The document provides a comprehensive overview of satellite communication, detailing the fundamentals, operational characteristics, subsystems, and types of satellites. It outlines the differences between the space segment and the earth segment, discusses various satellite orbits and their applications, and addresses the advantages and disadvantages of satellite communication. Additionally, it covers propagation effects, frequency allocations, and the impact of atmospheric conditions on satellite signal transmission.

1. School of Engineering
SLTC Research University
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Satellite Communication

2. Fundamentals of satellite communication
• The satellite, an artificial Earth orbiting body, receives
communication signals from ground stations, amplifies,
processes, and retransmits them to other ground stations
beyond the Earth's curvature.
• The satellite is an active transmission relay, similar in function
to relay towers used in terrestrial microwave
communications.
• Two types of satellites exist: natural and man-made. Natural
satellites, like the Earth and Moon, orbit larger celestial
bodies such as the Sun or Earth. Conversely, man-made
satellites are machines launched into space, orbiting celestial
bodies like Earth.
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3. Main Characteristics
The main characteristics of satellite communication include ,
Global Coverage: Satellites orbiting the Earth can provide coverage to almost any point on the planet,
including remote and inaccessible areas.
Security: Satellite communication can offer secure transmission of data, particularly when encryption techniques are
employed.
Interconnectivity: Facilitate interconnectivity between different communication networks, including terrestrial networks,
connecting across different regions and technologies.
Low Latency: Traditional geostationary satellites can introduce latency due to their high altitude, newer Low Earth
Orbit (LEO) satellites can offer lower latency.
Flexibility: Can be repositioned in orbit or replaced relatively easily, providing flexibility in network design and coverage.
Bandwidth*: Satellites can provide high bandwidth communication channels, allowing for the transmission of large
amounts of data over long distances.
* depending on factors such as network congestion and individual usage patterns (demand), satellite design and
frequency bands , modulation schemes. 3

4. The main subsystems of a satellite
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https://www.spacefoundation.org/space_brief/satellite-components/

5. Space segment and the earth segment
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6. Space segment and the earth segment
Satellite communication relies on two key components: the space segment and the earth
segment.
Space segment includes the satellites in orbit in the system.
Ground station provides the operational control of the
satellite(s) in the orbit (TT&C :Tracking, Telemetry,
and Command station).
TTC&M station : provides essential spacecraft management
and control functions to keep the satellite
operating safely in orbit.
The TTC&M links between the spacecraft and the ground are
usually separate from the user communications links.
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7. Space segment and the earth segment
The ground segment of a satellite communication system includes Earth-based terminals
(terrestrial-based terminals situated on the Earth's surface) using services from the Space
Segment.
• Fixed (In-place) Terminals: These are stationary
terminals that are permanently located in specific
positions, serving as stable points for communication.
Ex : A very small aperture terminal (VSAT) networks :
small private earth station - that is used to transmit
& receive data signal through a satellite.
Applications :High Speed Internet Access , Point-of-sales transactions ,Private-Line Voice ,Virtual Private Networks (VPN)
The ground segment antenna terminals consist of three basic types:
• fixed (in-place) terminals
• transportable terminals
• mobile terminals.
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8. Space segment and the earth segment
• Transportable Terminals: These terminals are mobile and adaptable, providing flexible
communication options and can be relocated for temporary or mobile communication
requirements.
These are moved to locations, stop in place, and
then deploy an antenna to establish links to the
satellite.
Satellite news gathering (SGN) trucks
A motorized auto tracking terminal intended primarily for
vehicle based application
It establish secure, reliable voice, video and data
communications in any environment
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9. Space segment and the earth segment
• Mobile Terminals: These terminals are specifically engineered for use in vehicles,
aircraft, ships, or other mobile platforms. They enable communication while in motion,
providing connectivity to users on the move.
https://www.viasat.com/products/terminals-and-radios/maritime-terminals/
Applications : Maritime SATCOM terminals
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10. Why do satellites use higher frequencies for uplink and
lower frequencies for downlink?
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In satellite communication, the uplink frequency is
higher than the downlink frequency due to increased
attenuation with higher frequencies, while higher
uplink frequencies allow for greater data capacity.
Lower frequencies are used for the downlink as they
penetrate the Earth's atmosphere better and are less
prone to attenuation, ensuring reliable
communication over longer distances.

