; Laurance et al., 1997; Alencar et al.,
for transforming those forest transition processes. We review 2004), a phenomenon called “edge effects.” As a result, the
here studies that consider these forest transition relationships. methods used to clear forests for crops and/ or cattle ranching
Selective logging was found to damage up to 50 percent of often have unintended destructive effects to adjacent forests.
the leaf canopy (Uhl & Vieira, 1989) and increase forest sus- Sometimes, when farmers use fire to clear fields or manage
ceptibility to fire (Uhl & Kauffman, 1990; Holdsworth & Uhl, their land, the fires escape beyond their intended boundaries
1997). Fire then increases susceptibility to further burning in (Ganz & Moore, 2002; Ganz 2001). These unwanted fires
a positive feedback by killing trees, opening the canopy and may also give local communities or commercial operators
increasing solar penetration to the forest floor, and increasing access rights to the timber as part of salvage operations.
the cover of grasses that typically succeed fire and further
increase the likelihood of fire (Nepstad et al., 1995; Nepstad et
al., 1999; Nepstad et al., 2001; Cochrane & Schulze, 1999;
Cochrane et al., 1999; Alencar et al., 2004; Blate 2005).
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18. SUMMARY FOR POLICY & PRACTICE
» New methods for detecting major forms of degradation (selective logging and partial canopy fires) using free satellite imagery allow for
affordable and credible measurement and monitoring of emissions from forest degradation.
» Carbon accounting programs should be designed to accommodate some distinct degradation accounting and verification recommendations
associated with (i) mapping and monitoring degradation activities using remote sensing, (ii) plot measurements, (iii) modeling business as usual
degradation processes, (iv) assessment of leakage and permanence, and (v) forest certification.
» Affordable remotely-sensed monitoring of the reduced emissions from improved forest management, as opposed to conventional logging, remains
a challenge. Existing forest certification systems (e.g. Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)) employing ground-based auditing of specific logging
practices offer a solution to this problem. We recommend integrating existing forest certification systems with carbon standards and associated
methodologies. We also recommend further research to develop affordable remote sensing methods that offer the resolution necessary to detect
reduced emissions from improved forest management.
» No approved voluntary forest carbon methodology is yet available to verify reduced emissions associated with reduced impact logging outside
of the U.S., although some have been submitted for approval under the Voluntary Carbon Standard (VCS). We encourage the development and
approval of such methodologies.
F
orest carbon accounting for REDD projects seeking These accounting steps are used to generate Verified Emissions
verified carbon credits on the voluntary market gener- Reductions (VERs) that can be sold on the voluntary market,
ally involves the following steps, each of which includes or retired. Generating REDD emissions reductions as part of
a series of distinct analyses or administrative processes, as an anticipated post-2012 climate treaty framework will likely
listed in Figure 3: involve similar steps. Though the accounting methods have yet
1. Scoping: The location, strategies, and standards need to be to be determined, they will be influenced by both the larger
determined at the beginning to establish that which will be scale at which compliance grade offsets will likely be generated,
accounted for, even though there may be adjustments after and the financial mechanism involved.
initial accounting information becomes available. While many of these steps are essentially the same for
2. Baseline: The baseline, or reference emission level (REL), deforestation as for degradation, there can be important dif-
provides the expected business-as-usual (bau) level of ferences resulting from distinct challenges of measuring and
emissions that is referenced for calculating emissions monitoring degradation. On the other hand, some aspects of
reductions resulting from REDD interventions. accounting for degradation may be easier, as in the case of
3. Additionality: This is estimated as the difference between the leakage and permanence.
baseline and the expected lower level of emissions after Since a comprehensive discussion of forest carbon account-
REDD interventions. ing methods already exists (GOFC-GOLD, 2009) we only
4. Buffers & Discounts: Adjustments are made to additionality highlight here some of the distinctive aspects of forest degra-
based on estimates of leakage (re-location of carbon-emitting dation carbon accounting: (i) measuring and monitoring
impacts elsewhere) and the size of set-aside buffers (insurance change in the area of forest degraded (an element of steps 2
against unexpected events that damage forests after emissions and 6), (ii) projecting business-as-usual degradation (step 2),
reductions are verified). (iii) methods for estimating emissions factors (step 2), (iv)
5. Monitoring, Reporting, and Validation (MRV-ante): A project analysis of leakage and permanence (step 4), and (v) monitor-
design document (PDD), reporting on steps 1-4 and the ing and verification (step 6).
