علاج الجيوب الانفية بالادوية و الاعشاب و الحجامة و زيت الزيتونashrafmostafahammam
وصف الموضوع
تكلمنا فى موضوع الجيوب الانفية عن الاسباب و الأعراض و الاشخاص الاكثر عرضة للاصابة بالتهاب الجيوب الأنفية و نتحدث اليوم عن طرق علاج الجيوب الانفية بشىء من التفصيل
و تشمل علاج التهاب الجيوب الانفية الحاد و المزمن ,عملية الجيوب الانفية , علاج الجيوب الانفية طبيعيا , علاج الجيوب الانفية بالحجامة و زيت الزيتون.
رابط الموضوع
الجيوب الانفية : أسبابها ,أعراضها ,أنواعها و طرق العلاج الفعالة
http://www.ar-only4men.com/mens-health/%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%ac%d9%8a%d9%88%d8%a8-
%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a7%d9%86%d9%81%d9%8a%d8%a9.html
رابط تحميل الموضوع بصيغة pdf
http://www.mediafire.com/download/bgs4n0qbe04lqg0/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A8+
%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%88+%D9%83%D9%84+%D9%85%D8%A7+%D9%8A%D8%AC
%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%86+%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%81%D9%87+%D8%B9%D9%86%D9%87%D8%A7_2.pdf
The document discusses several global health threats including emerging infectious diseases, climate change, antimicrobial resistance, bioterrorism, and dual use research. It notes that climate change can increase the range of disease vectors and incidence of illnesses like malaria and dengue. Antimicrobial resistance has led to superbugs and is estimated to cause millions of deaths annually by 2050 if left unchecked. The document also discusses the risks associated with new technologies like synthetic biology and genome editing, noting certain experiments could have unintended consequences if microorganisms were accidentally released. Overall, the document provides an overview of major current and future global health threats from various sources.
The document discusses the biggest threats to global health security, including climate change, noncommunicable diseases, antimicrobial resistance, emerging infectious diseases, bioterrorism, and dual use research. It notes that the world population is now 7 billion compared to 1.5 billion 100 years ago, with more people living in cities and traveling frequently between populations. Emerging diseases often originate from animal sources and are becoming more common due to changes in climate, ecology and human behavior. The growth of antimicrobial resistance could result in millions of deaths annually by 2050 if not addressed. New technologies like genome editing and synthetic biology hold benefits but also risks if misused.
This document discusses global health security threats from biological sources. It outlines emerging infectious diseases, antimicrobial resistance, and other biological dangers such as bioterrorism and dual-use research. Emerging diseases are spreading more rapidly due to factors like population growth, travel, and climate change. Antimicrobial resistance has risen dangerously as misuse of antibiotics grows. Strong detection, prevention and response are needed worldwide to address biological threats that ignore borders. International cooperation is essential for global health security.
This 3-page document outlines the syllabus for a genetics course offered in 2011-2012. The course is a 3-credit required course for bachelor's students in biology at the University of Kufa. The syllabus provides information on course description, objectives, outline, teaching methods, evaluation, and references. The course aims to teach fundamental genetics concepts and develop problem-solving skills through lectures, readings, discussions, and examinations.
Pedigrees are diagrams used to visualize family relationships and genetic inheritance patterns. They use symbols to represent individuals and lines to show genetic relationships. Pedigrees allow doctors to determine if a disease runs in families and what type of inheritance it follows, such as dominant, recessive, or X-linked. Traits are determined to be dominant or recessive based on patterns observed in the pedigree, such as whether affected individuals always have an affected parent for dominant traits. Pedigrees are a key tool for genetic analysis of diseases and determining recurrence risks.
This document discusses genetic linkage and crossing over. It defines linkage as genes being inherited together on the same chromosome. Crossing over occurs during meiosis when segments are exchanged between non-sister chromatids, resulting in new combinations of linked genes. The frequency of crossing over between two genes increases with genetic distance. Three-point crosses allow determining gene order and calculating linkage distances between loci. Double crossovers are also discussed.