11. Satellite Communication System
Input signal : Baseband signal
Encoder : The digital data signal is converted to a bit pattern.
Modulator : Convert data into carrier signal. (FSK ,PSK , QPSK)
Up converter : The frequency is upconverted ( up converted to 6 GHz)
High Power Amplifier (HPA) : Signal strength is increased.
Then the signal is uplink to the satellite through the antenna
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12. Satellite Communication System
Input signal : the signal received from the antenna.
Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) : amplifies weak radio frequency signals received from satellites
while minimizing additional noise, ensuring high signal quality.
Down convertor : down convert the frequency (6GHz to 4 GHz)
Demodulator : remove the data from the carrier signal.
Decoder : Detect and reassemble the data into a single stream.
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13. Orbital Period & Returning period
Orbital Period : Time it takes for a satellite to complete one full orbit around its parent
body (usually the Earth) measured relative to distant, fixed celestial objects (distant
star).The orbital Period remains constant for a given satellite orbit.
• Depends on : satellite's altitude and orbital velocity , and satellite's orbit type
(geostationary, low Earth orbit, medium Earth orbit) .
Returning Period (Repeat period): Time it takes for a satellite to return to the same
position in its orbit relative to a specific point observed from a fixed point on Earth.
• Depends on : satellite's altitude , eccentricity (shape of the satellite's orbit ) , earth's
rotation(tidal effects the moon has on earth's rotation)
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14. Angle of elevation & Angle of
Depression
The angle of elevation refers to when
an object is positioned above the
observer, whereas the angle of
depression occurs when the object is
placed below the observer.
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The look angles of a satellite refer to the
coordinates to which an Earth station must
be pointed in order to communicate with the
satellite and are expressed in terms of
azimuth(AZ) and elevation angles(EL).
Look Angle
Azimuth and Elevation are measures used to identify
the position of a satellite flying overhead

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Azimuth(AZ) and Elevation angles(EL)
Both are measured in degrees. Azimuth varies from 0° to 360°.
It starts with North at 0°.Elevation angle from the ground point.
Elevation angle : angle between the ground and a line connecting the
observer to the satellite.
Azimuth angle : measured from true north in a clockwise direction. It is the
horizontal angle or direction from the observer's location
to the satellite.

16. Active and passive satellites
Two types of artificial satellites to transmit the signals: active satellites and passive satellites
Passive satellites : This balloon reflects microwave signals
from various locations. Similarly, passive satellites in space
reflect signals back to Earth without amplification. Their orbits
range from 2000 to 35786 km, and atmospheric interference
weakens the received signal. (Ex : Echo satellite series
launched by NASA in the 1960s )
Active satellites : Active satellites, equipped with their own
power source and communication systems, actively transmit
signals, collect data, and perform specific functions while in
orbit. They include communication satellites, weather
satellites, navigation satellites (like GPS), and scientific
research satellites, often necessitating constant
communication with ground stations for data transmission and
command reception. (Ex : Global Positioning System)
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17. Propagation delay (Round Trip Delay)
Time it takes for a signal to travel from the transmitter on Earth to the receiver via the
satellite and back.
Transmission Time: Time it takes for a signal to be sent from the transmitter on Earth to the
satellite.
Ex 01 :
Calculate the propagation delay for an object that is 36,000 km above Earth's
surface.
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18. Satellite Orbits
Satellite orbits vary based on their intended purpose and
operational requirements.
Purpose:
Earth Observation: monitoring weather patterns, environmental
changes, and land use.
Communication: telecommunications and broadcasting typically
employ geostationary orbits to maintain constant coverage over
specific regions.
Navigation: Systems like GPS rely on medium Earth orbits (MEO) to
provide accurate positioning and timing information globally.
Operational Requirements:
Coverage Area: optimize coverage over specific regions or provide
global coverage
Latency: for some applications requiring low latency, such as real-time
communication and remote sensing.
Stability: due to their fixed position relative to the Earth's surface,
making them suitable for long-term observation and communication
tasks. 18