plan for monitoring outcomes, is developed as the basis for
validation and registration of expected emissions reductions.
6. Monitoring Reporting and Verification (MRV-post): After interven-
tions are made to reduce emissions, the actual emissions
are monitored and reported. An independent third party
must verify emissions reductions before they are certified
and issued.
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19. Figure 3. Six steps of REDD forest carbon accounting. See description of these steps in the text for explanation of terms and acronyms.
Baseline G Imagery must be analyzed at relatively frequent intervals since
AREA CHANGE—MEASURING CHANGES IN LAND COVER regeneration of the forest canopy may make degradation
The advent of remote sensing technology and analysis methods difficult to detect a year or two after an impact (despite
over the past few decades has dramatically reduced the cost of longer term impacts on carbon stocks). This phenomenon
measuring the change in the area of forest that is converted or is demonstrated in Figure 4.
subject to major forms of forest degradation. It has also allowed G Cost-effective remote sensing methods to detect other forms
measurements of deforestation and degradation area to be made of degradation, such as small-scale fuelwood collection, have
consistently at national and global scales. Forest degradation not yet been developed.
has posed a greater remote-sensing measurement challenge
(and thus, cost effectiveness challenge) simply because the Even more sophisticated remote sensing technologies are being
impacts to the forest canopy from partial disturbance are by developed, as well as methodologies for remote measurement
definition less dramatic and harder to detect than removal of of forest biomass (e.g. using LIDAR), and remote monitoring
the forest canopy. Selective logging, where only some of the of individual tree canopy impacts (e.g. with IKONOS)
trees in a forest are harvested, is the most common form of (GOFC-GOLD, 2009, Souza et al., 2005b). The advance of
logging in tropical forests and was previously considered invisible these methods suggest that the remaining technical limitations
to Landsat and other standard forest monitoring satellites to high accuracy degradation accounting may be resolved soon.
(Laurence and Fearnside, 1999). Nevertheless, sophisticated While these advanced technologies are currently too expen-
methods of satellite imagery analysis have been developed by sive for most non-Annex I national-scale accounting systems,
Asner et al. (2005) (Figure 1) and Souza et al. (2005a) that costs are declining rapidly.
allow detection of selective logging using free Landsat data
(Figure 4). These methods have revolutionized the feasibility “BUSINESS AS USUAL” PROJECTION OF AREA CHANGE
of affordably measuring and monitoring major forms of degra- In order to establish a baseline, various methods can be used
dation (Curran et al., 2006). The Carnegie Landsat Analysis to estimate a “business as usual” rate of transition from one
System (CLAS) (Asner et al., 2005) has been automated to vegetation cover type to another (e.g. intact forest to non-for-
require minimal geospatial analytical expertise, and is expected est) based on historical rates. The simplest approach assumes
to become freely available to non-profit organizations for use that the mean historic rate will be the future rate. At the other
in an initial set of neotropical countries. The Souza et al. (2005a) end of the spectrum, the most complex approaches involve
method is able to detect both selective logging and associated data on various drivers of forest transition and characteristics
forest degrading fire. However, there are limitations to these of landscape vulnerability, entered into sophisticated computer
advances, including: models that project transitions as spatially explicit future
landscapes (e.g. see Harris et al., 2008). The latest computer
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20. Figure 4. Time-series of Landsat images enhanced to detect degradation from logging and fire using NDFI (Normalized Differencing
Fraction Index) in Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil. The NDFI degradation signal (yellow to orange colors) change within one to two years.
