Study of Derivatives in the Indian capital market

STUDY OF DERIVATIVES IN INDIAN CAPITAL MARKET 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to pay my gratitude to Mr. P. K. Agarwal, (Faculty of Management),
for his kind assistance, proper guidance and co-operation, which helped me in the
preparation of the research project titled as A Study of Derivatives in Indian Capital
Market.
Again I greatly appreciate the diligent support by all my colleagues and the faculty of
IPEC for their wholehearted support and co-operation.
SUNIL KUMAR
Roll No. 0903070054

PREFACE
A derivative is a product whose value is derived from the value of one or more
underlying variables or assets in a contractual manner. The underlying assets can be equity,
forex, commodity or any other asset. They may take the form of forwards, futures, options, or
swaps. The three main player in the derivative market consist of hedger, speculator &
arbitrageur. In India, we have index future as the first step toward building a more liquid
market.
In India ,NSE has introduced index future contract based on S&P CNX Nifty. The S&P
CNX Nifty Futures are trade don NSE as one, two and three month contracts. Whereas BSE
has introduced index future contract based on BSE-30 sensex. They are contracts whose
“underlying” is the value of the index at any point in time. At the time of delivery, the trade
is settled in cash. Trading in index futures is not just to hedge market risk, it can well be a
source of profit through arbitrage. There are arbitrage opportunities in index futures, just as
in stock.
Financial innovation that led to the issuance and trading of derivative products has been
an important boost to the development of financial markets. While the benefits stemming
from the economic functions performed by derivatives securities have been discussed and
proven by academics , there is increasing concern within the financial community that the
growth of derivative markets- whether standardize or not – destabilizes the economy.
The Derivatives Committee strongly favor the introduction of financial derivatives
in order to provide the facility for hedging in the most cost efficient way against market risk.

This is an important economic purpose. At the same time, it recognizes that in order to make
hedging possible, the market should also have speculator who are prepared to be counter
parties to the hedger. And if sufficient no. of hedger with genuine hedging needs are not there
and we still introduce future market, then we would end up having only speculator. Such a
future market would be devoid of any connection with the cash or the spot market and would
have its own life full of speculation and bubbles. So now the question arises, do Indian
investors need future trading? If trading in index future is advocated on the basis of
hedging needs of investors, one must assess the market demand and supply source for trading
in the market risk before introducing the index futures.
The desirability of successful derivatives, such as futures trading, depends crucially on the
solidity and maturity of cash markets in underlying securities. To make cash markets robust
and effective, first let us put in the place the mechanism of margin trading, short sale,
dematerialized settlement and electronics transfer of funds among market participants.

INTRODUCTION TO DERIVATIVES
The origin of derivative can be traced back to the need of formers to protect themselves against
fluctuation in the price of their crops. From th time it was sown to the time it was ready for
harvest, farmers would face price uncertainty. Through the use of simple derivatives products, it
was possible for the farmers to partially or fully transfer price risk by locking – in assets prices.
These were simple contracts developed to meet the needs of farmers and basically a means of
reducing risks.
A farmer who sowed his crops in June face uncertainty over the price of he would receive
for his harvest in September. In years of scarcity, he would probably obtain attractive prices.
However, during times of over supply, he would have to dispose off his harvest at a very low price.
Clearly this meant that the farmer and his family were expose to a high risk of uncertainty.
On the other hand, a merchant with an ongoing requirement of grain too would face a price
risk and that of having to pay exorbitant prices during dearth, although favorable prices could be
obtained during period of over supply. Under such circumstances, it clearly made sense for the
farmer and the merchant to come together and enter in a contract whereby the price of the grain to
be delivered in September could be decided earlier. What they would then negotiate happened to
be a futures-type contract, which would enable both parties to eliminate the price risk.
In 1848, the Chicago Board of Trade, or CBOT, was established to bring farmers and merchant
together. A group of traders got together and create the ‘to-arrive’ contract that permitted farmers
to lock in to price un front and deliver the grain later. These to-arrive contracts proved useful as a
device for hedging and speculation on price changes. These were eventually standardized, and in
1925 the first futures clearing house came into existence.

Today, derivative contract exist on a variety of commodities such as corn, pepper, cotton, wheat,
silver, etc. besides commodities, derivatives contracts also exist on a lot of financial underlying
like, interest rate, exchange rate etc.

Derivatives defined:
Derivatives are financial contracts of pre-determined fixed duration, whose values are derived
from the value of an underlying primary financial instrument, commodity or index, such as:
interest rates, exchange rates, commodities, and equities.
Derivatives are risk shifting instruments. Initially, they were used to reduce exposure to changes
in foreign exchange rates, interest rates, or stock indexes or commonly known as risk hedging.
Hedging is the most important aspect of derivatives and also its basic economic purpose. There has
to be counter party to hedgers and they are speculators. Speculators don’t look at derivatives as
means of reducing risk but it’s a business for them. Rather he accepts risks from the hedgers in
pursuit of profits. Thus for a sound derivatives market, both hedgers and speculators are essential.

Participants in Derivatives Markets:
 Hedgers:
These are market players who wish to protect an existing asset position from future adverse price
movements.
 Speculator:
A speculator is a one who accepts the risk that hedgers wish to transfer. Speculators have no
position to protect and do not necessarily have the physical resources to make delivery of the
underlying asset nor do they necessarily need to take delivery of the underlying asset. They take
positions on their expectations of futures price movements and in order to make a profit. In general
they buy futures contracts when they expect futures prices to rise and sell futures contract when
they expect futures prices to fall.
 Arbitrageurs:
These are traders and market makers who deal in buying and selling futures contracts hoping to
profit from price differentials between markets and/or exchanges.

Types of Derivatives:
The common derivatives are futures, options, forward contracts, swaps etc. These are described
below.
 Futures:
A Future represents the right to buy or sell a standard quantity and quality of an
asset or security at a specified date and price. Futures are similar to Forward Contracts, but
are standardized and traded on an exchange, and settlement of financial obligation happens
at the end of each trading day under the terms of future. Unlike Forward Contracts, the
counterparty to a Futures contract is the clearing corporation on the appropriate exchange.
Futures often are settled in cash or cash equivalents, rather than requiring physical delivery
of the underlying asset.
 Options: An Option gives holder the right (but not the obligation) to buy or sell a security
or other asset during a given time for a specified price called the 'Strike' price. An Option to buy is
known as a Call Option and an Option to sell is called a Put Option. One can purchase Options (the
right to buy or sell the security) or sell (write) Options. As a seller, one would become obligated to
sell a security to or buy a security from the party that purchased the Option. In order to acquire the
right of option, the option buyer pays to the option seller (known as "option writer") an Option
Premium. The buyer of an option can lose an amount no more than the option premium paid but

his possible gain in unlimited. On the other hand, the option writer’s possible loss is unlimited but
his maximum gain is limited to the option premium charged by him to the holder. Option premium
is calculated using option pricing models like Black Scholes Model etc.
 Forwards:
In a Forward Contract, the purchaser and its counter party are obligated to trade a security or other
asset at a specified date in the future. The price paid for the security or asset is agreed upon at the
time the contract is entered into, or may be determined at delivery. Forward Contracts generally
are traded OTC.
 Swaps: A Swap is a simultaneous buying and selling of the same security or obligation. It
can be an agreement in which two parties exchange interest payments based on an identical
principal amount, called the notional principal amount. This is the most common type of Swap and
also known as plain vanilla swap.
 Warrants: options generally have the life of upto one year, the majority of options traded
on options exchange having a maximum maturity of nine months. Longer-dated options are called
warrants and are generally traded over the counter.
 Leaps: the acronym LEAPS means long term Equity Anticipation Securities. These are
option having a maturity of up to thee years.
 Swaptions: Swaptions are options to buy or sell a swap that will become operative at the
expiry of the options thus a swaption is an option on a forward swap. Rather than have calls and
puts, the Swaptions market has receiver swaption and payer Swaptions. A receiver swaption is an

opinion to receive fixed and pay floating. A payer swaption is an option to pay fixed and received
floating.
Factors driving the growth of financial derivatives:
1. Increased volatility in asset prices in financial markets,
2. Increased integration of national financial markets with the international markets,
3. Marked improvement in communication facilities and sharp decline in their costs,
4. Development of more sophisticated risk management tools, providing economic agents a wider
choice of risk management strategies, and
5. Innovations in the derivatives markets, which optimally combine the risks and returns over a
large number of financial assets leading to higher returns, reduced risk as well as transactions costs
as compared to individual financial assets.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Researchproblem
“Study of Derivatives in the India capital market”
ResearchObjective:
The main objective of the study is to do the detailed analysis of the trading of derivatives in the
capital market in Indian context and this is also includes the study of:
 Meaning
 Type
 Trading
 Clearing & settlement
 Regulatory framework
ResearchDesign:
A research design specifies the methods and procedure for conducting a particular study. One
has to specify the approach he intends to use with respect to the proposed study. Broadly speaking,
research design con be grouped into three categories.
EXPLORATORY: Focuses on discovery on ideas and generally based on secondary data.
DISCRIPTIVE: It is undertaken when the research wants to know the characteristics of certain
groups such as age, sex, educational level, income, occupation etc.

CASUAL: It is undertaken when the researcher is interested in knowing the cause and effect
relationship between two or more variables.
The research design of my study is “Exploratory”
DATA SOURCES:
Research is based on secondary data that has been collected from various sources like internet,
journals, magazines and books etc. (see Bibliography also).