علاج الجيوب الانفية بالادوية و الاعشاب و الحجامة و زيت الزيتونashrafmostafahammam
وصف الموضوع
تكلمنا فى موضوع الجيوب الانفية عن الاسباب و الأعراض و الاشخاص الاكثر عرضة للاصابة بالتهاب الجيوب الأنفية و نتحدث اليوم عن طرق علاج الجيوب الانفية بشىء من التفصيل
و تشمل علاج التهاب الجيوب الانفية الحاد و المزمن ,عملية الجيوب الانفية , علاج الجيوب الانفية طبيعيا , علاج الجيوب الانفية بالحجامة و زيت الزيتون.
رابط الموضوع
الجيوب الانفية : أسبابها ,أعراضها ,أنواعها و طرق العلاج الفعالة
http://www.ar-only4men.com/mens-health/%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%ac%d9%8a%d9%88%d8%a8-
%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a7%d9%86%d9%81%d9%8a%d8%a9.html
رابط تحميل الموضوع بصيغة pdf
http://www.mediafire.com/download/bgs4n0qbe04lqg0/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A8+
%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%88+%D9%83%D9%84+%D9%85%D8%A7+%D9%8A%D8%AC
%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%86+%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%81%D9%87+%D8%B9%D9%86%D9%87%D8%A7_2.pdf
The document discusses several global health threats including emerging infectious diseases, climate change, antimicrobial resistance, bioterrorism, and dual use research. It notes that climate change can increase the range of disease vectors and incidence of illnesses like malaria and dengue. Antimicrobial resistance has led to superbugs and is estimated to cause millions of deaths annually by 2050 if left unchecked. The document also discusses the risks associated with new technologies like synthetic biology and genome editing, noting certain experiments could have unintended consequences if microorganisms were accidentally released. Overall, the document provides an overview of major current and future global health threats from various sources.
The document discusses the biggest threats to global health security, including climate change, noncommunicable diseases, antimicrobial resistance, emerging infectious diseases, bioterrorism, and dual use research. It notes that the world population is now 7 billion compared to 1.5 billion 100 years ago, with more people living in cities and traveling frequently between populations. Emerging diseases often originate from animal sources and are becoming more common due to changes in climate, ecology and human behavior. The growth of antimicrobial resistance could result in millions of deaths annually by 2050 if not addressed. New technologies like genome editing and synthetic biology hold benefits but also risks if misused.
This document discusses global health security threats from biological sources. It outlines emerging infectious diseases, antimicrobial resistance, and other biological dangers such as bioterrorism and dual-use research. Emerging diseases are spreading more rapidly due to factors like population growth, travel, and climate change. Antimicrobial resistance has risen dangerously as misuse of antibiotics grows. Strong detection, prevention and response are needed worldwide to address biological threats that ignore borders. International cooperation is essential for global health security.
This 3-page document outlines the syllabus for a genetics course offered in 2011-2012. The course is a 3-credit required course for bachelor's students in biology at the University of Kufa. The syllabus provides information on course description, objectives, outline, teaching methods, evaluation, and references. The course aims to teach fundamental genetics concepts and develop problem-solving skills through lectures, readings, discussions, and examinations.
Pedigrees are diagrams used to visualize family relationships and genetic inheritance patterns. They use symbols to represent individuals and lines to show genetic relationships. Pedigrees allow doctors to determine if a disease runs in families and what type of inheritance it follows, such as dominant, recessive, or X-linked. Traits are determined to be dominant or recessive based on patterns observed in the pedigree, such as whether affected individuals always have an affected parent for dominant traits. Pedigrees are a key tool for genetic analysis of diseases and determining recurrence risks.
This document discusses genetic linkage and crossing over. It defines linkage as genes being inherited together on the same chromosome. Crossing over occurs during meiosis when segments are exchanged between non-sister chromatids, resulting in new combinations of linked genes. The frequency of crossing over between two genes increases with genetic distance. Three-point crosses allow determining gene order and calculating linkage distances between loci. Double crossovers are also discussed.
This document summarizes key concepts about chromosome structure and function. It discusses that chromosomes are composed of DNA, proteins and other molecules, and appear as thread-like structures under a microscope. It describes the different types of chromosomes based on centromere position and arm length ratios. It also summarizes common numerical and structural chromosome abnormalities, different chromatin types, inheritance patterns such as dominance and polygenic traits, and some examples of human chromosome abnormalities and genetic disorders.
This document provides definitions and explanations of key concepts in Mendelian genetics. It discusses Mendel's laws of segregation, independent assortment, and dominance. It also summarizes exceptions to Mendelian ratios, including lethal alleles, incomplete dominance, codominance, and other factors like epistasis, pleiotropy, genetic heterogeneity, variable expressivity, and incomplete penetrance.
Organelles interact to carry out important cellular processes like material uptake/release, protein synthesis, and digestion.
(1) Endocytosis and exocytosis allow cells to take in and release material through vesicle trafficking between the plasma membrane and endosomes/lysosomes. (2) The ER and Golgi apparatus work together to synthesize, modify, and transport proteins, with the ER producing proteins and the Golgi processing and packaging them. (3) Lysosomes digest material through phagocytosis, autophagy, and other pathways, while the proteasome degrades unwanted cytosolic proteins. Defects in these organelle interactions can cause diseases.
- Coated vesicles, including clathrin-coated vesicles and coatomer-coated vesicles, transport molecules within cells through endocytosis and between organelles.
- Lysosomes contain enzymes to degrade materials and form through the fusion of endosomes and lysosomal enzymes. Late endosomes transition to lysosomes after receiving lysosomal enzymes.
- Peroxisomes contain enzymes for functions like fatty acid oxidation and are produced through the growth and division of preexisting peroxisomes.
The cytoplasm contains three main structural components: organelles, inclusions, and the cytoskeleton. Organelles include the plasma membrane, ribosomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), mitochondria, Golgi complex, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis, RER synthesizes membrane-bound proteins, mitochondria generate ATP, and lysosomes digest materials. The cytoskeleton includes microtubules and provides structure, transport, and cell motility.
The document summarizes key aspects of the cell cycle, including its main phases (interphase and mitosis), events that occur in each phase, and control factors like cyclins and CDKs that regulate progression through the cycle. It also discusses meiosis, apoptosis, factors that can disrupt the normal cycle leading to unregulated cell growth and cancer, and some clinical consequences of cell cycle abnormalities like Down syndrome.
The nucleus contains the cell's genetic material and directs protein synthesis. It is surrounded by a double nuclear membrane with nuclear pores that regulate transport. The nucleus contains chromatin, nucleoli for ribosome synthesis, and nucleoplasm. Chromatin packages DNA and histones into chromosomes. The nucleolus contains rRNA and assembles ribosomes. Nucleoplasm contains a matrix and particles that process RNA and organize the nucleus.
This document discusses cell-to-cell communication through signaling molecules that bind to membrane receptors. It describes three main types of membrane receptors - channel-linked receptors that open or close ion channels, catalytic receptors that activate intracellular signaling pathways, and G-protein-linked receptors that activate second messengers through G proteins. It also discusses the association of the plasma membrane and cytoskeleton through integrin proteins and the role of this connection in determining cell shape.
The plasma membrane envelops the cell and maintains its structure and integrity. It is composed of a lipid bilayer with embedded and associated proteins. The lipid bilayer is 7.5 nm thick and consists of phospholipids, glycolipids, and cholesterol arranged in a fluid mosaic. Integral proteins span the membrane or are anchored to one leaflet. Peripheral proteins are attached to the cytoplasmic side. The membrane regulates the movement of molecules via transport proteins and allows the cell to interact with its environment.
Cells are the basic units of living organisms and contain organic molecules enclosed in a membrane. Macromolecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids are made of smaller repeating units called monomers that polymerize. Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, while nucleic acids DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides consisting of a nitrogenous base, sugar and phosphate. They both play essential roles in storing and expressing genetic information.
This document discusses antimicrobial resistance and microbial biofilms. It defines various types of antimicrobial resistance such as multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant, and pandrug-resistant. It also discusses how antimicrobial resistance is accelerated by misuse of antibiotics and how resistant bacteria can spread. The document then covers microbial biofilms, including the stages of biofilm formation, components of the biofilm matrix, advantages of multispecies biofilms, and challenges in treating biofilm infections. It concludes with some methods for detecting and inhibiting biofilms.
The document discusses several key topics related to molecular evolution and cell evolution:
1) All life on Earth descended from a single-celled common ancestor approximately 3.7 billion years ago. RNA may have functioned as the original self-replicating molecule before the emergence of DNA and proteins.
2) Mitochondria and chloroplasts likely originated through endosymbiotic relationships with bacteria, as evidenced by their retained genomes.
3) DNA and protein sequences can be compared to reconstruct evolutionary relationships and develop phylogenetic trees showing how groups of organisms are related. Slowly-evolving sequences like rRNA are used for distant comparisons, while rapidly-evolving mtDNA allows analysis of close relationships.
Nanobiotechnology involves manipulating structures at the nanoscale (1-100nm) using biological components. Some applications include faster disease diagnostics using biosensors, more targeted drug delivery using nanoparticles, and miniaturizing lab tools. Nanoparticles are typically spherical and composed of functional, protective, and outer layers. They can be used for fluorescent labeling, detecting pathogens, and delivering drugs or genes. Nanowires and nanotubes can also be used as biosensors to detect individual viruses or changes in conductivity when pathogens bind.
Genomics is the study of all nucleotide sequences in an organism, including genes, noncoding regions, and regulatory elements. Determining the human genome sequence involved forming DNA libraries, sequencing clones, and ordering sequences using computational analysis. Genomics has applications in medicine like gene testing for inherited disorders and understanding drug responses. Pharmacogenomics studies how genetic differences impact individual drug metabolism and effects, aiming to prevent adverse drug reactions by screening for risk alleles.
This document discusses various types of molecular markers that can be used for genetic analysis, including DNA polymorphisms. It describes different types of molecular markers such as restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs), variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs), short tandem repeats (STRs), random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPDs), amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs) and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). It provides details on how several of these markers like microsatellites, minisatellites and RFLPs can be detected and analyzed to develop DNA fingerprints for purposes such as forensics, pedigree analysis and genetic mapping.
There are two main methods of DNA sequencing: the chain termination method (Sanger sequencing) and fluorescent sequencing. Sanger sequencing uses dideoxynucleotides that terminate DNA synthesis, producing fragments of different lengths that can be resolved on a gel. Fluorescent sequencing labels each dideoxynucleotide with a different colored dye, then uses software to analyze electrophoresed fragments by color and size. Next-generation sequencing allows high-throughput parallel sequencing of multiple DNA segments. It can be used for whole genome sequencing, targeted exome sequencing, or custom panels. Metagenomics applies next-generation sequencing to study the genomes of multiple organisms within an environmental sample.
Molecular hybridization is the process by which two complementary strands of DNA or RNA bind together via hydrogen bonding between bases. It is used in techniques like cloning, PCR, and diagnostic tests involving nucleic acid probes. The document describes the process of hybridization, factors that affect binding strength, and techniques that utilize molecular hybridization like Southern blotting, dot/slot blotting, microarrays, and in situ hybridization.
This document discusses various applications of recombinant DNA technology, including in vitro mutagenesis, gene synthesis, expressing eukaryotic genes in bacteria like insulin, genetic engineering in yeast and plants, transgenic animals, and gene therapy. For genetic engineering in plants, the document specifically discusses using Agrobacterium tumefaciens and the Ti plasmid as a vector to deliver genes to plants, and provides the example of flavr savr tomatoes engineered to have longer shelf life. The document also discusses uses of transgenic animals in basic research and producing useful proteins, as well as methods and delivery techniques for gene therapy.
Viruses can only replicate inside host cells and rely on the host for transcription and translation. Virus genomes consist of either DNA or RNA but not both, and can be single or double stranded. Bacteriophages infect bacteria and can either lyse the host cell or integrate into the bacterial chromosome and remain dormant. Plasmids are small extrachromosomal DNA molecules that can be stably inherited and confer additional functions like antibiotic resistance on bacteria. Bacteria can exchange genetic material through transformation, conjugation, and transduction, allowing for recombination of traits.
Viruses are sub-microscopic parasites that can only replicate inside host cells. They contain either DNA or RNA genomes but not both. Viruses enter host cells and use the host's cellular machinery to replicate their genomes and produce new virus particles. Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria. They can be either virulent, killing the host cell, or temperate, integrating their genome into the host's chromosome. Plasmids are small extrachromosomal DNA molecules that are replicated independently of the host genome and can be stably inherited. Plasmids often encode traits like antibiotic resistance but are not required for host cell survival. Both plasmids and bacteriophages can transfer genetic material between bacteria.
This document summarizes key concepts about chromosome structure and function. It discusses that chromosomes are composed of DNA, proteins and other molecules, and appear as thread-like structures under a microscope. It describes the different types of chromosomes based on centromere position and arm length ratios. It also summarizes common numerical and structural chromosome abnormalities, different chromatin types, inheritance patterns such as dominance and polygenic traits, and some examples of human chromosome abnormalities and genetic disorders.