Dark green colors are forests undamaged by selective logging and/or burning (NDFI values >0.75). Orange to yellow colors indicate a
range of forest canopy damage (0 > NDFI < 0.75). Areas in white have negative NDFI values (<50% of GV) and represent bare soil.
This figure is reproduced from the original, with permission from the authors, in Souza et. al. (2005a).
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21. models (e.g. Land Change Model, SimAmazonia) allow multi- leakage and permanence is conceptually the same for degrada-
ple transitions to be modeled, such that both degradation and tion as for deforestation. However, leakage and permanence
deforestation transitions can be modeled at once. However, analyses may be either complicated by the complexity of
while various examples of modeling deforestation have been degradation processes, and/or simplified by the absence of
tested and compared (Brown et al., 2007), less precedent leakage and permanence concerns for some degradation strategies.
exists for reliably modeling spatially explicit patterns of forest For example, leakage should not occur when emissions are
degradation resulting from logging, fire, and fuelwood harvest. reduced per unit volume of timber harvested. Emissions
A notable exception is modeling in the Brazilian Amazon reductions can be made per unit volume of timber harvested
region (Nepstad et. al. 1999; Nepstad et. al. 2008) that is now by reducing collateral damage of logging operations and
incorporating degradation by logging and fire into the increasing the efficiency of harvesting and processing (see
SimAmazonia model. More research is needed on development next chapter, IFM strategy). Leakage would not need to be
and comparison of methods for such spatially explicit degrada- assessed if emissions reductions are achieved without reducing
tion modeling across a variety of regions. Until this is available, the volume and quality of timber brought to market. Also,
it may be prudent to use non-spatially explicit analyses to pro- improved forest timber harvest and management practices
ject expected business-as-usual degradation emissions in areas often reduce the risk of subsequent emissions from fire, tree
outside of the Brazilian Amazon region.5 blow-down, or illegal logging (Hughell and Butterfield, 2008;
Putz et al., 2008). Similarly, fire management practices that
EMISSIONS FACTORS avoid annual emissions while also reducing the risk of unex-
The amount of carbon emitted for each unit area of forest pected fire (e.g. Holdsworth & Uhl, 1997) may have no
converted or degraded is called an “emission factor.” Emission leakage and require no permanence buffer.
factors can be determined either by (i) calculating the difference On the other hand, when leakage and permanence issues
between terrestrial carbon stocks before and after the change cannot be ignored, sophisticated analysis may be necessary. For
(Stock-Difference method), or (ii) by directly measuring the example, Sohngen and Brown (2004) found that estimating
carbon pools that are emitted (Gain-Loss method), as leakage from stopping commercial timber harvest in Bolivia
described in the Sourcebook of Methods and Procedures for Monitoring, (see Noel Kempff case study, chapter 6) is sensitive to both
Measuring and Reporting (GOFC-GOLD 2009). In the case of market demand elasticity and wood decomposition rates.
logging emissions, the “Stock-Difference” method can be dif-
ficult to use because the natural spatial variability of carbon
stocks within intact forests may be higher than the emissions Monitoring and Verification
per unit area from logging. In these situations, the Gain-Loss The new methods for detecting selective logging with Landsat
method can be used to generate more cost effective emissions imagery, described in the baseline section above, offer afford-
factors with acceptable accuracy. To do this, field measure- able monitoring of legal and illegal logging, and associated fire.
ments are taken during or soon after logging activity so that However, these methods may not have the resolution to dif-
direct measurements can be made of the biomass of harvested ferentiate between conventional logging and improved logging
trees (including roots, branches, and leaves), roundwood (logs practices; thus these methods may not be able to be used for
transported offsite), and collateral damage to surrounding remote monitoring of improved forest management practices
forest from harvesting operations. These time-sensitive field that generate emissions reductions per unit area logged. Forest
plot measurements can be scaled up by associating emissions certification systems involving on-the-ground auditing, such
per gap in the canopy caused by tree harvest, and mapping the as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), could be employed
occurrence of canopy gaps using very high resolution aerial to verify that a specific set of improved logging practices have
imagery (Brown et al., 2000; Stanley 2009). been implemented, such that lower emissions associated with
those practices can be applied to specific areas being logged.