INDIAN CAPITAL MARKET: AN OVERVIEW
Evolution:
Indian Stock Markets are one of the oldest in Asia. Its history dates back to nearly 200 years
ago. The earliest records of security dealings in India are meager and obscure. The East India
Company was the dominant institution in those days and business in its loan securities used to be
transacted towards the close of the eighteenth century.
By 1830's business on corporate stocks and shares in Bank and Cotton presses took place in
Bombay. Thoth the trading list was broader in 1839, there were only half a dozen brokers
recognized by banks and merchants during 1840 and 1850.
The 1850's witnessed a rapid development of commercial enterprise and brokerage business
attracted many men into the field and by 1860 the number of brokers increased into 60.
In 1860-61 the American Civil War broke out and cotton supply from United States of Europe was
stopped; thus, the 'Share Mania' in India begun. The number of brokers increased to about 200 to
250. However, at the end of the American Civil War, in 1865, a disastrous slump began (for
example, Bank of Bombay Share which had touched Rs 2850 could only be sold at Rs. 87).
At the end of the American Civil War, the brokers who thrived out of Civil War in 1874, found a
place in a street (now appropriately called as Dalal Street) where they would conveniently
assemble and transact business. In 1887, they formally established in Bombay, the "Native Share
and Stock Brokers' Association" (which is alternatively known as " The Stock Exchange "). In

1895, the Stock Exchange acquired a premise in the same street and it was inaugurated in 1899.
Thus, the Stock Exchange at Bombay was consolidated.
Other leading cities in stock market operations:
Ahmedabad gained importance next to Bombay with respect to cotton textile industry. After 1880,
many mills originated from Ahmedabad and rapidly forged ahead. As new mills were floated, the
need for a Stock Exchange at Ahmedabad was realized and in 1894 the brokers formed "The
Ahmedabad Share and Stock Brokers' Association".
What the cotton textile industry was to Bombay and Ahmedabad, the jute industry was to Calcutta.
Also tea and coal industries were the other major industrial groups in Calcutta. After the Share
Mania in 1861-65, in the 1870's there was a sharp boom in jute shares, which was followed by a
boom in tea shares in the 1880's and 1890's; and a coal boom between 1904 and 1908. On June
1908, some leading brokers formed "The Calcutta Stock Exchange Association".
In the beginning of the twentieth century, the industrial revolution was on the way in India with the
Swadeshi Movement; and with the inauguration of the Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited in
1907, an important stage in industrial advancement under Indian enterprise was reached.
Indian cotton and jute textiles, steel, sugar, paper and flour mills and all companies generally
enjoyed phenomenal prosperity, due to the First World War.
In 1920, the then demure city of Madras had the maiden thrill of a stock exchange functioning in
its midst, under the name and style of "The Madras Stock Exchange" with 100 members. However,
when boom faded, the number of members stood reduced from 100 to 3, by 1923, and so it went
out of existence.

In 1935, the stock market activity improved, especially in South India where there was a rapid
increase in the number of textile mills and many plantation companies were floated. In 1937, a
stock exchange was once again organized in Madras - Madras Stock Exchange Association (Pvt.)
Limited. (In 1957 the name was changed to Madras Stock Exchange Limited).
Lahore Stock Exchange was formed in 1934 and it had a brief life. It was merged with the Punjab
Stock Exchange Limited, which was incorporated in 1936.
Indian Stock Exchanges - An Umbrella Growth:
The Second World War broke out in 1939. It gave a sharp boom which was followed by a slump.
But, in 1943, the situation changed radically, when India was fully mobilized as a supply base.
On account of the restrictive controls on cotton, bullion, seeds and other commodities, those
dealing in them found in the stock market as the only outlet for their activities. They were anxious
to join the trade and their number was swelled by numerous others. Many new associations were
constituted for the purpose and Stock Exchanges in all parts of the country were floated.
The Uttar Pradesh Stock Exchange Limited (1940), Nagpur Stock Exchange Limited (1940) and
Hyderabad Stock Exchange Limited (1944) were incorporated.
In Delhi two stock exchanges - Delhi Stock and Share Brokers' Association Limited and the Delhi
Stocks and Shares Exchange Limited - were floated and later in June 1947, amalgamated into the
Delhi Stock Exchange Association Limited.

Post-independence Scenario:
Most of the exchanges suffered almost a total eclipse during depression. Lahore Exchange was
closed during partition of the country and later migrated to Delhi and merged with Delhi Stock
Exchange.
Bangalore Stock Exchange Limited was registered in 1957 and recognized in 1963.
Most of the other exchanges languished till 1957 when they applied to the Central Government for
recognition under the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956. Only Bombay, Calcutta,
Madras, Ahmedabad, Delhi, Hyderabad and Indore, the well established exchanges, were
recognized under the Act. Some of the members of the other Associations were required to be
admitted by the recognized stock exchanges on a concessional basis, but acting on the principle of
unitary control, all these pseudo stock exchanges were refused recognition by the Government of
India and they thereupon ceased to function.
Thus, during early sixties there were eight recognized stock exchanges in India (mentioned above).
The number virtually remained unchanged, for nearly two decades. During eighties, however,
many stock exchanges were established: Cochin Stock Exchange (1980), Uttar Pradesh Stock
Exchange Association Limited (at Kanpur, 1982), and Pune Stock Exchange Limited (1982),
Ludhiana Stock Exchange Association Limited (1983), Gauhati Stock Exchange Limited (1984),
Kanara Stock Exchange Limited (at Mangalore, 1985), Magadh Stock Exchange Association (at
Patna, 1986), Jaipur Stock Exchange Limited (1989), Bhubaneswar Stock Exchange Association
Limited (1989), Saurashtra Kutch Stock Exchange Limited (at Rajkot, 1989), Vadodara Stock
Exchange Limited (at Baroda, 1990) and recently established exchanges - Coimbatore and Meerut.
Thus, at present, there are totally twenty one recognized stock exchanges in India excluding the

Over The Counter Exchange of India Limited (OTCEI) and the National Stock Exchange of India
Limited (NSEIL).
The Table given below portrays the overall growth pattern of Indian stock markets since
independence. It is quite evident from the Table that Indian stock markets have not only grown just
in number of exchanges, but also in number of listed companies and in capital of listed companies.
The remarkable growth after 1985 can be clearly seen from the Table, and this was due to the
favouring government policies towards security market industry.
Growth Pattern of the Indian Stock Market:
Si.
No
.
As on 31st
December
1946 1961 1971 1975 1980 1985 1991 1995
1 No. of
Stock Exchanges
7 7 8 8 9 14 20 22
2 No. of
Listed Cos.
1125 1203 1599 1552 2265 4344 6229 8593
3 No. of Stock Issues of
Listed Cos.
1506 2111 2838 3230 3697 6174 8967 11784
4 Capital of Listed
Cos. (Cr. Rs.)
270 753 1812 2614 3973 9723 32041 59583
5 Market value of
Capital of Listed
Cos. (Cr. Rs.)
971 1292 2675 3273 6750 25302 110279 478121
6 Capital per
Listed Cos. (4/2)
(Lakh Rs.)
24 63 113 168 175 224 514 693
7 Market Value of
Capital per Listed
Cos. (Lakh Rs.)
(5/2)
86 107 167 211 298 582 1770 5564

Trading Pattern of the Indian Stock Market:
Trading in Indian stock exchanges are limited to listed securities of public limited companies.
They are broadly divided into two categories, namely, specified securities (forward list) and non-
specified securities (cash list). Equity shares of dividend paying, growth-oriented companies with a
paid-up capital of atleast Rs.50 million and a market capitalization of atleast Rs.100 million and
having more than 20,000 shareholders are, normally, put in the specified group and the balance in
non-specified group.
Two types of transactions can be carried out on the Indian stock exchanges: (a) spot delivery
transactions "for delivery and payment within the time or on the date stipulated when entering into
the contract which shall not be more than 14 days following the date of the contract" : and (b)
forward transactions "delivery and payment can be extended by further period of 14 days each so
that the overall period does not exceed 90 days from the date of the contract". The latter is
permitted only in the case of specified shares. The brokers who carry over the outstanding pay
carry over charges (can tango or backwardation) which are usually determined by the rates of
interest prevailing.
A member broker in an Indian stock exchange can act as an agent, buy and sell securities for his
clients on a commission basis and also can act as a trader or dealer as a principal, buy and sell
securities on his own account and risk, in contrast with the practice prevailing on New York and
London Stock Exchanges, where a member can act as a jobber or a broker only.
The nature of trading on Indian Stock Exchanges are that of age old conventional style of face-to-
face trading with bids and offers being made by open outcry. However, there is a great amount of
effort to modernize the Indian stock exchanges in the very recent times.

National Stock Exchange (NSE):
With the liberalization of the Indian economy, it was found inevitable to lift the Indian stock
market trading system on par with the international standards. On the basis of the
recommendations of high powered Pherwani Committee, the National Stock Exchange was
incorporated in 1992 by Industrial Development Bank of India, Industrial Credit and Investment
Corporation of India, Industrial Finance Corporation of India, all Insurance Corporations, selected
commercial banks and others.
Trading at NSE can be classified under two broad categories:
(a) Wholesale debt market and
(b) Capital market.
Wholesale debt market operations are similar to money market operations - institutions and
corporate bodies enter into high value transactions in financial instruments such as government
securities, treasury bills, public sector unit bonds, commercial paper, certificate of deposit, etc.
There are two kinds of players in NSE:
(a) trading members and (b) participants.
Recognized members of NSE are called trading members who trade on behalf of themselves and
their clients. Participants include trading members and large players like banks who take direct
settlement responsibility.