19. Satellite Orbits
There are mainly 3 types of satellites based on their orbits are:
 Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)
 Geostationary Orbit (GEO)
Any satellite can achieve orbit at any distance from the earth ,
• if its velocity is sufficient to keep it from falling to earth
• it is free of friction from earth's atmosphere, and gravity is strong enough to pull it
back towards earth.
The farther the satellite is from the earth, the longer it takes for a radio or microwave
frequency transmission to reach the satellite.
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20. Satellite Orbits
Satellites can orbit Earth's equator or go over
Earth's North and South Poles, or anything in
between.
• Equatorial Orbit: Optimal for regions near the equator, facilitating efficient
communication with troops stationed in equatorial regions.
• Polar Orbit: Provides comprehensive global coverage, enabling communication with
remote regions and facilitating surveillance and reconnaissance operations.
• Strategic Advantage: Equatorial orbits offer focused coverage, while polar orbits ensure
global reach, enhancing military communication and
reconnaissance capabilities. 20

21. Satellite Orbits
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Orbital Parameters
• Apogee: A point for a satellite farthest from the Earth.
• Perigee: A point for a satellite closest from the Earth.
• Ascending Node : satellite's orbit crosses the Earth's equatorial
plane from south to north, indicating its transition from the
southern hemisphere to the northern hemisphere.
• Descending Node :satellite's orbit crosses the Earth's
equatorial plane from north to south, marking its transition
from north of the equator to south during orbital motion.
• Inclination angle : inclination refers to the angle between the
orbital plane of a satellite and the plane of the Earth's equator.

22. Satellite Orbits
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Orbital Parameters
• Semi‐Major Axis : the distance from the center of an ellipse
to the longer end of the ellipse.
• Semi –minor Axis : half the length of the shortest diameter
of the elliptical orbit.
• Eccentricity: parameter describing the deviation of a satellite's
orbit from a perfect circle. It quantifies the shape of the orbit,
with values ranging from 0 for a circular orbit to 1 for a highly
elliptical orbit.

23. Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
• Altitude: ranging from approximately 160 to 1,500
kilometers above the Earth's surface.
• Orbital Period: have short orbital periods lasting between
90 and 120 minutes, enabling them to orbit the
planet up to 16 times a day.
• Applications:
• well-suited for remote sensing, high-resolution earth
observation, and scientific research due to their ability to
rapidly acquire and transmit data.
• Military satellite communication due to their low latency,
high mobility (short orbital periods), and resilience*.
Resilience : to withstand and recover from disruptions or attacks (Jamming , Cyberattacks , Physical Attacks ,Electronic
Warfare , Space Debris etc.) while maintaining their communication capabilities. 23

24. Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
.
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• One important application of LEO satellites for
communication is the project Iridium, which is a global
communication system conceived by Motorola that
makes use of satellites placed in low Earth orbits .
• A total of 66 satellites are arranged in a distributed
architecture with each satellite carrying (1/66) of the
total system capacity. The system is intended to provide
a variety of telecommunication services on the global
level.
• The constellation was proposed to have 77 satellites. The Iridium constellation of satellites
Project : Iridium

25. Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO)
•Altitude : Satellites are positioned directly over the
equator, approximately 35,786 kilometers above the
Earth's surface.
•This orbit allows to remain fixed relative to a specific
point on Earth, providing continuous coverage to that
area.
•With three evenly spaced GEO spacecraft, nearly
worldwide coverage is achievable due to their
extensive coverage area on Earth.
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26. Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO)
•Satellites appear motionless from the ground ,
orbital period = Earth’s rotation (23 hours, 56
minutes, and 4 seconds).
•The terrestrial antennas are consistently pointing toward
the same location in space, making them ideal for always-
on communication services such as TV and phones.
•Monitoring weather in specific regions and tracking the
development of local patterns , observations of cloud
patterns that are used to calculate wind speeds.
•Longer signal delay caused by the significant distance
between GEO satellites and Earth can be a drawback for
real-time communication applications.
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27. Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO)
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The attractive force is the gravitational force between Earth and the satellite. The gravity
provides the inward pull that keeps the satellite in orbit.

28. Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO)
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The attractive force is the gravitational force between Earth and the satellite. The gravity
provides the inward pull that keeps the satellite in orbit.
Ex 02 :
If the mass of the Earth is mE = 5.974×1024 kg and the satellite will orbit at 600 km, calculate the tangential velocity and
the period of the satellite. (G = Gravitational constant = 6.67 × 10−11 Nm2/kg2 , radius of the earth = 6378 km )

29. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)
• MEO is positioned between low Earth and geostationary
orbits, typically at altitudes ranging from about 5,000 to
20,000 kilometers.
• MEO satellites are extensively used for positioning and
navigation services, such as GPS.
• Improved MEOs facilitate low-latency data communication
for service providers, commercial entities, and government
organizations.
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30. Advantages of satellite communication
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• Remote Sensing and Earth Observation: Satellite-based remote sensing and Earth observation platforms capture
high-resolution imagery and data about the Earth's surface, atmosphere, oceans, and climate.
• High-Speed Internet Access: Satellite internet services have seen significant advancements, offering high-speed
broadband access to areas with limited or no access to terrestrial broadband infrastructure.
• Disaster Response and Humanitarian Aid: Satellites play a crucial role in disaster response and humanitarian aid
efforts by rapidly restoring communication infrastructure in disaster-stricken areas.
• Global Connectivity for IoT Devices: Satellite networks offer global connectivity for IoT devices deployed in remote
and inaccessible areas, such as environmental monitoring stations, agricultural sensors, and wildlife tracking devices.
• Onboard Processing and Edge Computing: Modern satellites are equipped with onboard processing capabilities and
edge computing functionalities, allowing for data aggregation, compression, encryption, and analysis directly on the
satellite platform.
• Antenna Diversity and Beamforming: Advanced satellite systems utilize sophisticated antenna arrays and
beamforming techniques to dynamically shape and steer satellite beams, enhancing link reliability, resilience to
interference, and spectrum efficiency. Beamforming enables targeted coverage, improved signal quality, and
increased capacity in high-demand areas or during peak usage periods.

31. Disadvantages of satellite communication
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• Weather Dependency: Adverse weather like rain, snow, or atmospheric disturbances can disrupt satellite
signals, causing degraded performance or temporary loss of connectivity.
• Limited Bandwidth: Satellites share limited bandwidth among users, leading to congestion and slower
data speeds during peak times. This can impact the performance of high-bandwidth applications.
• Vulnerability to Space Debris: Satellites face collision risks with space debris, such as defunct satellites
and rocket fragments. These collisions can damage or destroy satellites, disrupting
communication services and potentially generating more debris.
• Cost: Building, launching, and maintaining satellites is expensive. Additionally, leasing satellite
bandwidth or purchasing satellite communication services can be costly.
• Latency: The distance between Earth and satellites causes signal delays, impacting real-time
communication like online gaming and video calls, leading to delays and disruptions.
• Continuity of service : need regular monitoring and control to maintain their orbit. It has a lifespan of
12-15 years, requiring planning for replacement before becoming inoperative.

32. Limitations of satellite communication
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The limitations may not necessarily be negative but can pose obstacles or considerations for its use and the disadvantages typically refer to negative
aspects or drawbacks associated with the technology. They are related to each
• Latency: The delay in signal transmission due to the distance between Earth and satellites.
• Bandwidth Constraints: Limited bandwidth shared among users within a satellite's coverage area, leading to potential
congestion and reduced data speeds.
• Weather Dependence: Susceptibility to adverse weather conditions such as rain fade, which can degrade signal
quality.
• Polar Coverage: Challenges in providing comprehensive coverage to polar regions due to orbital characteristics.
• Regulatory Constraints: Compliance with international regulations, spectrum allocation, and licensing requirements.

33. Earth - space propagation effects
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Various phenomena that affect the transmission of electromagnetic signals between Earth-based transmitters or
receivers and satellites in space. These effects can impact the quality, reliability, and performance of satellite
communication systems.
Atmospheric Attenuation: The Earth's atmosphere absorbs and scatters electromagnetic waves as they travel
through it, leading to signal attenuation especially at higher frequencies.
Free-Space Path Loss: resulting in a decrease in signal strength with increasing distance from the transmitter. This loss is
proportional to the square of the distance between the transmitter and receiver.
Multipath Propagation: Multipath propagation occurs when signals reach the receiver via multiple paths due to
reflection, diffraction, or scattering which can result in signal fading, distortion, and
intersymbol interference.
Adverse weather : Factors such as humidity, rain, snow, and fog can lead to signal attenuation especially at microwave
frequencies. This can result in signal loss or degradation during intense precipitation.
Geomagnetic storms : Earth's magnetosphere disturbances, disrupt satellite communication by affecting the ionosphere.
This causes signal absorption, scintillation, and GPS accuracy degradation.

34. Frequency window
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A frequency window refers to a specific range or band of frequencies within the electromagnetic spectrum
that is allocated for satellite communication purposes. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
allocates part of the electromagnetic spectrum for specific services.
L-band (1–2 GHz)
S-band (2–4 GHz)
C-band (4–8 GHz)
X-band (8–12 GHz)
Ku-band (12–18 GHz)
Ka-band (26–40 GHz)

35. Frequency window
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A frequency window refers to a specific range or band of frequencies within the electromagnetic spectrum
that is allocated for satellite communication purposes. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
allocates part of the electromagnetic spectrum for specific services.
L-band (1–2 GHz) Global Positioning System (GPS
S-band (2–4 GHz) Weather radar , Surface ship radar
C-band (4–8 GHz) Satellite communications , Full-time satellite TV networks
X-band (8–12 GHz) Military applications , Radar applications including continuous-wave, pulsed,
synthetic aperture radar, and phased arrays Civil, military, and government
institutions for weather monitoring, air traffic control, maritime vessel traffic
control, defense tracking, and vehicle speed detection for law enforcement
Ku-band (12–18 GHz) Satellite communications , - Ku-band downlink used in Europe for direct
broadcast satellite services (e.g., Astra)
Ka-band (26–40 GHz) Communications satellites for high-resolution applications Uplink in either the
27.5 GHz and 31 GHz bands Close-range targeting radars on military aircraft

36. Free space loss
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The relationship between transmit and receive power is defined by the Friis Free Space Equation.

37. Free space loss
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The linear path loss of the channel as the ratio of transmit power to receiver power.
In dB
Ex 03:
Determine the isotropic free space loss at 6 GHz for the shortest path to a geosynchronous satellite from
earth (35,863 km).

38. Atmospheric absorption
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The absorption depends on various factors such as the frequency of the signal, the distance the signal travels through
the atmosphere, and the weather conditions.
Frequency Dependence: Different frequencies experience varying levels of absorption.
higher frequencies, such as those in the millimeter-wave range, are more susceptible to
absorption by atmospheric gases like water vapor and oxygen compared to lower frequencies.
Rain Fade: Heavy rainfall can cause a phenomenon known as "rain fade," where the signal experiences significant
attenuation due to absorption and scattering by raindrops along its path through the atmosphere.
Path Length: The length of the path the signal travels through the atmosphere also affects absorption. Longer paths
result in more absorption compared to shorter paths.
Weather Effects: Weather conditions, particularly humidity levels, can significantly impact atmospheric absorption.
Higher humidity levels can increase absorption due to the presence of water vapor in the
atmosphere.
Satellite Orbits: satellites in geostationary orbit experience less variation in atmospheric conditions compared to
those in lower orbits, which can be advantageous for minimizing absorption effects.

39. Atmospheric absorption
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The two-way attenuation coefficient represents
the total loss experienced by a signal as it travels
through a medium in both the transmit and
receive paths.
Atmospheric attenuation is not significant for
radio frequencies below 10 gigahertz.

40. Atmospheric absorption : Mitigation Techniques
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To mitigate the effects of atmospheric absorption in satellite communication, various techniques are employed.
Frequency Selection: Choosing frequency bands that are less susceptible to
atmospheric absorption can mitigate its effects.
For example, lower frequency bands (such as L-band and S-band) experience
less absorption compared to higher frequency bands (such as Ka-band and V-
band) because they are less affected by atmospheric constituents like water
vapor and oxygen.
Frequency Diversity: transmitting the same signal simultaneously over
multiple frequency bands. The likelihood of significant absorption occurring at
all frequency bands simultaneously is reduced.
Rain Fade Compensation: Techniques such as adaptive power control,
where the transmitted power is adjusted based on the received signal
strength, can help compensate for signal losses due to rain fade.
Polarization Diversity: Polarization diversity utilizes antennas that transmit and receive signals with different
polarizations (e.g., vertical and horizontal). By exploiting the fact that absorption affects different polarizations
differently, polarization diversity can mitigate absorption-induced signal attenuation.

41. Rainfall attenuation and ionosphere scintillation
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• Rainfall attenuation : causes weakening of signals due to absorption and scattering by raindrops as
they pass through the atmosphere, particularly during heavy rainfall.
• Ionosphere scintillation : rapid and random fluctuations in the amplitude and phase of radio signals
caused by irregularities in the Earth's ionosphere, impacting communication links operating at high
frequencies. Both phenomena can degrade signal quality and reliability.
To mitigate the effect of rainfall attenuation and ionosphere scintillation
• Adaptive power control,
• Diversity techniques,
• Polarization diversity
• