The effects of social media on athlete endorsement Case study by Neal Rawlinson

TO INVESTIGATE THE
EFFECTS OF SOCIAL
MEDIA ON ATHLETE
ENDORSEMENT: CASE
STUDY

Neal Rawlinson 10092614 i | P a g e
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of social media on athlete endorsement,
examining the phenomenon within a national business Gold Standard Nutrition (GSN). Current
literature moulds the understanding towards the extent social media has enhanced the affectivity
of endorsement, yet acknowledges the change from product use to a brand lifestyle expected
from the partnership. Frameworks from Khatri (2006) and Zwilling (2013) provide theories
towards endorsement selection and assessment. Yet they fail to acknowledge technological
advances leading to social medias effect on endorsement.
An interview with the CEO of GSN and a group interview with consumers of the brand show social
media as a tool for assessment from both consumer and business. Results show endorsers ability
to propel a brand across areas of the market, thus businesses use them as vehicle to travel into
the consumers social media space.
Inconsistency in endorsement effectiveness is minimised by a formula designed by the author
using social media statistics to design comparable results. However, social media is a tool that
cannot provide full assessment towards an athlete’s affectivity as an endorser.

Neal Rawlinson 10092614 ii | P a g e
Confidentiality Statement
I agree not to disclose any confidential information that I receive in connection with this research
project, and the organisation known as Neal Rawlinson, to anyone other than the tutors marking
this dissertation within Manchester Metropolitan University Business School (MMUBS).
I also agree to protect the privacy of the people involved in this study by altering names of people
and departments where appropriate.
Student 10092614
Name Neal Rawlinson
Project Title To investigate the effects of social media on athlete endorsement: Case study
Word Count 8914
SIGNATURE: ____________________________________________________
DATE: ____________________________________________________

Neal Rawlinson 10092614 iii | P a g e
Table of Contents
Abstract I
Confidentiality Statement II
Table of Contents III
Appendix Contents V
List of Figures and Tables VII
Acknowledgments VIII
1.0 Chapter 1 From ‘sport hero’ to business vehicle ......................................................1
1.1 Were to begin?..........................................................................................................................1
1.1.1 Research Aim .....................................................................................................................1
1.1.2 Objectives...........................................................................................................................1
1.2 Where the problem began........................................................................................................1
1.2.1 Why bother? ......................................................................................................................2
1.2.2 Necessity towards research...............................................................................................3
1.3 Gold Standard Nutrition............................................................................................................3
1.4 Where to next? .........................................................................................................................4
2.0 Chapter 2 Social media meets endorsement...............................................................5
2.1 Defining Athlete endorsement .................................................................................................5
2.1.1 Why the big deal? ..............................................................................................................5
2.1.2 What makes a good endorser?..........................................................................................6
2.1.3 Athletes do it better...........................................................................................................7
2.1.4 Remember the ‘face’ remember the ‘name’.....................................................................7
2.1.5 Measuring that roar...........................................................................................................8
2.1.6 Why are we ignoring the amateurs?..................................................................................9
2.2 Social Media............................................................................................................................10
2.2.1 Bulletin Board Focus Groups (BBFG)................................................................................10
2.2.2 Endorsers meet social media...........................................................................................10
2.2.3 Where the power begins .................................................................................................11
2.2.4 Pros and Cons...................................................................................................................11
2.3 The definitive gap....................................................................................................................12
2.3.1 Conceptual Framework....................................................................................................12
2.4 Where to Next.........................................................................................................................13
3.0 Chapter 3 From ‘vehicle’ to ‘bridge’ ............................................................................14

Neal Rawlinson 10092614 iv | P a g e
3.1 An architect’s approach..........................................................................................................14
3.2 Case study ...............................................................................................................................14
3.3 Sample.....................................................................................................................................14
3.4 Research plan of action...........................................................................................................15
3.4.1 Phase 1.............................................................................................................................16
3.4.2 Phase 2.............................................................................................................................17
3.5 Limitations...............................................................................................................................18
3.6 Ethics.......................................................................................................................................18
3.7 Where to Next.........................................................................................................................19
4.0 Chapter 4 Interacting on a social platform..................................................................20
4.1 What was found......................................................................................................................20
4.2 Understanding the data..........................................................................................................20
4.3 Theme A..................................................................................................................................20
4.4 Theme B ..................................................................................................................................22
4.5 Theme C ..................................................................................................................................23
4.6 Theme D..................................................................................................................................24
4.7 Where to Next.........................................................................................................................25
5.0 Chapter 5 Conclusion is only the beginning.................................................................26
5.1 What we set off to achieve.....................................................................................................26
5.2 Conclusions to data.................................................................................................................26
5.3 Implication ..............................................................................................................................27
5.4 Recommendations..................................................................................................................28
5.5 Where to Next.........................................................................................................................28
6.0 Chapter 6 What to consider.........................................................................................29
7.0 References ..................................................................................................................................30
8.0 Appendix……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….38

Neal Rawlinson 10092614 v | P a g e
Appendix Contents
8.0 Appendix .....................................................................................................................................38
1.1 Ethics form ..............................................................................................................................39
2.1 The social Web (Mediums) .....................................................................................................40
3.1 Khatri (2006) Framework with linked theories.......................................................................41
4.1 The Meaning Transfer Model .................................................................................................42
5.1 Pros and Cons of Celebrity Endorsement Strategy.................................................................42
6.1 Production to Purchase Model Infographic............................................................................43
7.1 Sampling selection path..........................................................................................................44
8.1 Credential results....................................................................................................................45
9.1 Candidate full selection results...............................................................................................45
10.1 Group Interview requirements check list .............................................................................46
11.1 Question justification (Mr Allen interview) ..........................................................................46
11.2 Question justification (group interview)...............................................................................48
12.1 Bickmans Research design model.........................................................................................51
13.1 Mr Craig Allen interview inferences .....................................................................................51
14.1 Group interview inferences ..................................................................................................52
15.1 Knowledge Bias Demonstration............................................................................................53
16.1 Main method of analysing qualitative data..........................................................................53
17.1 Conceptual framework applied to inferences ......................................................................54
18.1 Group interview data graphic...............................................................................................55
19.1 Athletes social media presence infographic.........................................................................56
20.1 Athletes Twitter followers used for infographic...................................................................57
21.1 Recommended formula applied to athletes.........................................................................57
Research Data ...................................................................................................................................58
22.1 Interview with Mr Craig Allen (owner of GSN) .....................................................................58
23.1 Group interview worksheet..................................................................................................64
24.1 Presentation for group interview .........................................................................................69
25.1 Group interview results and calculations .............................................................................72
26.1 Engagement form .................................................................................................................80
26.2 Engagement form .................................................................................................................81
26.3 Engagement form .................................................................................................................82
26.4 Engagement form .................................................................................................................83

Neal Rawlinson 10092614 vi | P a g e
26.5 Engagement form .................................................................................................................84
26.6 Engagement form .................................................................................................................85

Neal Rawlinson 10092614 vii | P a g e
List of Figures and Tables
Figures
Figure 4.1 – Pie chart representing the least favourite athlete through the group interview ...21
Figure 4.2 – Line graph towards points collected during question 9 of the group interview.....22
Figure 4.3 – Group interview endorsee recall for question 9.....................................................24
Figure 5.1 – Endorsee interaction formula (Twitter) ..................................................................28
Tables
Table 3.1 – Justification of group interview questions sample...................................................15
Table 3.2 – Phase 1 category sample..........................................................................................17
Table 3.3 – Phase 2 category sample..........................................................................................17
Table 4.1 – Offline mediums the group interview found reliable to source information………23

Neal Rawlinson 10092614 viii | P a g e
Acknowledgments
I wish to thank my tutor Tom Scanlon for his support and guidance aspiring confidence within my
ability to produce this research project.
I would also like to thank my parents for their not only financial support, but love, motivation and
belief that has moulded me into who I am today. Such support has magnified my drive to
represent the Rawlinson name to the upmost respect it deserves from such humble parents.
A final thank you to all those involved during the papers research; Mr Craig Allen for his
willingness to aid the paper, whilst opening up his business to understand the phenomenon and
all those involved from Lifestyle Fitness gym.