Trading at NSE takes place through a fully automated screen-based trading mechanism which
adopts the principle of an order-driven market. Trading members can stay at their offices and
execute the trading, since they are linked through a communication network. The prices at which
the buyer and seller are willing to transact will appear on the screen. When the prices match the
transaction will be completed and a confirmation slip will be printed at the office of the trading
member.
NSE has several advantages over the traditional trading exchanges. They are as follows:
 NSE brings an integrated stock market trading network across the nation.
 Investors can trade at the same price from anywhere in the country since inter-market
operations are streamlined coupled with the countrywide access to the securities.
 Delays in communication, late payments and the malpractice’s prevailing in the traditional
trading mechanism can be done away with greater operational efficiency and informational
transparency in the stock market operations, with the support of total computerized
network.
Unless stock markets provide professionalised service, small investors and foreign investors will
not be interested in capital market operations. And capital market being one of the major source of
long-term finance for industrial projects, India cannot afford to damage the capital market path. In
this regard NSE gains vital importance in the Indian capital market system.

INTRODUCTION TO “FUTURES & OPTIONS”
Forward Contracts:
A forward contract is a simple derivative – It is an agreement to buy or sell an asset at a certain
future time for a certain price. The contract is usually between two financial institutions or
between a financial institution and its corporate client. A forward contract is not normally traded
on an exchange.
One of the parties in a forward contract assumes a long position i.e. agrees to buy the underlying
asset on a specified future date at a specified future price. The other party assumes a short position
i.e. agrees to sell the asset on the same date at the same price. This specified price is referred to as
the delivery price. This delivery price is chosen so that the value of the forward contract is equal to
zero for both transacting parties. In other words, it costs nothing to the either party to hold the long
or the short position.
A forward contract is settled at maturity. The holder of the short position delivers the asset to the
holder of the long position in return for cash at the agreed upon rate. Therefore, a key determinant
of the value of the contract is the market price of the underlying asset. A forward contract can
therefore, assume a positive or negative value depending on the movements of the price of the
asset. For example, if the price of the asset rises sharply after the two parties have entered into the
contract, the party holding the long position stands to benefit, i.e. the value of the contract is
positive for her. Conversely, the value of the contract becomes negative for the party holding the
short position.

The concept of Forward price is also important. The forward price for a certain contract is defined
as that delivery price which would make the value of the contract zero. To explain further, the
forward price and the delivery price are equal on the day that the contract is entered into. Over the
duration of the contract, the forward price is liable to change while the delivery price remains the
same. This is explained in the following note on payoffs from forward contracts.
OPTION
A options agreement is a contract in which the writer of the option grants the buyer of the option
the right purchase from or sell to the writer a designated instrument for a specified price within a
specified period of time.
The writer grants this right to the buyer for a certain sum of money called the option premium. An
option that grants the buyer the right to buy some instrument is called a call option. An options that
grants the buyer the right to sell an instrument is called a put option. The price at which the buyer
an exercise his option is called the exercise price, strike price or the striking price.
Options are available on a large variety of underlying assets like common stock, currencies, debt
instruments and commodities. Also traded are options on stock indices and futures contracts –
where the underlying is a futures contract and futures style options.
Options have proved to be a versatile and flexible tool for risk management by themselves as well
as in combination with other instruments. Options also provide a way for individual investors with
limited capital to speculate on the movements of stock prices, exchange rates, commodity prices
etc. The biggest advantage in this context is the limited loss feature of options.

Options Terminology:
 Call Option:
A call option gives the holder (buyer/ one who is long call), the right to buy specified quantity of
the underlying asset at the strike price on or before expiration date.
 Put Option:
A Put option gives the holder (buyer/ one who is long Put), the right to sell specified quantity of
the underlying asset at the strike price on or before a expiry date.
 Strike Price (also called exercise price):
The price specified in the option contract at which the option buyer can purchase the currency
(call) or sell the currency (put) Y against X.
 Maturity Date:
The date on which the option contract expires is the maturity date. Exchange traded options have
standardized maturity dates.
 American Option:
An option, call or put, that can be exercised by the buyer on any business day from initiation to
maturity.
 European Option
A European option is an option that can be exercised only on maturity date.

 Premium (Option price, Option value):
The fee that the option buyer must pay the option writer at the time the contract is initiated. If the
buyer does not exercise the option, he stands to lose this amount.
 Intrinsic value of the option:
The intrinsic value of an option is the gain to the holder on immediate exercise of the option. In
other words, for a call option, it is defined as Max [(S-X), 0], where s is the current spot rate and
X is the strike rate.
If S is greater than X, the intrinsic value is positive and is S is less than X, the intrinsic value will
be zero. For a put option, the intrinsic value is Max [(X-S), 0]. In the case of European options, the
concept of intrinsic value is notional as these options are exercised only on maturity.
 Time value of the option:
The value of an American option, prior to expiration, must be at least equal to its intrinsic value.
Typically, it will be greater than the intrinsic value. This is because there is some possibility that
the spot price will move further in favor of the option holder. The difference between the value of
an option at any time "t" and its intrinsic value is called the time value of the option.
 At-the-Money, In-the-Money and Out-of-the-Money Options:
A call option is said to be at-the-money if S=X i.e. the spot price is equal to the exercise price. It is
in-the-money is S>X and out-of-the-money is S<X. Conversely, a put option is at-the-money is
S=X, in-the-money if S<X and out-of-the-money if S>X.

FUTURES
A futures contract is an agreement between two parties to buy or sell an asset at a certain specified
time in future for certain specified price. In this, it is similar to a forward contract. However, there
are a number of differences between forwards and futures. These relate to the contractual features,
the way the markets are organized, profiles of gains and losses, kinds of participants in the markets
and the ways in which they use the two instruments.
Futures contracts in physical commodities such as wheat, cotton, corn, gold, silver, cattle, etc. have
existed for a long time. Futures in financial assets, currencies, interest bearing instruments like T-
bills and bonds and other innovations like futures contracts in stock indexes are a relatively new
development dating back mostly to early seventies in the United States and subsequently in other
markets around the world.
Major Features of Futures Contracts:
The principal features of the contract are as follows:
 Organized Exchanges
 Standardization
 Clearing House
 Marking To Market
 Actual Delivery Is Rare

DISTINCTION BETWEEN FORWARD AND FUTURES CONTRACTS
FORWARDS FUTURES
1. Are traded on an exchange. 1. Are not traded on an exchange.
2. Use a Clearing House which provides
protection for both parties.
2. Are private and are negotiated between the
parties with no exchange guarantee.
3. Require a margin to be paid. 3. Involve no margin payments.
4. Are used for hedging and speculating. 4. Are used for hedging and physical delivery.
5. Are standardized and published. 5. Are dependent on the negotiated contract
conditions.
6. Are transparent - futures contracts are
reported by the exchange.
6. Are not transparent as they are all private
deals.
FUTURES & OPTIONS
An interesting question to ask at this stage is – when could one use options instead of futures?
Options are different from future in several interesting senses. At a practical level, the option buyer
faces a interesting situation. He pays for option in full at the time it is purchased. After this, he
only have an upside. There is no possibility of the options position generating any further losses to
him (other than the fund already paid for option). This is different from futures, which is free to
enter into, but can generate very large losses. This characteristics makes options attractive to many
occasional market participants, who can not put in the time to closely monitor their futures
positions. Buying put options is buying insurance. To buy a put option on Nifty is to buy

insurance, which reimburses the full extent to which Nifty drops abelow the strike price of the put
option. This is attractive to many people, and to mutual funds creating “guaranteed return
product”.
Distinction between futures and options
Futures Options
 Exchange traded with innovation  Same as futures.
 Exchange defines the product  Same as futures
 Price is zero, strike price moves  Strike price is fixed, price moves.
 Price is zero  Price uis always positive.
 Linear payoff  Nonlinear payoff.
 Both long and short at risk  Only short at risk.

PAYOFF FOR DERIVATIVES CONTRACTS
A pay off is likely profit/loss that would accrue to a market participants with change in the price of
the underlying asset. This is generally depicted in the form of payoff diagrams, which show the
price of the underlying asset on the X-axis and the profit/loss on the Y-axis. In this section we shall
take a look at the payoffs for buyers and sellers of futures and options.
Payoff for Futures:
Futures contracts have linear payoffs. In simple words, it means that the losses as well as profits
for the buyer and the sellers of a future contract are unlimited. These linear payoffs are fascinating
as they can be combined with options and the underlying to generate various complex payoffs.
 Payoff ForA Buyer On Nifty Future:
The payoff for a person who sells a futures contract is similar to the payoff for a person who shorts
an asset. He has a potentially unlimited upside as well as a potentially unlimited downside. Take
the case of speculator who sells two-month Nifty index futures contracts when the Nifty stands at
1220. The underlying asset in this case is the Nifty portfolio. When the index moves down, the
short futures positions start making profits and when the index moves up, it starts making losses
.the following diagram shows the payoff diagram for the seller of a futures contract.

Profit
1220
0
Nifty
Loss
Fig. PAYOFF FOR A BUYER OF FUTURE
 Payoff for a selleron Nifty Futures:
The pay off for a person who sells a future contract is similar to the payoff for a person who shorts
an assets. He has a potentially unlimited upsides as well as a potentially unlimited downside. Take
the case of a speculator who sells the two-month Nifty index future contract when the Nifty stands
at 1220. the underlying asset in this case is the Nifty portfolio. When the index moves down, the
short futures positions start making profits, and when the index moves up, it starts making losses.