Higher resolution technologies may soon offer options for
Buffers and Discounts remote monitoring of improved logging practices, either in
While most aspects of forest degradation carbon accounting combination with forest certification or as an alternative;
are more challenging than for deforestation, under some however, studies are necessary to further develop these methods.
circumstances accounting for buffers and discounts may be
easier. Accounting for buffers or deductions associated with
5
This point was based on conversation with Dr. Sandra Brown of Winrock International.
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23. W
e discuss here some of the important strategies management strategies. While a comprehensive review of for-
that exist for reducing emissions from the three est governance and community-based forest management is
major causes of forest degradation described in beyond the scope of this chapter, we consider some of the key
chapter 3: logging, fire, and fuelwood collection. factors in Boxes Two and Three.
Forest sector governance and community-based forest
management are umbrella issues that are relevant to all forest
Improved Forest Management with Forest Certification
SUMMARY FOR POLICY & PRACTICE
» The combination of three elements often associated with Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification: (1) reduced area logged, (2) reduced
emissions within logged areas, and (3) reduced probability of subsequent forest conversion, suggests that FSC certification offers an opportunity
to generate significant reduced forest carbon emissions.
» There is clear opportunity for additionality in expanding forest certification, given that 99 percent of production forests in the tropics are not FSC
certified, and more broadly defined “improved forest management” is only practiced in five percent of tropical production forests.
» Additional research to specifically compare emissions from FSC-certified concessions vs. conventionally logged concessions, and analyze addi-
tional emissions-reduction practices, will be necessary to quantify the potential emissions reductions generated by FSC and other practices.approval
of such methodologies.
Natural forest management, carried out in accordance with of certification and practices associated with certification indicate
rigorous certification standards, typically exceeds the legal that they result in climate benefits. In this section, we high-
requirements for social and environmental performance in all light the natural forest management practices recognized by
tropical countries and almost all developed countries. Forest certification and review existing studies demonstrating (or
certification offers pre-existing systems for measuring, moni- suggesting) the existence of forest carbon benefits associated
toring, reporting, and verifying reduced forest degradation as with those practices.
associated with logging and some other forest products. Within regionally specific criteria and indicators, the FSC
Major existing forest certification systems are not explicitly raises the threshold for performance with respect to harvesting
designed to reduce carbon emissions; however they are impacts and intensity levels, identification and implementation
designed around goals of maintenance or enhancement of of conservation areas, and resolution of land tenure and other
high conservation values, sustainable harvest levels, appropri- social tensions linked to forest management outcomes. Across
ate silvicultural practices, and ecological integrity that are this range of issues addressed by FSC criteria and indicators, we
often (although not always) associated with reduced carbon differentiate between two categories of forest carbon benefits:
emissions. However, despite significant recent market share
growth, certified wood products only make up about 10 percent G Direct climate benefit activities from forest certification:
of global forest products markets, and just a fraction comes Activities undertaken within the forest management unit,
from tropical forest countries. Less than one percent of total by the forest manager, with a resulting change on factors
tropical forest area is under certified forest management (Siry mostly or entirely under the control of the manager. These
et al., 2005). activities, such as reduced impact logging practices or increased
area of protected forest, often generate more predictable
CLIMATE BENEFITS AS A RESULT OF FSC CERTIFICATION and direct, near-term carbon benefits. The primary types
Although there are numerous certification systems in existence, of these activities are:
the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) is addressed here given 1. Reduction of impacts from harvesting.