Neal Rawlinson 10092614 1 | P a g e
1.0 Chapter 1
From ‘sport hero’ to business vehicle
‘’The role of social media is critical because it helps to spread cognitive dissonance by
connecting thought leaders and activists to ordinary citizens rapidly expanding
the network of people who become willing to take action’’
Simon Mainwaring (Mainwaring, 2011)
1.1 Were to begin?
An inevitable implication of technological advances has caused behavioural change between
brand and consumer, demanding research into marketing literature (Pae, 2001). Academic review
has challenged established theories; this project generates important insight into the effects
social media has had on athlete endorsement. In particular, the implicit implications this
marketing technique has on product choice, whilst using social media to enhance marketing
affectivity increasing sales. This phenomenon examined within Gold Standard Nutrition (GSN)
highlights the beneficial usage of social media within an organisation, yet understands the miss
use of such a medium due to insufficient study into its effects.
1.1.1 Research Aim
To investigate the effects of social media on athlete endorsement: Case study
1.1.2 Objectives
 To identify the use of athlete endorsement within businesses to enhance a product or service
from where it developed to this current day
 To understand current literature towards social medias effects on the requirements of a
positive athlete endorsement
 To examine social medias use towards athlete endorsement within an expanding organisation
in the UK
1.2 Where the problem began
Success of endorsement relies on the persistent assessment of the athlete within a consistently
changing consumer demographic (Stevens, 2003). The imagery of the ‘sport hero’ can be dated
back to as early as the twentieth century, a representation of athletic excellence and leaders
within their field (Pitts, 1996). Stevens, Lathrop and Bradish (2003), describe the evolution of the
‘sport hero’ through commercialisation has provided athlete vehicles for advertising (Stevens,
2003). Yet as the application of such techniques has shown the collaboration of brand and

endorsee is not a simple ‘on/off’ journey, the implementation of social media magnifies personal
brands developed by athletes.
Social media further understood within the report, is a concept that business executives place at
the top of their agenda (Kaplan, 2010). Yet for an approach surrounded by mass mystery, it is still
a tool now felt essential towards running a successful business. Is it because it is free?
Alternatively, that the market is left with their guard down? However organisations establish their
attraction towards the medium, athletes are providing a bridge of safe passing into the market
and the majority returning successful. Having developed a personality through their sport,
athletes not only segment the market but also apply human characteristics to a brand (Aaker,
1997). Applying a personal brand to the organisation seems the guide towards entering and
leaving market segments within social media.
With over 500 million users alone on Facebook, the social networking system allows news un-
filtered to spread rapidly across the globe (Barnett, 2011). Endorsement has evolved from the
basic use of products but has now become a full time relationship for both parties. Celebrity news
topics featured within offline resources such as magazines and papers, now race around the
internet in minuets through various mediums (Appendix 2.1). Lifestyle choices from athletes now
overshadow current news such as Tiger Woods affairs overcasting President Barack Obama’s
healthcare plan coverage (Currid-Halkett, 2011).
According to the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) studies showed that 22.6% of
athletes smoke marijuana, therefore the negative ramifications enforce the question (Agyemang,
2011): why bother with athlete endorsement?
1.2.1 Why bother?
Nike reported a 0.75% stock rise the day they chose to announce LeBron James as an official
signing indicating a profitable strategy. An example of Dyson and Turco’s (1998) benefit towards
endorsement is portrayed through the testimony of a product, especially when Nike aided
towards his celebrity status (Dyson, 1998). The development of an emotional tie creating a
triangulating effect between brand, endorsee and consumer, increases brand purchase and
crucially retention (Bolton, 1998). Social networking has enhanced the importance towards
customer retention, with costs five times more expensive to obtain a new customer than keep an
existing one (Babalola, 2011; Rolich, 2013).
Athletes provide staggered stock return jumps with each major achievement, rationalising Nikes
$475 million budget towards endorsements from a $1.7 billion advertising budget (Rovell, 2006;
Elberse, 2012). Nielsen’s Global Trust stated 92% of consumers would rely on just word-of-mouth

seconded by online reviews; social media has redefined the consumer path towards product
purchase (Nielson, 2012). Later examined, implicit actions occur during a consumer’s interaction
with endorsed campaigns thus generating a buzz throughout the market.
1.2.2 Necessity towards research
We have adopted the internet with open arms, since 1992 it released and conquered the world,
with the most powerful impact into our business and personal lives. From witnessing a lifestyle
moulded to the entertainment on offer, consumers can now choose the entertainment to tailor
into their lifestyle (The Associated Press, 2014). Such is the development of social networks and
live entertainment at the fingertips of nations. This movement has provoked a change in
advertising; businesses now find themselves stepping into consumer territory to market their
products, as opposed to viewing advertisements during advert breaks or in magazines (Goldman,
1992).
Consumers are unable to provide businesses with a static lifestyle, constantly affected by their
surroundings. Organisations develop battle plans (Campaigns) using athlete endorsement to enter
the live war zone of social media, un-deterred by the lack of stable knowledge to building a
successful campaign (Keitzmann, 2011). The unmistakable benefits override the negatives
associated; therefore, with technological influences changing the dynamics of endorsement it is
fundamental to understand the repercussions. Leading brands are willing to invest large sums of
their marketing budget towards endorsement; therefore, it would suggest that the
implementation of social media has only enhanced its affectivity. However, the trust and
reliability built towards social media provides weaknesses when businesses are willing to rely on
such a vicious stage to promote their brand (Lincoln, 2009).
The results will offer insight for businesses but also endorsees that require further understanding
into the relationship required of them. A lifestyle for an endorsee requires that of symmetry to
consumers, who will also find clarity towards the information provided over social media. All
parties will understand reliable sources posing clarity to the market and campaign advantages for
organisations.
1.3 Gold Standard Nutrition
Gold Standard Nutrition (GSN), founded in 2012, supply nutritious frozen food to solve a problem
that athletes face daily. Born out of necessity and opportunity they model themselves on
providing convenience and making healthy eating easy to the mass fitness industry.
Predominantly focusing on gym athletes, with over 150 stockists within UK gyms, the expansion
into sport clubs and events has begun in the second year of establishment. Promoting the ‘Gold

Standard’, 21 endorsed athletes promote the values of the company that only the ‘best breast is
the best’. A business relying on the positive implications of athlete endorsement through the
social medium provides the perfect area to analyse the phenomenon.
1.4 Where to next?
From ‘sport hero’ to business vehicle we have developed an understanding of the effect athletes
such as LeBron James can have on stock increase, whilst acknowledging the large investments
made into the marketing technique. With over 500 million users alone over Facebook, the
partnership between endorser and business has to be more than product use and a brand lifestyle
to be successful. It is crucial to understand current literate established on athlete endorsement
and social media, to see if theories developed understand the effects of their collaboration.