Profit
1220 Nifty
Loss
Fig. Payoff for a seller on Nifty futures
Option Payoffs:
The optionality characteristics of options results in a non –linear payoff for the options. In
simple words, it means that the losses for the buyer of an option are limited, however the profits
are potentially unlimited. For a writer, the payoff is exactly the opposite. His profits are limited to
the options premium; however his losses are potentially unlimited. These non-linear payoffs are
fascinating as they lend themselves to be used to generate various payoffs by using combination of
options and underlying. We look here at the six basic payoffs.

 Payoff profile of buyer of asset: Long asset:
In this basic position, an investor buys the underlying asset, Nifty for instance, for 1220, and sells
it at a future date at a unknown price. Once it is purchased, the investor is said to be “long” the
asset. Following figure show the pay off for a long position of Nifty.
Profit
+60---------------------------------------------------------
1160 1220 1280 Nifty
-60 -----------------------------
Loss
Fig. Payoff for investor who went long Nifty at 1220
 Payoff profile for seller of asset: Short asset:
In this basic position, an investor shorts the underlying asset, Nifty for instance, for 1220 and buys
it back at a future date at an unknown price. Once it is sold, the investor is said to be “short” the
asset. Following figure show the pay off for a long position of Nifty.

Profit
1160 1220 1280 Nifty
Loss
Fig. Payoff for investor who went short Nifty at 1220
 Payoff profile for buyer of call option: Long run:
A call option gives the buyer the right to buy the underlying asset at the strike price specified in the
option. The profit/loss that the buyer makes on the options depends on the spot price of the
underlying. If upon expiration, the spot price exceeds the strike price, he makes a profit. Higher the
spot price, more is the profit he makes. If the spot price of the underlying is less than the strike
price, he lets his option expire un-exercised. His loss in this case is the premium he paid for buying
the option.

Profit
1250 Nifty
0
86.60
loss
Fig. Payoff for buyer of a call
Payoff for the buyer of a three-month call option (often referred to as long call) with
a strike of 1250 bought at a premium of 86.60
 Payoff profile for buyer of call option: Short call
Call option gives the buyer the right to buy the underlying at the strike price specified in the
option. For selling the option, the writer of the option charges a premium. The profit/loss that the
buyer make on the option depends upon the spot price of the underlying. Whatever is the buyer’s
profit/loss? If upon expiration, the spot price exceeds the strike price, the buyer wills exercise the

option on the writer. Hence as the spot price increase the writer of option starts making losses.
Hired the spot price, more is the loss he makes. If upon expiration the spot price of the underlying
is less than the strike price, the buyer lets his option expire unexercised and the writer gets to keep
the premium. Figure gives the pay off for the writer of three-month call option (often referred to as
short call) with the strike of 1250sold at premium of 86.60
Profit
86.60
1250 Nifty
0
Loss
Fig. Payoff for a writer of calls options
 Payoff for buyer of put option: Long put
A put option gives the buyer the right to sell the underlying asset at the strike price
specified in the option. The profit/loss that the buyer makes on the option depends on the spot
price of the underlying. If upon expiration, the spot price is below the strike price , he makes a
profit. Lower the spot price, more is the profit he makes. If the spot price is higher than the strike

price, he let his option expire un-exercised. His loss in this case is the premium he paid for buying
the option.
Profit
1250 Nifty
0
61.70
loss
Fig. Payofffor buyer of put option
 Payoff profile for writer of put option: short put
A put option gives the buyer the right to sell the underlying asset at the strike price specified in the
option. For selling the options, the writer of the option charges a premium. The profit/loss that the
buyer makes on the option depends on the spot price of the underlying. Whatever is the buyer’
profit is the seller loss. If upon expiration, the spot prices happens to be below the strike price, the
buyer will ecercise the option at write. If upon the expiration the pot price of the underlying is
more than the strike price, the buyer lets his option expired un exercised and the writer gets to keep
the premium.

Profit
61.70
0 1250 Nifty
Loss
Fig. Payoff for writer of put option
Fig shows the payoff for the writer of a three-month put option (often referred
as short put) with a strike price of 1250 sold at a premium of 61.70

CLEARING AND SETTLEMENT
National Securities Clearing council Limited (NSCCL) undertakes clearing and settlement of all
trades executed on the futures and options (O&P) segment of the NSE. It also act as legal counter
party to all trades on the F&O segment and guarantees their financial settlement.
Clearing Entities:
Clearing and settlement activities in the F&O segment are undertaken by NSCCL with the help of
the following entities:
 Clearing Members:
A Clearing Member (CM) of NSCCL has the responsibility of clearing and settlement of all deals
executed by Trading Members (TM) on NSE, who clear and settle such deals through them.
Primarily, the CM performs the following functions:
1. Clearing – Computing obligations of all his TM's i.e. determining positions to settle.
2. Settlement - Performing actual settlement. Only funds settlement is allowed at present in
Index as well as Stock futures and options contracts
3. Risk Management – Setting position limits based on upfront deposits / margins for each
TM and monitoring positions on a continuous basis.
Types of Clearing Members:
 Trading Member Clearing Member (TM-CM)
A Clearing Member who is also a TM. Such CMs may clear and settle their own
proprietary trades, their clients’ trades as well as trades of other TM’s.

 Professional Clearing Member (PCM)
A CM who is not a TM. Typically banks or custodians could become a PCM and clear and
settle for TM’s.
 Self Clearing Member (SCM)
A Clearing Member who is also a TM. Such CMs may clear and settle only their own
proprietary trades and their clients’ trades but cannot clear and settle trades of other TM’s.
Clearing Banks:
NSCCL has empanelled 11 clearing banks namely Canara Bank, HDFC Bank, IndusInd
Bank, ICICI Bank, UTI Bank, Bank of India, IDBI Bank, Hongkong & Shanghai Banking
Corporation Ltd., Standard Chartered Bank, Kotak Mahindra Bank and Union Bank of India.
Every Clearing Member is required to maintain and operate a clearing account with any one of
the empanelled clearing banks at the designated clearing bank branches. The clearing account is to
be used exclusively for clearing & settlement operations.

Settlement Mechanism
All futures and options contracts are cash settled, i.e. through exchange of cash. The underlying for
index futures /options of the Nifty index cannot be delivered. These contracts, therefore, have to be
settled in cash. Futures and options on individual securities can be delivered as in the spot market.
However, it has been currently mandated that stock options and futures would also be cash settled.
The settlement amount for a CM is netted across all their TMs/ clients, with respect to their
obligations on MTM, premium and exercise settlement.
Settlement of future contracts:
Futures contracts have two types of settlement, the MTM settlement, which happen on a
continuous basis at the end of each day, and the final settlement, which happens on the last trading
day of the futures contracts.
1. Daily Mark-to-MarketSettlement:
The position in the futures contracts for each member is marked-to-market to the daily
settlement price of the futures contracts at the end of each trade day.
The profits/ losses are computed as the difference between the trade price or the previous
day’s settlement price, as the case may be, and the current day’s settlement price. The CMs
who have suffered a loss are required to pay the mark-to-market loss amount to NSCCL
which is in turn passed on to the members who have made a profit. This is known as daily
mark-to-market settlement.

Theoretical daily settlement price for unexpired futures contracts, which are not traded during the
last half an hour on a day, is currently the price computed as per the formula detailed below:
F = S x e rt
where :
F = theoretical futures price
S = value of the underlying index
r = rate of interest (MIBOR)
t = time to expiration
Rate of interest may be the relevant MIBOR rate or such other rate as may be specified. After daily
settlement, all the open positions are reset to the daily settlement price. CMs are responsible to
collect and settle the daily mark to market profits / losses incurred by the TMs and their clients
clearing and settling through them. The pay-in and payout of the mark-to-market settlement is on
T+1 days (T = Trade day). The mark to market losses or profits are directly debited or credited to
the CMs clearing bank account.
2. Final Settlement:
On the expiry of the futures contracts, NSCCL marks all positions of a CM to the final settlement
price and the resulting profit / loss is settled in cash..The final settlement of the futures contracts is
similar to the daily settlement process except for the method of computation of final settlement
price. The final settlement profit / loss is computed as the difference between trade price or the

previous day’s settlement price, as the case may be, and the final settlement price of the relevant
futures contract.
Final settlement loss/ profit amount is debited/ credited to the relevant CMs clearing bank account
on T+1 day (T= expiry day).
Open positions in futures contracts cease to exist after their expiration day
SETTLEMENT OF OPTIONS CONTRACTS
Daily Premium Settlement:
Premium settlement is cash settled and settlement style is premium style. The premium payable
position and premium receivable positions are netted across all option contracts for each CM at the
client level to determine the net premium payable or receivable amount, at the end of each day.
The CMs who have a premium payable position are required to pay the premium amount to
NSCCL which is in turn passed on to the members who have a premium receivable position. This
is known as daily premium settlement.
CMs are responsible to collect and settle for the premium amounts from the TMs and their clients
clearing and settling through them.
The pay-in and pay-out of the premium settlement is on T+1 days ( T = Trade day). The premium

payable amount and premium receivable amount are directly debited or credited to the CMs
clearing bank account.
Interim Exercise Settlement:
Interim exercise settlement for Option contracts on Individual Securities is effected for valid
exercised option positions at in-the-money strike prices, at the close of the trading hours, on the
day of exercise. Valid exercised option contracts are assigned to short positions in option contracts
with the same series, on a random basis. The interim exercise settlement value is the difference
between the strike price and the settlement price of the relevant option contract.
Exercise settlement value is debited/ credited to the relevant CMs clearing bank account on T+1
day (T= exercise date ).
Final Exercise Settlement:
Final Exercise settlement is effected for option positions at in-the-money strike prices existing at
the close of trading hours, on the expiration day of an option contract. Long positions at in-the
money strike prices are automatically assigned to short positions in option contracts with the same
series, on a random basis. For index options contracts, exercise style is European style, while for
options contracts on individual securities, exercise style is American style. Final Exercise is
Automatic on expiry of the option contracts. Option contracts, which have been exercised, shall be
assigned and allocated to Clearing Members at the client level.
Exercise settlement is cash settled by debiting/ crediting of the clearing accounts of the relevant
Clearing Members with the respective Clearing Bank. Final settlement loss/ profit amount for
option contracts on Index is debited/ credited to the relevant CMs clearing bank account on T+1
day (T = expiry day).

Final settlement loss/ profit amount for option contracts on Individual Securities is debited/
credited to the relevant CMs clearing bank account on T+1 day (T = expiry day).
Open positions, in option contracts, cease to exist after their expiration day.
The pay-in / pay-out of funds for a CM on a day is the net amount across settlements and all TMs/
clients, in F&O Segment.

PROS & CONS OF DERIVATIVES
Financial innovation that led to the issuance and trading of derivatives products has been an
important boost to the development of financial market. Derivatives products such as options,
futures or swaps contract have become a standard risk management tool that enable risk sharing
and thus facilitate the efficient allocation of capital to productive investment opportunities. While
the benefits stemming from the economic function performed by derivative securities have been
discussed and proven by academics, there is increasing concern within the financial community
that the growth of the derivative markets-whether standardize or not-destabilize the economy. In
particular, one often hears that the widespread use of derivatives have been reduced long term
investment since it concentrates capital in short term speculative transactions. In this study, I have
tried to look at the various pros and cons that the derivatives trading pose.
ADVANTAGES OF DERIVATIVES FOR FIRMS, MARKETS AND THE
ECONOMY
The recent studies of derivatives activity have led to a broad consensus, both in the private
and public sectors that derivatives provide numerous and substantial benefits to end –users.
 Derivatives as means of hedging:
Derivatives provide a low cost, effective method for end users to hedge and manage their
exposure to interest rate, commodity price, or exchange rates. Interest rate future and swaps, for
example, help banks for all sizes better manage the re-pricing mismatches in funding long term
assets, such as mortgages, with short term liabilities, such a certificate of deposits. Agricultural
futures and options helps farmers and processors hedge against commodity price risk. Similarly,
multi national corporations can hedge against currency risk using foreign exchange forwards,
futures and options.

 Improves market efficiency and liquidity
Well functioning derivatives improves the efficiency and liquidity of the cash market. The
launch of derivatives has been associated with substantial improvements in the market quality on
the underlying equity market. This happens because of the law transaction cost involved and
arbitrageurs will face low cost when they are eliminating the mispricings. Traders in individual
stock who supply liquidity to these stock use index futures to offset their exposure and hence able
to function at lower level of risk.
 Allows institution to raise capital at lower costs:
Corporations, governmental entities, and financial institutions also benefit
from derivatives through lower funding costs and more diversified funding sources.
Currency and interest rate derivatives provide the ability to borrow in the cheapest
capital market, domestic or foreign, without regard to currency in which the debt is
denominated or the form in which interest is paid. Derivatives can convert the
foreign borrowing into a synthetic domestic currency financing with their fixed or
floating interest rate.
 Allows exchange to offer differentiated products:
In spot market, the ability for the exchanges to differentiate their product is limited
by the fact that they are trading the same paper. In contrast, in the case of derivatives, there are
numerous avenues for product differentiation. Each exchange trading index option has to take
major decision like choice of index, choice of contract size, choice of expiration dates, American
Vs European options, rules governing strike price etc.

 Assists in capital formation in the Economy:
By providing investors and issuers with a wider array of tools for managing risk and
raising capital, derivatives improve the allocation of credit and sharing of risk in the global
economy, lowering the cost of capital formation and stimulating economic growth. It improves the
market’s ability to carefully direct resources toward the projects and the industries where the rate
of return is highest. This improves the allocative efficiency of the market and thus a given stock of
investable funds will be better used in procuring the highest possible GDP growth for the
economy.
The growth in derivatives activities yields substantial benefits to the economy and by
facilitating the access of the domestic companies to international capital market and enabling them
to lower their cost of funds and diversify their funding source; derivatives improve the position of
domestic firms in an expanding, competitive, global economy.
 Improve ROI for institutions:
Derivatives are basically off- balance trading in that no transfer of principal sum occurs and
no posting in the balance sheet will be required. Consequently, a fund that corresponds to the
principal sum in traditional financial transactions (on balance trading) is unnecessary, thus
substantially improving the return on investment. Looking at the restriction on the ratio of net
worth, on the other hand, the risk ratio of assets that form the basis for calculating the net worth in
off balance trading is assumed to be lower than that in the traditional on balance trading. In
practice, it is provided that the credit risk equivalence calculated by multiplying the assumed
amount of principal of an off-balance trading by a risk to value ratio is to be weighted by the credit
worthiness of the other party.

 Risk sharing:
The major economic function of derivatives is typically seen in risk sharing: derivatives provide a
more efficient allocation of economic risks. Examples of risk management, which have already
mentioned are illustrative, but they don’t address the question why derivatives are necessary to
attain a better social allocation of risks.
 Information gathering:
In a perfect market with no transaction cost, no friction and no informational asymmetries, there
would be no benefit stemming from the use of derivatives instruments. However, in the presence
of trading costs and marketing liquidity, portfolio strategies are often implemented or
supplemented with derivatives at substantial lower cost compare to cash market transactions. In
this respect, the welfare effect of derivative instrument result from a reduction in the transaction
cost. Ut, this is only a part of the real economic benefits of the derivatives. If risk allocation is the
major function of these instrument, and because risk is also related to information, derivatives
markets also affect the information structure of the financial system
DISADVANTAGES OF DERIVATIVES
 Risk associated with the derivatives:
Apart from the explicit risk, which arises from various market risk exposure stemming
from the pure service or position taken in a derivative instrument, other implicit risks also
associated with derivatives?

 A credit risk is the risk that a loss will be incurred because a counter party fails to
make payment as due. Concern has been expressed that financial institutions may have used
derivatives to take on an excessive level of credit risk that is poorly managed.
 Market risk is the risk that the value of a position in a contract, financial instrument, asset,
or portfolio will decline when market conditions change. Concern has been expressed that
derivatives expose firm to new market risk while increasing the overall level of exposure.
 Operational risks are the risk that losses will be incurred as a result of inadequate system
and control, inadequate disaster or contingency planning, human error, or management failure.
 Legal risk is the risk of loss because a contract cannot be enforced or because the contract
term fails to achieve the intended goals of the contracting parties. This risk, of course, is as old as
contracting itself. The legal uncertainty can result in significant unexpected losses.
 Implication in global world:
Global market for trade and finance has become increasingly integrated and accessible.
Derivatives have both benefited from and contributed to this development. In this circumstance,
however, some observed fear that derivatives make it possible for shocks in one part of the global
finance system to be transmitted farther and faster than before, being reinforce rather than damped.
Concern also have been expressed that derivatives activity may exacerbated market moves through
positive feedback trading.
 Accounting standard for derivatives:
As far as derivatives are concerned, accounting standard is not homogenized across
countries and/or market player thereby suggesting that lack of precision or ambiguous cross-
comparisons may be common. Market values are not uniformly accepted in accounting rules, and

thus their absence prevent marketing-to-marketing of derivatives positions as well as their proper
collateralization. Accounting practices measure values and not risk exposure and thus remain poor
figure for risk management purpose
 Lack of knowledge:
Lack of knowledge about derivatives: derivatives are complex. The payoffs and risks
that buyer and seller face, and the economic theory that is used for pricing derivatives are
considerably more difficult than that seen on the equity market. Thus at times lack of knowledge
on part of traders leads to disaster.
 Monetarily Zero sum game:
It is impossible for the both the parties in the derivatives transactions to profit
concurrently regardless of the fluctuation of value of underlying assets. Thus one party has to
accept the unprofitable position

Myths behind derivatives
In less than three decades of their coming into vogue, derivatives markets have become the most
important. Today, derivatives have become part of the day-to-day life for ordinary people in most
parts of the world.
Financial derivatives came into the spotlight along with the rise in uncertainty of post-1970, when
the US announced an end to the Bretons Woods System of fixed exchange rates leading to
introduction of currency derivatives followed by other innovations, including stock index futures.
There are still apprehensions about derivatives. There are also many myths though the reality is
different especially for exchange-traded derivatives which are well regulated with all the safety
mechanisms in place.
What are these myths behind derivatives?
 Derivatives increase speculation and do not serve any economic purpose.
Numerous studies have led to a broad consensus, both in the private and public sectors, that
derivatives provide substantial benefits to the users. Derivatives are a low-cost, effective method
for users to hedge and manage their exposures to interest rates, commodity prices, or exchange
rates.
The need for derivatives as hedging tool was felt first in the commodities market. Agricultural
futures and options helped farmers and processors hedge against commodity price-risk. After the
collapse of the Bretton Wood agreement, the financial markets in the world started undergoing
radical changes. This period is marked by remarkable innovations in the financial markets, such as
introduction of floating rates for currencies, increased trading in a variety of derivatives
instruments, and on-line trading in the capital markets.