that it is the leading forest certification standard of international 2. Increased forest area that is protected and restored.
scope with the widest engagement of economic, social and 3. Reduction in the harvest level (volume).
environmental stakeholders worldwide. Since its founding
assembly in 1993, the FSC has advanced performance and G Indirect climate benefit activities from forest certification:
system-based criteria and indicators to assess the quality of Activities engaged in by the forest manager, which can lead
forest management globally. to a behavior change amongst potential drivers of degrada-
The climate benefits of FSC certification have only begun tion, or can encourage preventative or protective measures
to be measured and monitored. Existing studies on the impacts that may conserve more forest. These activities, such as res-
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24. Figure 5. Carbon benefits of forest certification usually consider the immediate emissions avoided, depicted above as term “a,” due to reduced
impact logging practices, and protection of sensitive areas (e.g. riparian zones, High Conservation Value Forest zones). Additional carbon benefit can
occur, due to reduced probability of fire and conversion, depicted by terms “b”, “c”, and “d”, for reasons described in the text.
olution of social conflicts, may have less predictable climate ing practices designed to reduce the typical collateral damage
outcomes; however, they could have the potential to gener- resulting from timber extraction, in terms of (i) non-target
ate large carbon benefits over the long term. The primary trees damaged per unit volume roundwood extracted and (ii)
types of these activities are: soil erosion and related hydrologic impacts. RIL practices also
1. Land tenure resolution. may reduce the volume of timber extracted per unit area as
2. Measures to prevent unauthorized activities and fire. discussed below. RIL practices specified within certification
3. Long-term commitment to management of land as forest. include the following:
4. Greater market access and product prices, resulting in – Additional training and incentive systems for logging
higher incentive to maintain forest as forest. and skidding (log removal) teams.
– Technical training on map production and interpretation.
A conceptual diagram of the direct and indirect carbon bene- – Cutting block layout and tree-marking prior to opening
fits associated with forest certification is shown in Figure 5. In roads.
the next section, we discuss each of these direct and indirect – Reduced skid trail/road density.
activities, review studies on potential carbon benefits where – Directional felling (cutting trees so that they fall away
available, and reference examples from case studies. from standing trees to avoid damaging them).
– Cable winching of felled trees (extracting logs via cables
DIRECT CARBON BENEFITS FROM CERTIFIED FOREST MANAGEMENT attached to a tractor).
1. Reduction of impacts from harvesting: Certified forest practices – Utilization of standards and procedures to optimize
in the tropics have followed Reduced Impact Logging (RIL) wood use by limiting felling damage and log waste
as the operational harvesting method rather than conventional (improved efficiency).
logging practices. RIL is an established set of timber harvest-
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25. – Special procedures for logging steep areas that are prone inherent differences in logging constraints among regions. For
to erosion problems. example, where substantial portions of marketable timber occur
– Procedures for road or skid trail construction, mainte- on steep slopes or wet ground, there are bigger opportunity
nance, and closure. costs to RIL (Putz et al., 2000). Nevertheless, the very limited
– Minimization of impacts on watercourses. occurrence of RIL in tropical forests (Siry et al., 2005) sug-
– Post-harvest evaluation. gests that in reality these potential cost savings are not enough
to overcome the barriers to adopting RIL (e.g. initial capital
For example, between 2000 and 2006 all certification assess- investments, availability of training, and business culture of
ments by Rainforest Alliance in Indonesia required that forest logging operations).
operations adopt RIL practices as a condition of compliance.