This document provides definitions and explanations of key concepts in Mendelian genetics. It discusses Mendel's laws of segregation, independent assortment, and dominance. It also summarizes exceptions to Mendelian ratios, including lethal alleles, incomplete dominance, codominance, and other factors like epistasis, pleiotropy, genetic heterogeneity, variable expressivity, and incomplete penetrance.
Organelles interact to carry out important cellular processes like material uptake/release, protein synthesis, and digestion.
(1) Endocytosis and exocytosis allow cells to take in and release material through vesicle trafficking between the plasma membrane and endosomes/lysosomes. (2) The ER and Golgi apparatus work together to synthesize, modify, and transport proteins, with the ER producing proteins and the Golgi processing and packaging them. (3) Lysosomes digest material through phagocytosis, autophagy, and other pathways, while the proteasome degrades unwanted cytosolic proteins. Defects in these organelle interactions can cause diseases.
- Coated vesicles, including clathrin-coated vesicles and coatomer-coated vesicles, transport molecules within cells through endocytosis and between organelles.
- Lysosomes contain enzymes to degrade materials and form through the fusion of endosomes and lysosomal enzymes. Late endosomes transition to lysosomes after receiving lysosomal enzymes.
- Peroxisomes contain enzymes for functions like fatty acid oxidation and are produced through the growth and division of preexisting peroxisomes.
The cytoplasm contains three main structural components: organelles, inclusions, and the cytoskeleton. Organelles include the plasma membrane, ribosomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), mitochondria, Golgi complex, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis, RER synthesizes membrane-bound proteins, mitochondria generate ATP, and lysosomes digest materials. The cytoskeleton includes microtubules and provides structure, transport, and cell motility.
The document summarizes key aspects of the cell cycle, including its main phases (interphase and mitosis), events that occur in each phase, and control factors like cyclins and CDKs that regulate progression through the cycle. It also discusses meiosis, apoptosis, factors that can disrupt the normal cycle leading to unregulated cell growth and cancer, and some clinical consequences of cell cycle abnormalities like Down syndrome.
The nucleus contains the cell's genetic material and directs protein synthesis. It is surrounded by a double nuclear membrane with nuclear pores that regulate transport. The nucleus contains chromatin, nucleoli for ribosome synthesis, and nucleoplasm. Chromatin packages DNA and histones into chromosomes. The nucleolus contains rRNA and assembles ribosomes. Nucleoplasm contains a matrix and particles that process RNA and organize the nucleus.
This document discusses cell-to-cell communication through signaling molecules that bind to membrane receptors. It describes three main types of membrane receptors - channel-linked receptors that open or close ion channels, catalytic receptors that activate intracellular signaling pathways, and G-protein-linked receptors that activate second messengers through G proteins. It also discusses the association of the plasma membrane and cytoskeleton through integrin proteins and the role of this connection in determining cell shape.
The plasma membrane envelops the cell and maintains its structure and integrity. It is composed of a lipid bilayer with embedded and associated proteins. The lipid bilayer is 7.5 nm thick and consists of phospholipids, glycolipids, and cholesterol arranged in a fluid mosaic. Integral proteins span the membrane or are anchored to one leaflet. Peripheral proteins are attached to the cytoplasmic side. The membrane regulates the movement of molecules via transport proteins and allows the cell to interact with its environment.
Cells are the basic units of living organisms and contain organic molecules enclosed in a membrane. Macromolecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids are made of smaller repeating units called monomers that polymerize. Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, while nucleic acids DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides consisting of a nitrogenous base, sugar and phosphate. They both play essential roles in storing and expressing genetic information.
This document discusses antimicrobial resistance and microbial biofilms. It defines various types of antimicrobial resistance such as multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant, and pandrug-resistant. It also discusses how antimicrobial resistance is accelerated by misuse of antibiotics and how resistant bacteria can spread. The document then covers microbial biofilms, including the stages of biofilm formation, components of the biofilm matrix, advantages of multispecies biofilms, and challenges in treating biofilm infections. It concludes with some methods for detecting and inhibiting biofilms.
The document discusses several key topics related to molecular evolution and cell evolution:
1) All life on Earth descended from a single-celled common ancestor approximately 3.7 billion years ago. RNA may have functioned as the original self-replicating molecule before the emergence of DNA and proteins.