As the complexity of instruments increased, the accompanying risk factors grew. This situation led
to the development derivatives as effective risk-management tools for the market participants.
Looking at the equity market, derivatives allow corporations and institutional investors to manage
effectively their portfolios of assets and liabilities through instruments such as stock index futures
and options. An equity fund, for example, can reduce its exposure to the stock market quickly and
at a relatively low cost without selling part of its equity assets, by using stock index futures or
index options.
By providing investors and issuers with a wider array of tools for managing risks and raising
capital, derivatives improve the allocation of credit and the sharing of risk in the global economy,
lowering the cost of capital formation and stimulating economic growth.
Now that world markets for trade and finance have become more integrated, derivatives have
strengthened these important linkages among global markets, increasing market liquidity and
efficiency, and facilitating the flow of trade and finance.
 Indian market is not ready for derivative trading:
Often the argument put forth against derivatives trading is that the Indian capital market is
not ready for derivatives trading. Here, we look into the pre-requisites needed for the introduction
of derivatives and how the Indian market fares.
Disasters can happen in any system. The 1992 security scam is a case in point. Disasters
are not necessarily due to dealing in derivatives, but derivatives make headlines. Careful
observation will show that these disasters, such as the Barings collapse, Metallgesellschaft, Daiwa
Bank scandal (not related to derivatives) and Orange County, occurred due to the lack of internal
controls and/or outright fraud either by employees or promoters.
In essence, these examples suggest that scandals have occurred in the recent past, not
only in derivatives-related instruments, but also in bonds, foreign exchange trading and

commodities trading. Most failures have taken place on the `over the-counter' deals, except in the
case of Barings, where it was a case of internal fraud, as also with Daiwa Bank, which lost more
than $1 billion in debt portfolio. `Over-the-counter' (OTC) deals lack transparency, sophisticated
margining system and a well-laid-out regulatory framework, which is not the case with the
exchange-traded derivatives.
Many of the failures happened because of the complex nature of transactions while the
exchange-traded derivatives are simple and easy to understand. In that sense, these derivatives
have been found to be the most useful in allowing participants to transfer their risk, without the
problems associated with the OTC deals. Internal controls would be important in any case, for
normal equity or debt trading as much as in derivatives trading and the participants need to be
more careful in implementing and operating good back-office and control systems to avoid any
internal control failures.
 Derivatives are complex and exotic instruments that Indian investors will
have difficulty in understanding:
Trading in standard derivatives such as forwards, futures and options is already prevalent in India
and has a long history. The Reserve Bank of India allows forward trading in rupee-dollar forward
contracts, which has become a liquid market. The RBI also allows cross currency options trading.
Derivatives in commodities markets have a long history. The first commodity futures
exchange was set up in 1875, in Mumbai, under the aegis of Bombay Cotton Traders Association.
A clearing house for clearing and settlement of these trades was set up in 1918. In oilseeds, a
futures market was established in 1900. Wheat futures market began in Hapur in 1913. Futures
market in raw jute was set up in Calcutta in 1912 and the bullion futures market in Bombay in
1920.

In the equities markets also, derivatives have existed for long. In fact, official history of the Native
Share and Stock Brokers Association, which is now known as the Bombay Stock Exchange
suggests that the concept of options existed from early as in 1898. A quote ascribed to Mr. James
P. McAllen, MP, at the time of the inauguration of BSE's new Brokers Hall in 1898, is: ``...India
being the original home of options, a native broker would give a few points to the brokers of the
other nations in the manipulations of puts and calls.''
This amply proves that the concept of options and futures is well-ingrained in the Indian
equities market and is not as alien as it is made out to be. Even today, complex strategies of
options are traded in many exchanges which are called teji-mandi, jota-phatak, bhav-bhav at
different places. In that sense, the derivatives are not new to India and are current in various
markets including equities markets.
India has a long history of derivatives trading. In fact, in commodities markets, Indian exchanges
are inviting foreigners to participate for which the approvals have also been granted.
 Is capital market safer than derivatives?
WORLD OVER, the spot market in equities operates on a principle of rolling settlement. In this
kind of trading, if one trades on a particular day (T), one has to settle these trades on the third
working day from the date of trading (T+3).
Futures market allows you to trade for a period of, say, one or three months and net the transaction
for the settlement at the end of the period. In India, most stock exchanges allow the participants to
trade over a one-week period for settlement in the following week. The trades are netted for the
settlement for the entire one-week period. In that sense, the Indian market is already operating on
the futures-style settlement.
In this system, additionally, many exchanges also allow the forward-trading called badla and
contango, which was prevalent in the UK. This system is prevalent in France, in the monthly

settlement market. It allows one to even further increase the time to settle for almost three months,
under the current regulations. But this way, a curious mix of futures style settlement with the
facility to carry the settlement obligations forward, creates discrepancies.
The more efficient way will be to separate the derivatives from the cash market, that is, introduce
rolling settlement in all exchanges and, simultaneously, allow futures and options to trade. This
way, the regulators will also be able to regulate both the markets easily and it will provide more
flexibility to the market participants.
In addition, the existing system does not ask for any margins from the clients. Given the volatility
of the equities market in India, this system has become quite prone to systemic collapse.
The Indian capital market operates on a account period system which is actually a seven-day
futures market, while internationally, the cash market operates on T+3 rolling settlement basis _
one of the G-30 recommendations for an efficient clearing and settlement mechanism. In the
futures market, there is a daily mark-to-market settlement (T+1), leading to faster settlement and
risk reduction, unlike the cash market where settlement takes seven days. Client positions are not
segregated from the trading member's proprietary role and clearing members are not segregated,
affecting the system.

Derivatives Market in India
Approval for Derivatives trading:
The first step towards introduction of derivatives trading in India was the promulgation of
the Securities Laws(Amendment) Ordinance, 1995, which withdrew the prohibition on options in
securities. The market for derivatives, however, did not take off, as there was no regulatory
framework to govern trading of derivatives. SEBI set up a 24–member committee under the
Chairmanship of Dr.L.C.Gupta on November 18, 1996 to develop appropriate regulatory
framework for derivatives trading in India. The committee submitted its report on March 17, 1998
prescribing necessary pre–conditions for introduction of derivatives trading in India. The
committee recommended that derivatives should be declared as ‘securities’ so that regulatory
framework applicable to trading of ‘securities’ could also govern trading of securities. SEBI also
set up a group in June 1998 under the Chairmanship of Prof.J.R.Varma, to recommend measures
for risk containment in derivatives market in India. The report, which was submitted in October
1998, worked out the operational details of margining system, methodology for charging initial
margins, broker net worth, deposit requirement and real–time monitoring requirements. The
Securities Contract Regulation Act (SCRA) was amended in December 1999 to include
derivatives within the ambit of ‘securities’ and the regulatory framework was developed for
governing derivatives trading. The act also made it clear that derivatives shall be legal and valid
only if such contracts are traded on a recognized stock exchange, thus precluding OTC derivatives.
The government also rescinded in March 2000, the three– decade old notification, which
prohibited forward trading in securities.

Derivatives trading commenced in India in June 2000 after SEBI granted the final approval
to this effect in May 2001. SEBI permitted the derivative segments of two stock exchanges, NSE
and BSE, and their clearing house/corporation to commence trading and
settlement in approved derivatives contracts. To begin with, SEBI approved trading in index
futures contracts based on S&P CNX Nifty and BSE–30(Sensex) index. This was followed by
approval for trading in options based on these two indexes and options on individual securities.
The trading in BSE Sensex options commenced on June 4, 2001 and the trading in options
on individual securities commenced in July 2001. Futures contracts on individual stocks were
launched in November 2001. The derivatives trading on NSE commenced with S&P CNX Nifty
Index futures on June 12, 2000. The trading in index options commenced on June 4, 2001 and
trading in options on individual securities commenced on July 2, 2001. Single stock futures were
launched on November 9, 2001. The index futures and options contract on NSE are based on S&P
CNX Trading and settlement in derivative contracts is done in accordance with the rules, byelaws,
and regulations of the respective exchanges and their clearing house/corporation duly approved by
SEBI and notified in the official gazette. Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs) are permitted to
trade in all Exchange traded derivative products.
Exchange-traded vs. OTC (Over The Counter) derivatives markets:
The OTC derivatives markets have witnessed rather sharp growth over the last few years,
which has accompanied the modernization of commercial and investment banking and
globalization of financial activities. The recent developments in information technology have
contributed to a great extent to these developments. While both exchange-traded and OTC

derivative contracts offer many benefits, the former have rigid structures compared to the latter. It
has been widely discussed that the highly leveraged institutions and their OTC derivative positions
were the main cause of turbulence in financial markets in 1998.These episodes of turbulence
revealed the risks posed to market stability originating in features of OTC derivative instruments
and markets. The OTC derivatives markets have the following features compared to exchange-
traded derivatives:
1. The management of counter-party (credit) risk is decentralized and located within individual
institutions,
2. There are no formal centralized limits on individual positions, leverage, or margining,
3. There are no formal rules for risk and burden-sharing,
4. There are no formal rules or mechanisms for ensuring market stability and integrity, and for
safeguarding the collective interests of market participants, and
5. The OTC contracts are generally not regulated by a regulatory authority and the exchange’s self-
regulatory organization, although they are affected indirectly by national legal systems, banking
supervision and market surveillance.