These operations followed practices to achieve less site degra- 2. Increased forest area that is protected and restored: Certified
dation, such as soil disturbance from skid trails, less damage to forests also retain more biomass through greater provision of
residual trees, and reduced waste from improved felling. conservation zones with higher forest protection status (see
Since the early 1990s, it has been suggested that payments FSC Principles 6.2, 6.4, and 9)6 , such as special management
for additional carbon sequestration or emissions reductions buffer zones along rivers and streams (P6.5), areas of protected
could provide incentive to practice RIL, based on studies High Conservation Value Forests (HCVF), and areas for for-
identifying a potential to enhance carbon storage in comparison est restoration (P6.3; P10.5). Maintaining and enhancing
with conventional logging. Studies in both the neotropics HCVFs is mandated through FSC Principle 9.
(Central & South America) and old-world tropics (Africa, Asia) A study of the impacts of FSC certification analyzed
indicate that RIL methods directly decrease carbon emissions 129 out of 234 operations certified in 21 countries by the
by about 30 percent to 50 percent per unit of wood extracted Rainforest Alliance as of October 2003. The most common
(Healey et al., 2000, Bertault 1997, Durst and Enters, 2001; positive environmental changes produced through certifica-
Pereira et al., 2002; Keller et al., 2004) based on metrics like tion related to conservation management. For example, of the
residual tree damage and area logged. The direct measurement certified forests studied, 63 percent showed improved riparian
of carbon benefits from RIL have been less well studied. A and aquatic management, while 62 percent had improved
study in Sabah, Malaysia by Pinard and Putz (1997), found treatment of sensitive sites and HCVFs (Newsom and Hewitt
that RIL resulted in 43 percent lower committed emissions as 2005). More recently, in a review of 118 FSC-certified forests
compared to conventional logging. Higher carbon storage within its SmartWood Program, the Rainforest Alliance found
resulted from reduced total volume of trees removed, reduced that on average, certified operations designated 22,000 hectares,
damage to the residual stand, and how well the forest or 22 percent of their total area, as HCVFs. The total HCVF
responded to the canopy openings created (Pinard and Putz, land in these forests from 2007 to 2008 was 2.5 million hectares
1996). These are the same variables that certified forests are (Newsom, 2009). This area is approximately the size of the
expected to manage and monitor. state of Vermont and equates to carbon sequestration above
Putz et al., (2008) estimate that the potential emissions what would have been expected had these forests been logged.
reductions through reduced impact logging in tropical forests
represent at least 10 percent of possible reductions from 3. Reduction in harvest level (volume): FSC-certified tropical
avoiding tropical deforestation. This estimate does not include forests often, but not always, harvest lower mean volumes of
the additional emissions potentially avoided by other practices roundwood (logs transported offsite) per unit area as compared
associated with FSC certification discussed above. An advan- with conventionally logged forests. This is primarily due to the
tage of the carbon benefits from reduced impact logging is FSC requirement that the volume of timber extracted during
little or no leakage, since the emissions reductions are largely a given cycle, and the frequency of cutting cycles, represents a
achieved without reducing the volume of timber extracted, yield that can be sustained over time.
and thus do not have a high risk of shifting production to In the tropics, harvesting at levels that represent a sustain-
other locations. able yield is the exception rather than the rule. Without
Most studies report negative (Durst & Enters, 2001; effective management planning and control, opportunistic
Holmes et al., 2002), or low ($3-$4 per ton) (Putz & Pinard, harvesting leads to logging on accelerated, intensive time-frames
1993) cost of potential carbon offsets from RIL, with one that are more aggressive than can be sustained. Such repeated
notable exception ($40 per ton) (Healey, Prince, & Tay, 2000). timber extraction on short intervals causes forest degradation,
At least part of this range of estimates can be attributed to akin to mining of a non-renewable resource (Applegate, 2001).
6
FSC has developed a set of Principles and Criteria for forest management that are applicable to all FSC-certified forests throughout the world. There are 10 principles and 57
criteria that address legal issues, indigenous rights, labor rights, multiple benefits and environmental impacts surrounding forest management. The Principles and Criteria were last
updated in 2000. We reference (in parentheses) specific Principles and Criteria where relevant in the main text, and we will use “P” to denote an FSC Principle.
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