2) Mitochondria and chloroplasts likely originated through endosymbiotic relationships with bacteria, as evidenced by their retained genomes.
3) DNA and protein sequences can be compared to reconstruct evolutionary relationships and develop phylogenetic trees showing how groups of organisms are related. Slowly-evolving sequences like rRNA are used for distant comparisons, while rapidly-evolving mtDNA allows analysis of close relationships.
Nanobiotechnology involves manipulating structures at the nanoscale (1-100nm) using biological components. Some applications include faster disease diagnostics using biosensors, more targeted drug delivery using nanoparticles, and miniaturizing lab tools. Nanoparticles are typically spherical and composed of functional, protective, and outer layers. They can be used for fluorescent labeling, detecting pathogens, and delivering drugs or genes. Nanowires and nanotubes can also be used as biosensors to detect individual viruses or changes in conductivity when pathogens bind.
Genomics is the study of all nucleotide sequences in an organism, including genes, noncoding regions, and regulatory elements. Determining the human genome sequence involved forming DNA libraries, sequencing clones, and ordering sequences using computational analysis. Genomics has applications in medicine like gene testing for inherited disorders and understanding drug responses. Pharmacogenomics studies how genetic differences impact individual drug metabolism and effects, aiming to prevent adverse drug reactions by screening for risk alleles.
This document discusses various types of molecular markers that can be used for genetic analysis, including DNA polymorphisms. It describes different types of molecular markers such as restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs), variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs), short tandem repeats (STRs), random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPDs), amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs) and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). It provides details on how several of these markers like microsatellites, minisatellites and RFLPs can be detected and analyzed to develop DNA fingerprints for purposes such as forensics, pedigree analysis and genetic mapping.
There are two main methods of DNA sequencing: the chain termination method (Sanger sequencing) and fluorescent sequencing. Sanger sequencing uses dideoxynucleotides that terminate DNA synthesis, producing fragments of different lengths that can be resolved on a gel. Fluorescent sequencing labels each dideoxynucleotide with a different colored dye, then uses software to analyze electrophoresed fragments by color and size. Next-generation sequencing allows high-throughput parallel sequencing of multiple DNA segments. It can be used for whole genome sequencing, targeted exome sequencing, or custom panels. Metagenomics applies next-generation sequencing to study the genomes of multiple organisms within an environmental sample.
Molecular hybridization is the process by which two complementary strands of DNA or RNA bind together via hydrogen bonding between bases. It is used in techniques like cloning, PCR, and diagnostic tests involving nucleic acid probes. The document describes the process of hybridization, factors that affect binding strength, and techniques that utilize molecular hybridization like Southern blotting, dot/slot blotting, microarrays, and in situ hybridization.
This document discusses various applications of recombinant DNA technology, including in vitro mutagenesis, gene synthesis, expressing eukaryotic genes in bacteria like insulin, genetic engineering in yeast and plants, transgenic animals, and gene therapy. For genetic engineering in plants, the document specifically discusses using Agrobacterium tumefaciens and the Ti plasmid as a vector to deliver genes to plants, and provides the example of flavr savr tomatoes engineered to have longer shelf life. The document also discusses uses of transgenic animals in basic research and producing useful proteins, as well as methods and delivery techniques for gene therapy.
Viruses can only replicate inside host cells and rely on the host for transcription and translation. Virus genomes consist of either DNA or RNA but not both, and can be single or double stranded. Bacteriophages infect bacteria and can either lyse the host cell or integrate into the bacterial chromosome and remain dormant. Plasmids are small extrachromosomal DNA molecules that can be stably inherited and confer additional functions like antibiotic resistance on bacteria. Bacteria can exchange genetic material through transformation, conjugation, and transduction, allowing for recombination of traits.
Viruses are sub-microscopic parasites that can only replicate inside host cells. They contain either DNA or RNA genomes but not both. Viruses enter host cells and use the host's cellular machinery to replicate their genomes and produce new virus particles. Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria. They can be either virulent, killing the host cell, or temperate, integrating their genome into the host's chromosome. Plasmids are small extrachromosomal DNA molecules that are replicated independently of the host genome and can be stably inherited. Plasmids often encode traits like antibiotic resistance but are not required for host cell survival. Both plasmids and bacteriophages can transfer genetic material between bacteria.