DERIVATIVES MARKET AT NSE
Derivatives trading commenced in India in June 2000 after SEBI granted the final approval to this
effect in May 2000. SEBI permitted the derivative segments of two stock exchanges, viz NSE and
BSE, and their clearing house/corporation to commence trading and settlement in approved
derivative contracts. To begin with, SEBI approved trading in index futures contracts based on
S&P CNX Nifty Index and BSE−30 (Sensex) Index. This was followed by approval for trading in
options based on these two indices and options on individual securities. The 3 trading in index
options commenced in June 2001 and those in options on individual securities commenced in July
2001. Futures contracts on individual stock were launched in November 2001.
Table 1 – growth of derivative segment at NSE:
Month
year
Stock Future Stock Option Index Option
No. of
contracts
Turnover
(Rs.Cr.)
No. of
contracts
Turnover
(Rs.Cr.)
No. of
contracts
Turnover
(Rs.Cr.)
Apr-06 10021529 460552 460485 20623 1489104 52421
May-06 9082184 409401 359678 16874 1655677 58789
Jun-06 6241247 243950 264487 11306 1911398 57969
July-06 5614044 222539 316876 13245 1750455 54711
Aug-06 7530310 229184 446520 14042 1596255 53103
Sep-06 8644137 275430 507553 16351 1524721 53647
Oct-06 7929018 272516 474936 16425 1352788 49744
Nov-06 10539507 388800 553738 20229 1546642 60018

Dec-06 9261984 347747 434629 16408 2021995 79719
Jan-07 9364321 350817 509759 19401 1641585 66646
Feb-07 9853884 352653 458637 16785 2772972 91817
Mar-07 10873236 277378 496012 12106 5893846 113322

USERS OF DERIVATIVES
The institutional investor in India could be meaningfully classified into:
1. Banks
2. All India Financial institution (FIs)
3. Mutual Funds
4. Foreign Institutional Investor
5. Life & General Insurers
The intensity of derivatives usage by any institutional investor is a function of its ability and
willingness to use derivatives for one or more of the following purposes:
a) Risk containment: Using derivatives for hedging and risk containment purpose,
b) Risk Trading /Market Making: Running derivatives trading book for profits and
arbitrage, and / or
c) Covered Intermediation: On-Balance Sheet derivatives intermediation for client
transaction, without retaining any net risk on the Balance Sheet (except credit risk).

BANKS
Types of Banks:
Based on the differences in governance structure, business practices and organizational
ethos, it is meaningful to classify the Indian banking sector into the followings:
I. Public Sector Banks(PSBs)
II. Private Sector Banks(Old generation),
III. Private Sector Banks (new generation),
IV. Foreign Banks( with banking and authorized dealer license)
Credit Derivatives:
The market of fifth type of derivatives namely, credit derivatives, is currently non–existent in
India, hence has been dealt with in brief here. Credit derivatives seek to transfer credit risk and
returns of an asset from one counter party to another without transferring its ownership. The
market for credit derivatives is currently non-existent in India, though it has the potential to
develop.
Equity Derivatives in Banks:
Given the highly leveraged nature of banking business, and the attendant regulatory concerns of
their investment in equities, banks in India can, at best, be turned as marginal investor in equities.
Use of equity derivatives by banks ought to be inherently limited to risk containment (hedging)
and arbitrage trading between the cash market and options and futures markets. However, for the
following reasons, banks with direct and indirect equity market exposure are yet to use exchange

traded equity derivatives (viz.., index futures, index options, security specified futures r options)
currently available on the National Stock Exchange (NSE) or Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE).
1) RBI guidelines on investment by the banks in capital market instruments do not authorize
banks to use equity derivatives for any purpose. RBI guidelines also do not authorized banks to
undertake securities lending and/ or borrowings of equities. This disables also banks possessing
arbitrage trading skills and institutionalized risk management process for running an arbitrage
trading book to capture risk free pricing mis–match spread between the equity cash and options
and futures market- an activity banks currently any way undertake in the fixed income and FX
cash and forward markets;
2) Direct and indirect equity exposure of banks is negligible and does not warrant serious
management attention and resources for hedging purpose;
3) The internal resources and processes in most bank treasuries are inadequate to mange the
risk of equity market exposure, and monitor use of equity derivatives;
4) Inadequate technological and business process readiness of their treasuries to run equity
arbitrage trading book, and mange related risks.
Fixed Income Derivatives in Bank:
Scheduled Commercial banks, Primary Dealers (PDs and All India Financial Institution (FIs have
been allowed by RBI since July 0993 to write Interest Rate Swaps(IRS) and Forward Rate
Agreement(FRAs)as product for their own assets liability management (ALM) or for market
making (risk trading)purpose. The presence of Public Sector Banks major in the rupee IRS market

is marginal. Most PSBs are either unable or unwilling of PSB majors seemingly stem from the
following key are yet to overcome;
1) Inadequate technological and business process readiness of their treasuries to run a
derivatives trading books, and manage related risks;
2) Inadequate of willingness of bank managements to ‘risk’ being held accountable for
bonafide trading losses in the derivatives book;
3) Inadequate readiness of their Board of Directors to permit the bank to run a
derivatives trading book, partly for reasons cited above, and partly due to their own ‘discomfort of
the unfamiliar’.
Commodity Derivatives in Banks:
In 1997, RBI permitted seven banks to import and resell gold as canalizing agencies. It is
understood that now about 13 banks (; bullion banks’, for short) are active in this business. The
quantum of gold Imported through bullion banks is in the region of 500 tones per annum. The
commodity risk accepted by banks is limited to price risk of gold accepted by 5 bullion banks that
launched their schemes under the RBI guidelines on the Gold Deposit Scheme 1999 announced in
the union budget of 1999-2000. in brief, these bullion banks accept assayed gold as a deposit for 3
to 7 years tenures, at the end of which the deposit is repayable at the price of gold as on date of
maturity. These gold deposits carry interest ranging from 3% to 4% per annum. SBI is a market
leader in this segment with a market share of over 90%. There is no forward market for gold in

India. In fact, forward contract on gold are prohibited. And, for this purpose, a contract settled later
than T+11 days is treated as a forward contract.
ALL INDIA FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS (FIs)
The All India FIs Universe:
With the merger of ICICI into ICICI Bank, the universe of all India FIs comprises IDBI, IFCI,
IIBI, SIBDI, EXIM. NABARD and IDFC. In the context of use of financial derivatives, the
universe of FIs could perhaps be extended to include a few other financially significant players
such as HDFC and NHB.
Equity Derivatives in FIs:
Equity risk exposure of most FIs is rather insignificantly, and often limited-to-limited to equity
developed on them under underwriting commitments they made in the era upto mid 1990s. use of
equity derivatives by FIs could be for risk containment (hedging purpose, and for arbitrage trading
purposes between the cash market and options and futures market. For reason identical to those
outlined earlier vis-à-vis banks, FIs too are not users of equity derivatives. However, there are no
RBI guidelines disabling FIs from running equities arbitrage- trading book to capture risk free
pricing mis-match spreads between the equity cash and options and futures markets.

Fixed income Derivatives:
Since July 1999, like Banks, even FIs are permitted to write RIS and FRA for their asset liability
management (ALM) as well as for market making purpose. Some FIs actively use IRS and FRA
for their ALM. Also, a few have plans to offer IRS and FRA as products to their corporate
customer (to hedge their liabilities), albeit on a fully covered back-to- back basis, to begin with.
However, none are yet to run a rupee derivatives trading book.
Commodities Derivatives Figs.
FIs have no proximate exposure to commodities. There are also no credit products whose interest
rate is benchmarked to any commodity price. Therefore, the issue of they using commodity
derivatives (whether in the overseas or Indian market) does not rise.

MUTUAL FUNDS
Equity Derivatives in Mutual Funds
Mutual Funds ought to be natural players in the equity derivatives market. SEBI (Mutual Funds)
Regulations also authorize use of exchange traded equity derivatives by mutual funds for hedging
and portfolio rebalancing purpose, and, being tax exempt, there are no tax issues relating to use of
equity derivatives by them. However, most mutual funds are not yet active in use of equity
derivatives available on the NSE and BSE. The following impediments seem to hinder use of
exchange trade equity derivatives by mutual funds:
1. SEBI (Mutual Funds) Regulation restrict use of exchange traded equity
derivatives to ‘hedging and portfolio rebalancing purpose’. The popular view in the mutual fund
industry is that this regulation is very open to interpretation, and the trustees of mutual funds do
not wish to be caught on the wrong foot.
2. Inadequate technological and business process readiness of several players in the mutual
fund industry to use equity derivatives and manage related risks;
3. The regulatory prohibition on the use of equity derivatives for portfolio
optimization return enhancement strategies, and arbitrage strategies constricts their ability to use
equity derivatives; and
4. Relatively insignificant investor interest in equity funds ever since exchange traded options
and futures were launched in June 2000(on NSE, later on BSE).

Fixed Income Derivatives in Mutual Funds:
SEBI (Mutual Funds) regulations are silent about use of IRS and FRA by mutual funds. Evidently,
IRS and FRA transactions entered into by mutual funds are not construed by SEBI as derivatives
transaction covered by the restrictive provisions which limit use of derivatives by mutual funds to
exchange traded derivatives for hedging and portfolio balancing purposes. Mutual funds are
emerging as important users of IRS and FRA in the Indian fixed income derivatives market.
ForeignCurrency Derivatives in Mutual Funds:
In September 1999, Indian mutual funds were allowed to invest in ADRs/GDRs of Indian
companies in the overseas market within the overall limit of US $ 500 million with a sub ceiling
for individual mutual funds of 10% of net assets managed by them (at previous year end), subject
to maximum of US $ 50 million per mutual fund. Several mutual funds had obtained the requisite
approvals from SBI and RBI for making such investments. However, given that most ADRs
/GDRs of Indian companies traded in the overseas market at a premium to their prices on domestic
equity markets, this facility has remained largely unutilized.
Commodity derivatives in Mutual Funds:
Under SEBI (Mutual Funds) Regulations, mutual fund can invest only in the transferable
financial securities. In absence of any financial security linked to commodity prices, mutual funds
can not offer a fund product that entails a proximate exposure to the price of any commodity.
Therefore, the issue of they using commodity derivatives (whether in the overseas or Indian
market) does not arise.