2.0 Chapter 2
Social media meets endorsement
‘’What do I need a podium for?.. I've got three million followers on Twitter.
That's my podium’’
Chad Ochocinco (Shpigel, 2012)
Advertising has been used since the formalisation of trade, its sole purpose to gather people
together acting as audienceses or customers (Szymańska-Waczyńska B. , 2013). It was not untill
the industrial revolution that product advertising began due to the introduction of mass
production instead of being made to order. This chapter allows a comprehensive review on past
literature that searches for analytical frameworks towards successful athlete endorsements,
whilst acknowledging the role social media has played in adapting as a thriving marketing
technique (Jankowicz, 2000). Academic Literature provides a clear gap towards pre endorsement
considerations, having driven the research towards the whole process from selection to analysis
of athlete endorsement.
2.1 Defining Athlete endorsement
The use of celebrities in marketing has become a ubiquitous feature of modern marketing,
following the definition by Grant McCracken (1989) that they are an individual who ‘enjoy public
recognition and who use this recognition on behalf of a consumer… by appearing with it in an
advertisement’ (page 1, McCracken, 1989). During the time period ideal athlete endorsers would
obtain qualities measured on attractivness, likeability and trustworthyness to predict their
effectivness for a brand (Ohanian, 1990). Often refered to as celebrities, athletes embracing a
product or brand are offering their spotlight status by becoming a spokesperson for the selected
service.
Zafer Erdogan (1999) noted companies invest large sums of money to align the brand and
endorser (Erdogan, 1999). The modernisation of media and advertsing has further developed this
however as shown further within the report theories prove historic to the technological changes
(Chapter 2; Page 7). With vast change of technology available for businesses it is important to
understand why large investements towards endorsements are still happening.
2.1.1 Why the big deal?
Having been around for generations, endorsers are often peripheral cues in low-involvement
situations, whereby a customer’s reaction to the athlete are directly passed to the brand (Petty,

1983; Kaikati, 1987). Businesses large and small are willing to make large expenditures towards
athlete endorsment all in the hope of acomplishing better brand reccall and a larger customer
base (Martin J. H., 1996). Quorn have investsted into double Olympic champion Mo Farah, in the
hope he can educate and drive the market towards the meat-free alternative (Quorn, 2014).
Studies have revealed that athlete endorsment can have a positive influence on purchase
intention and consumer attitude through the building of a congruent relationship (Lafferty,
1999;Angela Byrne, 2011; Zwilling, 2013). Prachi Rateni (2005) states, an athlete sales person with
the correct chemistry can turn the buzz of a product into a roar (Rateni, 2005). According to
Szymańska-Waczyńska (2013), the benefits of athlete endorsements give the advertiser a better
chance to communicate to the audience (Szymańska-Waczyńska, 2013). Zafer Erdogan (1999) has
provided a structure to analyse the positive and negative effects later in the review (Chapter 2;
Page 11).
Yet as Till and Bustler (1998) promote, there are potential risks through the meanings and
associations from the endorser to the brand (Till, 1998). White, Goddard and Wilburn (2009),
presented results that the negative perception of a well-known athlete rubbed off onto the brand
when consumers where informed of the negative event the professional was involved in (White,
2009). Francios Carrillat (2013) elaborates on the negative threats when some celebrities become
involved in drug use, sex scandals or run-ins with the law. Thus, athletes have a higher risk due to
lack of performance of incidents during their career (Francois, 2013).
The risks towards perception within the media provide risk towards the development of the buzz
to a roar. Therefore, by establishing the criteria for a good endorser could save time and costs for
a business.
2.1.2 What makes a good endorser?
Businesses undergo professional decisions towards the athlete they deem to be the correct
individual to endorse. Considerations towards the promotional campaign tailor the requirements
needed for the correct adoption to the brand and product. The same attributes apply for single or
multiple ambassador campaigns, furthermore research shows athletes who endorse multiple
brands less favourable to consumers (Rice, 2012).
Baker and Churchill (1977) provide our first insight to why, believing a credible source (athlete)
involves three dimensions: Trustworthiness, expertise and attractiveness. Till et al (1998) and
Soloman (2002) developed this theory through requirements for a credible advertisement, their
additional criteria being persuasiveness and objectiveness. These additional requirements where
proven by Jason Giambi who admitted to steroid use terminating the relationship the baseball

player had with Pepsi and Nike. The process lost him any market power and trust for current and
new brand interested in endorsing him.
Khatri (2006) provided the framework (Appendix 3.1) to his collection of theories essential
towards athlete endorsement (Khatri, 2006). The approach considered variables taking into
consideration values of both brand and endorsee whilst designing a selection process towards a
perfect athlete. Due to the collection of credible data, the framework has found little critiques to
it affectivity. However, research into the applicable theories used to facilitate the five sections
highlights minute consideration into the power of an endorsees social media presence. Published
in 2006, social media was not as influential as in the modern day. An additional section devoted to
this tool would provide further knowledge to the values of the athlete, but also provide additional
data to the Q ratings found in the New York Times for endorser assessment (Belch, 2001).
The theory applies to both celebrities and athletes, although perceived within the same category
both provide alternative benefits. This project highly focuses on the effects towards athlete
endorsements; therefore, it is critical to understand what separates them from other
partnerships.
2.1.3 Athletes do it better
According to James Martin (1996), the image of a sport alone has the ability to contribute largely
to consumer’s response to a campaign (Martin, 1996). Due to their ability to increase brand
loyalty and awareness, athletes are able to provide high brand influence (Bush, 2004). Sharma
(2007) found celebrities are less attractive to endorse due to their inability to change the buying
behaviour of consumers (Sharma, 2007). Athletes provide visual stimulus towards product use
and brand values, shifting consumer’s perception of endorsements coming down to contract
offers.
There was $11.2 Billion invested in sport sponsorships in 2009, highlighting the magnitude
towards businesses seriousness using the advertising technique (Miller, 2011). Nike alone
provides 37% ($4 Billion) of the input to obtain the privilege of presenting the world’s greatest
athletes across multiple sports. Fundamentally, organisations rely on the investment presenting
the correct characteristics through each individual endorser, encouraging psychological
influencers towards the market (Silvera, 2004).
2.1.4 Remember the ‘face’ remember the ‘name’
Vance Packard (1957) was an early theorist towards the sub-conscious persuasion advertisements
offer, in The Hidden Persuaders. As study developed so did the collaboration of sub-conscious
marketing, Gordon Brown in 1985 branded advertisements with poor recall as disasters and it is

the implicit memory that offered the most favourable recollection (Brown, 1985). Cognitive
psychologists such as Daniel Schacter (1986) and Henry Roediger (1990) have directed much of
their effort towards the difference between explicit (conscious recollections of events) against
implicit memory (sub-conscious memory of an event without awareness of its presence)
(Roediger, 1990; Schacter, 1986; Goode, 2007). Stallen, Smidts and Smit et al (2009), understand
the positive affect stems from athlete to product, further challenging Brown’s most favourable
recollection technique as non-essential (Stallen, 2009).
McGuire (1969) stated 45 years ago, trustworthy sources are more persuasive than those who
have less expertise and trustworthiness (McGuire, 1969). Two theories developed from
psychological literature highlighting sub-conscious response from consumers; Mere Exposure
Effect, Evaluative Conditioning. Zajonc (1980) and Bornsteins (1989) development on Mere
Exposure Effect theory showed consumers increase their liking for a short period towards brands
without being aware of it (Zajonc, 1980; Bornstein, 1989). Andy Field (2000), evaluated through
Evaluative Conditioning that the rating of a neutral image is increased once linked to a previously
presented positive image (Field, 2000). This further understood that the recollection of past
crossings with the past neutral image was not essential towards its effectiveness.
Negative responses occur towards athlete endorsements if prior representatives have engaged in
negative values or associated with incorrect teams. Kroloff (1988), designed the Merriam Formula
that determined negative publicity quadrupled the weight of positive news (Kroloff, 1988). Rohini
Ahluwalia (2000) further developed this as devastating to any advertising campaign, therefore
highlighting a critical risk when endorsing athletes in constant attention of the media (Ahluwalia,
2000). Therefore, the $92 million Tiger Woods earned through sponsors during 2009 creates
practical argument towards a theory that represents substantial risk for companies.
Having understood the selection process it is also important to ensure the athlete provide positive
responses towards the brand throughout their partnership. By measuring the productivity, it is
possible to contain tabs on their affectivity.
2.1.5 Measuring that roar
The previous psycoligical theories highlight instant reactions, however Petty et al (1983), Misra et
al (1990), and Menon et al (2001) indicate that athlete endorsements enhance brain recall; Petty
narrowed the view towards the athlete power sustaining positive effects over average citizens
(Petty R. C., 1983; Misra, 1990; Menon, 2001). Ilicic and Webster (2011) acknowledge the
importance towards a consistent positive image between brand and endorser to influence
consumer attitudes (Ilicic, 2011). Negative relation possesses the threat of brain recall within the

market differing them from product purchase. According to Moti Zwilling (2013) there are three
methods for studying athlete endorment, allowing the examination of the influence they have on
consumer decisions (Zwilling, 2013).
2.1.5.1 Meaning Transfer Model
The Meaning Transfer Model (MTM) stemed from a study conducted in 1989 that concluded that
the charataristics consumers associated to an athlete endorser, eventually transferred to the
consumers relation of the product itself (McCracken, 1989). The modernisation of this theory
would be applied to Nike sponsoring Cristiano Ronaldo where there values of ‘Power, Speed and
Performance’ are portrayed through the athlete (Carlson, 2011). Mcrackens use of the model
followed three sequental stages (Appendix 4.1) demonstrating the effectivness of a delivered
advertising message to the aquision of the brands charataristics. This model infact highlights a
dark area in literature towards the selection process of athlete endorsments, later acknowledged
within the report (Chapter4; Page 23).
2.1.5.2 Elaboration Likelihood Model
Designed after the MTM, Petty formed the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM), a larger method
that proposes the manner in that the campaign message is taken by consumners due to the
stimulus the endorses provides (Petty R, 1983). This model allows for the assesment
understanding that the celbrity offers a periphial influence, rather than marketing to the
consumers cognitive information processing. However, James Stiff acknowledges there are more
variables other than the consumers involvement that can effect the elaboration likelihood (Petty
R, 1987). Not only does the model not process the possibility of multiple channel processing from
the consumer but it also fails to present the possitive trigger in the advertisment for the market.
2.1.5.3 Production to Purchase Model
Customer response from Production to Purchase Model (PPM) defines how the promotional
message gets to the consumer, distinctly looking at the path created to get there (Belch, 2001).
This model measures the success of a bond between product and endorser through the response
consumers have through the campaign message, later applied to GSN in chapter 3 (Page 14). The
research has been directed towards elite athletes therefore it is critical we acknowledge why
amatures have been overlooked.
2.1.6 Why are we ignoring the amateurs?
McAllister (2009) expresses the destruction corporate sponsorship has brought to American
Football within the United States, devaluing the integrity of the sport (McAllister, 2009). Any
endorsement requires money that is pumped into the athlete, however Kirk Wakefield separates

the levels down to performance standards; Anchor, mid-tier and low-tier (Wakefield, 2013). With
the Americans setting the bar within vast marketing areas, it poses the thought on how long until
the United Kingdom also follows suit. Yet for the purpose of this study, focus towards the higher
tier endorsements is fundamental to understanding the rise and fall of endorsements where
social media is at its most effective.
2.2 Social Media
Originating from basic bulleting boards used in the late nineties, social media has grouped
communities with collected opinions and values creating interaction zones through the power of
internet (Rolland, 2013). Such collectiveness has allowed for the business world to group
personalities and interest to benefit business decisions and direction. Lee Dong-Hun (2010)
reported that 79% of the Fortune 100 Best Companies broadly use social media to distribute
information faster than the traditional word-of-mouth (Dong-Hun, 2010). It not only offers
research option but also marketing ground to reach all corners of the consumer world, where
businesses aim to follow (Tuten, 2008).
2.2.1 Bulletin Board Focus Groups (BBFG)
Social Media acts as a bridge between business and consumer as if it is the ‘playing field’ to
advertising. Within the field are select groups offering interaction if approached correctly,
tailoring advertisements towards the traits and values of each group will promote implicit
memory. Norbert Wirth encourages marketers to revisit the field of marketing studies to enhance
and update research as social media is more than just a ‘hype’ but a part of our lives (Wirth,
2011). GreenBook research promotes that 35% of United States corporate businesses use BBFG to
enhance their qualitative online research, showing business adaptation to their market (Rolland,
2013). Yet with a platform provided for endorsers to use, rules must adapt to ensure the
marketing remains under control.
2.2.2 Endorsers meet social media
The Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) flexed their muscles for the first time in 2012, banning
Nikes twitter campaign ‘Make It Count’. Due to Wayne Rooney’s tweet indicating a form of Nike
communication without advertising his involvement within the company (Furness, 2012; McKelvy,
2013). Athletes have to further their allegiance towards brands, instead of historically wearing the
logo and making appearances on behalf of the company. It is with the development of social
media such as Facebook, Twitter and Instagram that lead to the Fair Trade Commission (FTC) to
tighten the guidelines for endorsers to follow. This further acknowledges Rohini Ahluwalia (2000)
acknowledgment towards negative effects endorser’s threat businesses with if athletes use the
social media incorrectly (Chapter 2; Page 8).

2.2.3 Where the power begins
McKinsey Global Institute (MGI) took initiative from Norbert Wirth backtracking with a revision of
the consumer decision process, thus evaluating the influence social media has on the consumer
through the bonding it offers (Bertrand, 2013). Excluding the Zero Moment of Truth (ZMOT) that
Google described as the ‘online decision making’ where brands are compared and evaluated in
front of the consumer (Perry D. , 2013). The playground allows potential consumers to eliminate
any self-doubt by consulting blogs and reviews on the products they are contemplating.
Often businesses can be blindsided by the vast consumers that an endorser can offer them
through a partnership. The celebrity worship model established by Hung Kineta (2011), shows
that the worship transferred to brands from the endorser is the antecedent to their effectiveness
(Kineta, 2011). Gnanapragash and Sekar (2013) understand endorsers offer the stopping power
within a cluttered media however; they contain a similar effect over companies (Gnanapragash,
2013). The benefits often create the desire for a business to use the athletes, therefore once
interest is shown they have control over partnership talks.
It was Lambeth Hochwald (2012) who approached endorsement through product placement,
inducing a new approach to an endorsers partnership with a company (Hochwald, 2012). Paula
Andruss (2013) acknowledges ‘stars’ bring the foundations to create the buzz of a successful
campaign, yet views the relationship differently to other theorists (Andruss, 2013). If the business
offers a favourable product of service endorsees are more inclined to attach them self to the
brand, Hochwald placed products on the television show ‘Ugly Betty’ with free bags for the
leading stars. Andruss also found endorsees lost their power when approached to use their talent
within a commercial; for example musicians producing the music for the advert. By proposing the
opportunity to extend their field of talents, the business automatically contains the power
towards other agreements within the partnership.
2.2.4 Pros and Cons
Zafer Erdogan (1999) provides detailed acknowledgment towards the dangers of athlete
endorsement (Appendix 5.1) within his pros and cons table (Erdogan, 1999). Published in 1999
past theorist such as Croft et al (1996) provide supporting literature towards its construction,
however only understand technological advances as far as television (Sheppard, 1984; Croft,
1996). Further technological advances enhance Erdogan’s Increased Attention, however
magnifying the risk of the endorser overshadowing the brand. This point is published by Daley and
Moloney (2004), who further add the necessity towards both prescriptive and initiative
approaches towards campaigns (Daly, 2004).

Identifying a prescriptive strategy states the organisation would show a clear plan from analytical
tools working from the top of the business down (Partridge, 1999). Some forms of a strategic
management plans take years to develop therefore it is important to have a prescriptive process
in place when considering an athlete endorsement campaign (Lynch, 2012). Lynch understood this
even though IDG, the UK’s leading technology Media Company, corporate author understand too
much planning or consideration towards risk can lose the touch of the campaign losing marketing
ground (IDG Communications, 2011). Having determined the current literature, the project has
provided a gap towards the research of the paper.
2.3 The definitive gap
Baker (1977) provided a business perspective towards a successful endorsement; however
according to Ohanian (1990) consumers evaluate the success on credibility, believability and
appeal. Zwilling’s three models (PTP, ELM, and MTM) provided an assessment towards the
effectiveness of athlete endorsement but the mentioned negatives towards ELM and MTM limit
the use of those models. The methodology shows the application of the Product to Purchase
model to GSNs communication method through endorsers. Googles Zero Moment of Truth
enforces the necessity to provide a clear path to ensure consumers easily navigate through the
‘playing field’ and create traffic towards a brand.
Due to the little academic research into the change athlete endorsement has undergone since the
development of social media, achieving Rateni’s metaphorical roar has become a challenge.
Norbert Wirth’s advisory exploration towards past models contains the potential to uncover the
iceberg knows as social media. Till et al (1998) understood selecting celebrities either developed
on obvious association to the business or increasingly who was ‘hot’ at the time (Till, 1998).
Understanding this phenomenon within Gold Standard Nutrition provides critical analysis towards
the positive or negative effect social media has had on athlete endorsement.
2.3.1 Conceptual Framework
Cohen and Nagel (1934) understand there can be no progression unless there has been a
suggested explanation or solution to the difficulties that have originated it (Cohen, 1934). Based
on the former discussions and objectives (Chapter 1; Page 1) four distinct themes that underpin
the previous objectives can structure the following research direction and analysis:
A. Athlete endorsement offers implicit memory to consumers encouraging positive
implementation towards product choice.
B. Social media provides a positive platform to assess an endorsee within a business.

C. Gold Standard Nutrition can only successfully increase their footprint within the market
through social media.
D. Athlete’s presence within social media provides substantial advantages to Gold Standard
Nutrition, more than to the athlete themselves.
2.4 Where to Next
Social media meets endorsement has proved a modern phenomenon that Khatri overlooked in
2006; however, his skeleton has highlighted the gap towards the additional section needed for
research (Chapter 2; Page 7). We understand the shift of power between endorser and business
changes from partnership. Therefore, the following chapter structures primary research essential
to understanding and contributing to the new section.

3.0 Chapter 3
From ‘vehicle’ to ‘bridge’
‘’Good ideas are like Nike sports shoes. They may facilitate success for an athlete who
possesses them, but on their own they are nothing but an overpriced
pair of sneakers. Sports shoes don't win races. Athletes do’’
Felix Dennis (Dennis, 2011)
3.1 An architect’s approach
The literature gathered has created a gap within Social Medias effects towards athlete
endorsement, therefore further analytical tools undertaken reduce the ‘if-then’ questions found
from the Literature Review (Krippendorff, 2004). Robson (2002) described researchers who do all
the background analysis as the architects to a good building; therefore, by the author conducting
the research it will aid to the construction of theory already gathered and address the gap
formulated (Robson, 2002; D Slesinger, 2011; Tosey, 2012).
3.2 Case study
The phenomenon has provided links too complex for surveys or experimental methods due to no
single outcome being possible (Perry C. , 2001). Gold Standard Nutrition offers the study into
social medias effects on athlete endorsement within its natural environment through an interview
and a structured group interview (Mead, 1987). Visually representing the phenomenon within
GSN, the author has used Zwilling’s (2013) PPM model to assess the path an endorser provides for
a business (Zwilling, 2013).
As previously referred to as the pathway for business and consumer interaction, endorsers social
media presence is breaking boundaries. An application of the PPM presented as an infographic
(Appendix 6.1) shows the movement consumers follow to enter GSNs business space. Multiple
endorsements provide larger social media space, therefore it is important to understand how this
partnership is used and accepted by the connecting parties.
3.3 Sample
As previously stated, designing the case study towards GSN required an interview with the CEO
and owner of the company Craig Allen. However, further research was required to present critical
results, therefore a structured group interview was established to gather consumer views. The

interview required formal emails resulting in a preliminary interview, used to direct the literature
review whilst arranging the official interview time.
The use of non-probability based samples allow for inferences about the population to be draw
from the sample, providing confidence the results would remain similar with different applicants
(Baker J. F., 2012). Quota sampling helped obtain the correct respondents for the group interview
defining compulsory criteria and credentials that needed covering, 36 applicants where contacted
through the sampling selection path (Appendix 7.1) with 17 credential forms returned (Appendix
8.1). The subjective judgement of the author collected the credential data (Appendix 9.1) selecting
applicants that covered the required basics and fell within the requirements for the research
(Appendix 10.1).
3.4 Research plan of action
A qualitative research method from Andrew McKay’s (2007) main approaches ensured the correct
data was gathered (McKay, 2007). Interpretive research understands the knowledge of reality
from participants and encourages their interpretation of the social world around them (Walsham,
2006). The author acknowledges there is an objective reality towards the approach however the
shared meanings are a form of intersubjectivity as opposed to objectivity (Mingers, 2004). Due to
Table 3.1 – Justification of group interview questions sample
Question
number
Question Themes Justification
4. When
understanding a
product or service
what would be
your most
reliable source to
raise confidence
in purchasing it?
Please rank from
1-6. 1 being the
best to 6 as the
worst
Purchasing, endorser, trust Acknowledging David
Perry’s (2013) statement
towards ZMOT where the
consumers have the ability
to compare all products in
the market at a click of a
button. This question aims
to understand what the
group found to be the
most reliable sources of
gathering information.
Although Perry believes
ZMOT has changed
shopping, unless the
market find the
information valuable we
cannot understand the
importance of the theory.
the fact themes have formed a conceptual framework, the research provides a combined
approach of both inductive and deductive (Wallace, 1971). The strategy capitalised on both their
strengths to formulate an empirical approach towards knowledge gathered throughout chapter 2

(Ajzen, 1977); (Appendix 11.1; Appendix 11.2) provide justification for the questions used during
the interviews with a sample provided in Table 3.1.
Content analysis provides the author the opportunity to carefully examine the communication
texts, finding themes to the varied data (Krippendorff, 2008). By making reliable inferences from
textual research, common themes provide valid support to the figures gathered during specific
questions presented in the structured group interview. The approach filters the research gathered
to produce data into categories to understand the complex phenomena within the case study. To
make valid inferences from data collected the author applied the categories to the objectives to
ensure they were consistent, without using computer-aided software (Weber, 1990).
Referred to as phase one throughout the project, the semi-structured interview was designed
through Leonard Bickman’s (Appendix 12.1) research design model (Bickman, 1998). The themes
grouped the problems ensuring questions were identified, further revision of the questions to the
project objectives meant stage one was met from Bickman’s model. The semi-structured
approach allowed for a search into further knowledge, yet the objectives ensured the information
collected was productive (Kothari, 2004, Walsham, 2006). This phase produced three categories
that provided structure towards the group interview, referred to as phase two throughout the
project. Due to the structure of phase two, participants are able to understand the questions and
themes set by the author (Harris, 2010). An advantage of this ensures equal questions were asked
across the group, enabling inferences of grouped themes to be used as valid information within
the results section (Aamodt, 2009). Limitations to this technique are referred to during the
reflection stage in Chapter 6 (Page 29).
3.4.1 Phase 1
Considering the nature of the project research and little academic literature found for the pre
endorsement stage, an interview with the owner and CEO of Gold Standard Nutrition (GSN)
Craig Allen helped understand how businesses use endorsements on social media. A business
perspective towards athlete endorsement ensured Mr Allen portrayed his practical opinion
towards the marketing technique (Musselwhite, 2007). Bertaux (1981) states that ‘if given the
chance to talk freely, people appear to know a lot about what is going on’ (page 39),
therefore an interview will give me the opportunity to dissect and search in depth with a high
profile within the endorsement industry (Bertaux, 1981).
As previously stated the interview provided three categories; athlete endorsement, social
media and image (Appendix 13.1) filled with themes gathered to tailor the structured group
interview. Links between categories such as ‘exposure through Twitter to enhance interaction

within the market’ designed questions that followed the deductive approach (Schatz, 2012).
Interviews have become a ubiquitous aspect of contemporary life, according to Gubrium and
Table 3.2 – Phase 1 category sample
Phase 1 – Athlete Endorsement (Category A)
 Exposure
 Faith
 Product sponsorship
 Traffic towards website
 Active weekly
 Down to earth
 Brand association
Holstein (2002) who claim we are living in an interview society (Gubrium, 2002). This is further
acknowledged with phase two, although questions where structured limiting the exploration
within the group.
3.4.2 Phase 2
Anita Gibbs (1997) ensured that the use of research technique would provide several different
views to one subject (Gibbs, 1997). Tea and biscuits where offered to participants as an incentive
Table 3.3 – Phase 2 category sample
Phase 2 – GSN notes (Category D)
 67% buy specialised foods
 Social media is a trustable source
 Official website offers most trust
 50% have social media in their top two most
reliable sources
 58% state friends are in their top two reliability
sources
 Highest social media presence doesn’t always
show best athlete behind a brand
 Consumers stated social media too sales pitch
orientated

for attendance to the research method. The method produced further themes towards the
established categories, however also produced an additional three; GSN notes, Endorser power
and Loyalty (Appendix 14.1).
The group interview consisted of twelve consumers of GSN whilst six participants worked as
Personal Trainers within Lifestyle Fitness. Although in the same environment there is no other
topic that creates worldwide debates like fitness, therefore a different upbringing encourages the
subjectivism research method towards their views of athlete endorsement.
3.5 Limitations
The group interview provided the opportunity to collect vast opinions towards the research topic,
however due to time constraints limited access meant the group was focused to Manchester
consumers therefore geographical limitations pressure the results. Content analysis ensured that
themes collected would provide justifiable data towards the project.
It is important to acknowledge the authors current situation as an endorsed athlete within the
sporting industry; due to the research methods relying on the author’s assessment, the results
pose the opportunity to become bias through programmatic research (Burton-Jones, 2009).
Therefore, to minimise any bias findings, Andrew Burton-Jones ‘Knowledge Bias in the
Demonstration’ table (Appendix 15.1) categorises the author as K4, requiring focused immersion
(observed).
Having ensured research understood consumers view towards the endorsement process; the
author acknowledges the information received from Mr Allen may pose bias due to his current
position. This therefore directs the paper to the previously stated case study.
3.6 Ethics
Homan (1991) acknowledges that the ethical considerations remain the same for any social
research, therefore it is fundamental that the participants are fully aware of the purpose to the
information they are giving (Homan, 1991). The determination of what is deemed accepted
notions of right or wrong (page 66) can be conclusive through the questionable practices listed by
Robson (Robson C. , 2002). An ethics form ensured the project followed correct notions towards
its conduction (Appendix 1.1). Baker and Foy (2012), considers breach of confidentiality as an
additional ethical issue, therefore under his analysis self-determination and the additional issue
both pose threat to the study (Baker, 2012). Confidentiality forms where provided (Appendix
23.1) to ensure participants understood the previously mentioned issues.

3.7 Where to Next
From ‘vehicle’ to ‘bridge’ the PTP infographic showed endorsers provide the path into consumers
space. Due to the complex links between the partnership, research methods that offered
explorative style justified the necessity to conduct a singular and group interview. Sampling
provided a positive group for assessment and content analysis ensures the themes developed are
correctly used through the correct inferences. The following chapter collaborates the results from
both interviews to analyse the results against the literature gathered.

4.0 Chapter 4
Interacting on a social platform
‘’The goal is to turn data into information, and information into insight’’
Carly Fiorina, Former CEO of HP
4.1 What was found
Two phases have congregated six categories that enable the assessment of the four themes
developed from the literature review (Chapter 2; page 12/13). Jill Collis and Hussey (2003) provide
the main methods of analysing qualitative data (Appendix 16.1) through quantifying and non-
quantifying methods (Collis, 2003). Content analysis provides clear definition towards a formal
approach; therefore, it allows the diagnostic tool to define various open ends to the material.
4.2 Understanding the data
The first area of the thematic analysis involved understanding the data through numerous
readings of the interview and group interview information gathered. Making notes developed
themes that as previously mentioned became categories. Once established the conceptual
framework applied to inferences (Appendix 17.1), shows the themes developed from the project
objectives, furthermore how the categories related towards their understanding. Red categories
highlighted challenging data whereas green provided informative results to back the theme.
Figure data from the group interview was collected and arranged in graphs to justify the
statements given.
The group interview, understood by the infographic (Appendix 18.1), shows a clear mix of training
types and ages. However, nine out of the twelve have trained for 4 years or more showing a slight
deficit in the new attendees to the gym. Figures gathered through the questions provided
statistical data to reinforce the content analysis, adding comments made throughout the group
interview also.
4.3 Theme A
‘’Athlete endorsement offers implicit memory to consumers encouraging positive
implementation towards product choice’’
Three quarters of the group interview believed they would be influenced towards a new brand

providing the correct athlete was endorsing it, as one participant noted ‘a quality endorser
shows a quality brand’. A common theme within the group found that often the information
received from endorsers becomes too sales orientated. Mr Allen showed consistency towards
athlete’s ability to reach across to large areas of the market on social media. Therefore, by
embedding endorsers across vast areas of the market promoting GSN, he aims to embed
Figure 4.1 – Pie chart representing the least favourite athlete through the group interview
his brand into the consumers when they reach the Zero Moment of Truth during purchase
(Chapter 2; Page 11). Due to the fact 67% of participants follow six or more accounts on Twitter, it
is possible that whilst reading tweets from those accounts implicit signals can stick in the
consumers’ minds. This medium was not as effective as retaining information from the official
website or through word of mouth from friends.
From the graph above there are two (official website, social media) mediums providing the
opportunity towards cheap endorsement; GSN and other brands rely on Baker and Churchill’s
(1977) source credibility (Chapter 2; Page 6) to provide memory recall, this ensures they are not
forgotten during the customers journey. The group interview found that 58% discovered GSN
through social media, educating the assumption these candidates would have created an implicit
attraction to the brand through their endorsers. Leading to product purchase, 83% of the group
used the website to educate themselves on the brand and products they offer.
Official
website
11%
Friends
12%
Social Media
13%
Blogs
18%
Television
22%
Other
24%
Least effective medium towards product
purchse

Athletes provide the correct values of a brand reassuring consumers, increasing traffic towards
the website or engage in discussions with friends. Furthermore, they act as the instigator towards
the snowballing effect that leads to consumer purchase.
4.4 Theme B
‘’Social media provides a positive platform to assess an endorsee within a business’’
The permanent footprint left by users of the World Wide Web provides analytical information at
the fingertips of not only businesses but also consumers (Zavattaro, 2014). Mr Allen clearly uses
the platform to promote and assess how the athletes would use the product and promote the
brand.
‘’We look at what they currently do for their sponsors already and
how they work on the social media’’ Mr Allen
The infographic (Appendix 19.1) shows the presence the athletes used within the group interview
have on Twitter. Yet although David Beckham has no established footprint within social media, he
became the second highest influential endorser from the group interview. Having based itself as
an analytical tool within GSN, this argues social media’s efficiency towards assessing an endorsee.
GSN use the medium to understand an athlete’s presence within a market, however Beckham
Figure 4.2 – Line graph towards points collected during question 9 of the group interview
provides the obstacle towards its reliability. The application of Moti Zwilling’s (2013) PPM
(Chapter 2; Page 9) provides us with a better insight towards the affectivity of the athlete’s
endorsement (Belch, 2001). As previously mentioned the athletes presence does not supply
0 20 40 60 80
Usain Bolt
David Beckham
Tiger Woods
Jessica Ennis
Michelle Wie
Lexi Thompson
Total points collected from group interview
A
t
h
l
e
t
e
Affectivity of endorsement from 1-6
1 being the best 6 the worst

justifiable data towards their affectivity overall, however interaction is crucial for businesses.
Social media provides the data to compare interaction between the market and endorser;
although unable to conclude the athlete’s full affectivity it provides comparable data for
organisations. Ten out of the twelve participants showed they interact with at least one tweet per
week therefore, it is important to understand who the market is willing to connect with. A
formula would provide easy to use statistics to analyse possible or current endorsements.
4.5 Theme C
‘’Gold Standard Nutrition can only successfully increase their footprint within
the market through social media’’
Norbert Wirth’s portrayal that social media is a part of our modern day lives is continuously
preached by Mr Allen who sees it as ‘completely free to use so it is perfect’ for GSN. Consistent
exposure through social media ensures GSN have a live feed to react towards the markets
movements. Understanding that seven participants contained no loyalty towards a brand justifies
why often advice from other sources was enough to change the brand they are using. Therefore,
if GSN were to focus their expansion offline it is likely a vast area of the market would find their
campaign too slow and lacking adaptability to the market’s needs. Eight participants used Twitter
to reinforce their attraction towards GSN, without a presence on social media consumers may not
trust in the brand.
As theme B proved, social media is a tool that used effectively can enhance a business but other
external factors should be considered to understand the full image. The Meaning Transfer Model
(Chapter 2; Page 9) showed us the implementation athletes characteristics have on products,
Table 4.1 – Offline mediums the group interview found reliable to source information
Question 11 – Discover GSN through..
Medium (Offline) Results Total Percentage
(Rounded)
Repeat Guest // 2 17%
Friend //// 4 33%
Personal Trainer ///// 5 42%
Magazines ------------------ 0 0%

yet it is their offline actions that some consumers also consider important. Products that showed
technical advantages on the other products within the market generated interest of the group. By
providing further effort towards the products on offer, consumers are willing to buy into the
image surrounding the brand.
The above shows those who discovered GSN through offline mediums through question 11 of the
group interview. Although some participants used both offline and online access routes to the
company, if GSN where to enlarge the business online some consumers would be missed. It is
easy to follow Croft (1996), embracing technological advancement (Chapter 2; Page 11), however
providing full attention would leave consumers behind (Croft, 1996). Events such as magazines
and using endorsers at events would ensure consumers still have to opportunity to interact with
the business offline.
4.6 Theme D
‘’Athlete’s presence within social media provides substantial advantages to
Gold Standard Nutrition, more than to the athlete themselves’’
We have noticed that the presence of an athlete on social media does not confirm their
affectivity, however Mr Allen proposes the bigger the athlete the less control they have over using
them. This is shown through their endorsement of James Haskell (83% of the group interview
knew him) where it is ‘very hard to get anything out of him’ and having him on the books should
Figure 4.3 – Group interview endorsee recall for question 9
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Laurence Shahlaei
Carly Thornton
Ross Dickerson
James Haskel
Danny Mitchell
Anthony Bailes
Participants named Athletes
G
S
N
A
t
h
l
e
t
e
Name the GSN Athlete
(Group interview)

be enough. GSN athlete Carly Thornton (8% of the group interview knew her) who has only 13% of
the followers Haskell has is easier to influence, yet receiving the same benefits as Haskell.
It is important to acknowledge Ross Dickerson at this point has equal Twitter followers to Carly
Thornton however, 92% of the group interview were able to recall his name. With only one
participant not following any fitness accounts on Twitter and the above acknowledging 11 could
recall Dickerson, it is safe to acknowledge that all those who followed fitness accounts followed
him.
This would highlight him as the ideal endorsee due to the brand recall and implicit memory
(Chapter 2; Page 7/8) he offers towards consumers. GSN piggy back the free use of social media
whilst providing product expenditure to athletes, some who take more than they give (Carly
Thornton) and those who give a lot to the brand for little in return (Ross Dickerson). Therefore,
this theme is incorrect due to the variability of the athletes, increasing the importance of constant
assessment towards the endorsements. The formula previously used to conclude theme B,
provides the opportunity to understand athlete affectivity towards consumer interaction.
4.7 Where to Next
Interacting on a social platform provides athletes with the opportunity to instigate a relationship
between brand and consumer. Yet offline interaction is still essential to ensure no potential
consumers are left behind. Although magnifying the athlete’s presence, social media cannot offer
conclusive assessment to endorsers. Yet the research has discovered it provides the opportunity
to calculate interaction within a market, therefore the next chapter will understand the
knowledge gained and where the project has provided opportunities for further research.

5.0 Chapter 5
Conclusion is only the beginning
‘’I am turned into a sort of machine for observing facts and grinding out conclusions’’
Charles Darwin (Desmond, 1994)
Social media has embedded itself into endorsement providing direct effect on established
theories towards the marketing technique. Providing a medium for advancement towards the
affectivity of the endorsement, social media has changed its functionality. Offering implicit
memory towards product purchases, endorsees became the business car for companies to project
their message. Wayne Rooney provided an example (Chapter 2; Page 10) towards rule change
implemented by authorities (ASA), a first sign towards the business world adapting to the
advancement within technology. Although athletes provide the ability to increase traffic towards
a business over social media, consumers become selective to the athletes they are willing to build
a relationship with.
5.1 What we set off to achieve
The project set out to understand the phenomenon at the fingertips of the nation and the effects
on the ‘battle plans’ designed by businesses. Having established a trust within social media
because of the ability it contains to magnify endorsements, further research was required to
understand its effects and how it is used. Research discovered athletes provide businesses a
traffic path towards the more favourable sources such as friends and the official website (Chapter
4; Page 20). Offering live feeds towards information on the brand ensures consumers are
receiving data they can trust whilst receiving new offers. Further depth into the conclusion
understands that reliability fully focused towards social media and endorsers would leave
valuable consumers behind, yet understands consumers often go on to investigate the product or
brand online (Chapter 4; Page 22/23).
5.2 Conclusions to data
Social media induced a lifestyle of an endorsement instead of basic product use by athletes, whilst
also understanding the technique could not be solely relied on to run a whole campaign. They
provide the traffic for further marketing techniques to capitalise on. Applying the PTP model
(Appendix 6.1) enabled us to understand that endorsees where able to connect brands and
consumers through social media. The interview with Mr Allen highlighted the importance towards

using the medium to promote, sell and broaden GSN. The group interview then enabled cross-
referencing with the consumers point of view towards endorsement from Mr Allen.
Applied to the previously mentioned Quorn marketing campaign with Mo Farah, the endorsement
enables brand recall to enhance their product within the market. The group interview showed us
that they are the instigator towards discussions within friendship groups of consumers accessing
the official website (Chapter4; Page 23/24). This however applies pressure on these two
mediums, with little control over conversations within groups, developing a threat on the initial
objective to enhance the product or service.
The group analysis showed inactivity towards fitness tweets from organisations, therefore we are
able to understand social media is an unacceptable platform towards a justifiable assessment of
the whole endorsement (Chapter4; Page 22). Yet this data looks into the activity of consumers
towards tweets sent from general fitness account including endorsed athletes. Mr Allen as
previously stated uses the platform to understand their presence, using his judgement to
determine how effective they would be as an endorsee. Therefore, a formula later stated within
the recommendations section provides a possible platform towards assessing interaction through
social media data. This further relates to Khatri’s (2006) framework towards selecting an athlete,
providing a tool to add to the additional section stated within chapter 2 (Page 7).
5.3 Implication
The information gathered during the paper has not left us with a clear answer to the full effects of
social media on athlete endorsement, but opened insight towards its use within businesses.
Clearer understanding towards the use of the medium to select athletes within GSN has
challenged the established theory from Khatri (2006), highlighting the overlooked importance
towards social media. Athletes are providing the bridge between consumer and brand
relationship, but with platforms such as Twitter and Facebook, they are able to reach all corners
of the globe.
Endorsements now have to adopt the lifestyle of a brand, therefore with social media certain
athletes represent the values better than others. GSN showed bigger athletes do not often
provide as much to a brand as smaller ones can (Chapter 4; Page 24/5). It is important to
understand here that this is the case for GSN who are a national brand; results may vary if
assessed within a global brand.

5.4 Recommendations
As previously mentioned, Khatri (2006) has provided us with a framework to challenge and
further research has enabled us to add the additional section. Research has developed a formula
towards assessing endorser’s interaction functionality with consumers. The following summarises
the equation using Twitter, however further research is required to develop one towards other
social media platforms. This formula provides businesses with specific data that is comparable
Figure 5.1 – Endorsee interaction formula (Twitter)
( )
to athletes currently endorsed or those the competition is using. The Endorsee Functionality data
is presented as a comparable figure, however additional research can present a visual scale for
assessment. Referring to the data provided within the group interview, endorsee interaction is
important for the brand to move as deep into the social media world as possible. The formula
calculates the lower the figure the more effective the athletes tweets are, promotional tweets
from GSN athletes are shown in (Appendix 21.1) with an example of a non GSN athlete from a
rival company for comparison. The formula provides GSN with opportunity to see Ross Dickerson
as a leading endorser however see Carly Thornton and Laurence Shahlaei to be less effective than
there competitor’s endorser.
Endorsers provide businesses with the opportunity to become visible on social media to their
target market. In the modern day where consumer’s attention span is no longer than 15 seconds,
businesses are finding alternatives to the quick sale technique and guiding traffic their way.
Further research is needed to understand how social media can be used within selecting and
evaluating endorsements; however, we have been able to understand its inconsistency and need
for greater research for businesses to use the medium successfully.
5.5 Where to Next
Conclusion is only the beginning providing the opportunity to expand on the effect of social media
on athlete endorsement. The growth of the mediums has enabled the paper to acknowledge and
challenge established theories whilst providing light towards a new direction of research.
Different results could have been established if the author used alternative methods towards data
collection, therefore the following chapter acknowledges reflection from the paper.

6.0 Chapter 6
What to consider
‘’By three methods we may learn wisdom: First, by reflection,
which is noblest; Second, by imitation, which is easiest;
and third by experience, which is the bitterest’’
Confucius
Originating from interest towards athlete endorsement, GSN provided the opportunity to
acknowledge the phenomenon within the business environment. Studying digital marketing
opened the authors eyes towards the implementation social media is having on marketing
techniques commonly used within the sporting industry. The use of Business Source Premier
enhanced research skills, whilst Bickman’s research design model provided a framework when
learning the structure of interviews. The application of content analysis was learnt to group the
data and provide structure towards drawing conclusions.
Having conducted the research, the author would recommend different research techniques for
deeper results. Time constraints and contacts restricted the possibility for this paper; however,
focus groups based across five major cities across the UK would provide results with more content
whilst not restricted geographically. Two authors to collect the content analysis would also
validate the results in reference to Andrew Burton-Jones ‘Knowledge Bias in the Demonstration’
table.
The results established provide data towards the necessity of research, whilst offering businesses
a formula towards athlete selection and assessment.

7.0 References
Aaker, J. (1997). Dimensions of Brand Personality. Journal of Marketing Research , 347-356.
Aamodt, M. (2009). Industrial/Organizational Psychology. Belmont: Cengage Learning.
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