FOREIGN INSTITUTIONAL INVESTORS (FIIs)
Equity Derivatives in FIIs
Till January 2002, applicable SEBI & RBI Guidelines permitted FIIs to trade only in index future
contracts on NSE & BSE. It is only since 4 February 2002 that RBI has permitted (as a sequel to
SEBI permission in December 2001) FIIs to trade in all exchange traded derivatives contract
within the position limits for trading of FIIs and their sub-accounts. With the enabling regulatory
framework available to FIIs from Feb 2002, their activity in the exchange traded equity derivatives
market in India should increase noticeably in the emerging future. Perhaps, the two years of
successful track record of the NSE in managing the systematic risk associated with its futures and
options segment would also pave way for greater FIIs activity in the equity derivatives market in
India in the emerging future.
Fixed Income Derivatives in FIIs
Since May 2000, FIIs are permitted to invest in domestic sovereign or corporate debt market
under the 100% debt rout subject to an overall cap under the external commercial borrowing
(ECB) category, with individual sub ceilings allocated by SEBI to each FII or sub accounts. FIIs
are also permitted to enter into foreign exchange derivatives contract by RBI to hedge the currency
and interest rate risk to the extent of market value of their debt investment under the 100% debt
route. However, investment by FIIs in the domestic sovereign or corporate debt market has been
negligible till now.

ForeignCurrency Derivatives in FIIs
Equity investing FIIs leave their foreign currency risk largely unhedged since they believe that the
currency risk can be readily absorbed by the expected returns on the equity investments, barring in
periods of unforeseen volatility (such as the Far Eastern crisis). And, as indicated above, FII
investment in the domestic sovereign and corporate debt market has been negligible.
Consequently, FII in the foreign currency derivative market in India has also been negligible till
now.

LIFE & GENERAL INSURERS
Equity Derivatives in Life & General Insurers
The Insurance Act as well as the IRDA (Investment) Regulation 2000 is silent about use of equity
(or other) derivatives by life or general insurance companies. It is the view of the IRDA that life &
general insurers are not permitted to use equity (or other financial) derivatives until IRDA frames
guideline/ regulation related to their use. And IRDA is yet to frame this guidelines/ regulation,
though it is seized of the urgent need to frame them. Life or general insurers would have to wait
for these guidelines /regulations to fall in the place before they can use equity (or other financial)
derivatives.
Fixed Income Derivatives in Life and General Insurers
As indicate earlier, it is view of the IRDA that use of rupee fixed income derivatives (including
IRS and FRA) by Life & General insurers too would have to wait for IRDA guidelines/regulations
on the use of financial derivatives.
Foreign Currency Derivatives in Life & General Insurers
Given the long term nature of life insurance contracts, insurance regulations in the many
parts of the world apply currency –matching principle for assets and liability under life insurance
contracts. Indian insurance law too prohibits investment of fund from insurance business written in
India, into overseas or foreign securities.

REGULATORY FRAMEWORKS
Evolution of a Legal Framework for Derivatives Trading
Derivatives are supposed to be defined as security under Section 2(h) of SC(R) Act,
1956. Present definition of securities includes shares, stocks, bonds, debentures, debentures stocks
or other marketable securities in or of any incorporated company or other body corporate
Government securities Rights or interest in securities, such other instrument as may be declared by
the central government to be securities. An important step towards introduction of derivatives
trading in India was the promulgation of the Securities Laws (Amendment) Ordinance, 1995,
which lifted the prohibition on "options in securities" (NSEIL, 2001). However, since there was no
regulatory framework to govern trading of securities, the derivatives market could not develop.
SEBI set up a committee in November 1996 under the chairmanship of Dr. L.C. Gupta to develop
appropriate regulatory framework for derivatives trading. The committee suggested that if
derivatives could be declared as "securities" under SCRA, the appropriate regulatory framework of
"securities" could also govern trading of derivatives. SEBI also set up a group under the
chairmanship of Prof. J.R. Varma in 1998 to recommend risk containment measures for
derivatives trading. The Government decided that a legislative amendment in the securities laws
was necessary to provide a legal framework for derivatives trading in India. Consequently, the
Securities Contracts (Regulation) Amendment Bill 1998 was introduced in the Lok Sabha on 4th
July 1998 and was referred to the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Finance for examination
and report thereon. The Bill suggested that derivatives may be included in the definition of
"securities" in the SCRA whereby trading in derivatives may be possible within the framework of
that Act. The said Committee submitted the report on 17th March 1999.

Securities Exchange Board of India (SEBI) the oversight regular for the securities market
appointed a Committee on derivatives under the Chairmanship of Dr. L.C. Gupta on 18,
November 1996 to develop appropriate regulatory framework introducing of derivatives trading in
India, starting with stock index futures.
Regulatoryobjectives:
The Committee believes that regulation should be designed to achieve specific, well-
defined goals. It is inclined towards positive regulation designed to encourage healthy activity and
behavior. It has been guided by the following objectives:
A. Investor Protection:Attention needs to be given to the following four aspects:
1. Fairness and Transparency: The trading rules should ensure that trading is conducted
in a fair and transparent manner. Experience in other countries shows that in many cases,
derivatives brokers/dealers failed to disclose potential risk to the clients. In this context, sales
practices adopted by dealers for derivatives would require specific regulation. In some of the most
widely reported mishaps in the derivatives market elsewhere, the underlying reason was
inadequate internal control system at the user-firm itself so that overall exposure was not
controlled and the use of derivatives was for speculation rather than for risk hedging. These
experiences provide useful lessons for us for designing regulations.
2. Safeguard for clients' moneys: Moneys and securities deposited by clients with the
trading members should not only be kept in a separate clients' account but should also not be
attachable for meeting the broker's own debts. It should be ensured that trading by dealers on
own account is totally segregated from that for clients.

3. Competent and honest service: The eligibility criteria for trading members should be
designed to encourage competent and qualified personnel so that investors/clients are served
well. This makes it necessary to prescribe qualification for derivatives brokers/dealers and the
sales persons appointed by them in terms of a knowledge base.
4. Market integrity: The trading system should ensure that the market's integrity is
safeguarded by minimizing the possibility of defaults. This requires framing appropriate rules
about capital adequacy, margins, Clearing Corporation, etc.
B. Quality of markets: The concept of "Quality of Markets" goes well beyond market
integrity and aims at enhancing important market qualities, such as cost-efficiency, price-
continuity, and price-discovery. This is a much broader objective than market integrity.
C. Innovation: While curbing any undesirable tendencies, the regulatory framework should not
stifle innovation which is the source of all economic progress, more so because financial
derivatives represent a new rapidly developing area, aided by advancements in information
technology.

Recommendations of Dr. L.C. Gupta Committee:
The recommendations of the L.C. Gupta Committee were made with relation
to Exchange operations, membership, products, and participants, trading and
clearing regulations.
A. The main recommendation relating to a derivatives exchange are as
follows:
 The derivatives Exchange should have online screen based trading system with
online surveillance capabilities.
 The Derivatives Exchange shall disseminate information in real –time through at
least two information vendors
 Existing Stock exchange can carry out derivatives trading as a separate segment.
 The Derivatives Exchange should inspect every broker/member annually.
 SEBI to approve Rules, Bye-laws and Regulation of the Derivatives Exchange
before commencement of trading.
 The Derivatives Exchange should have investor grievance and redressal Mechanism
operative from all four regions of the country.
B. Main recommendations relating to membership of a derivatives
exchange are as follows:
 The Derivatives Exchange should have at least 50 trading members to start
Derivatives trading.
 Existing members cannot automatically become derivative members.
 Membership norms include certain net worth criterion passing SEBI approved
certification.
 Membership shall be trading members being a member of the Exchange and
Clearing member being of Clearing Corporations

 Clearing members should have minimum net worth of Rs.300 lakhs and make a
deposit of Rs.50 lakhs with clearing corporations.
C. Recommendations relating to introduction and trading of derivatives
product are as follows
 SEBI shall approve any new derivatives product if it serves an economical function.
 The Exchange may suspend any derivatives contract due to suspension of Trading in
underlying securities, for protection of Interest of Investor and for the purpose of maintaining a fair
and orderly market.
D. Recommendationrelating to participants in the derivatives market are as
follows:
 Restriction on investment institutions on uses old derivatives should be removed.
 Corporate and mutual funds allowed trading in derivatives to the extent authorized by
Board of Directors or Trustees as the case may be.
 Margin collection will be mandatory from all clients including institutions.
 Employees of broker/members should be adequately qualified and trained (certified).
E. Recommendations relating to trading regulations are as follows:
 Investor should read the Risk Disclosure document made available to him by the broker/
member and sign the Client Registration form.
 Contract note that must be stamped with time of order-receipt and order execution (trade).
F. Recommendations relating to clearing regulations are as follows:
 Exposure limit of clearing member linked to deposit maintained with Clearing Co-
operation.
 Level of Initial margin will be calculated using “Value at risk” concept and will be large
enough to cover one-day loss 99% of the days.

Study of Derivatives in the Indian capital market

Study of Derivatives in the Indian capital market

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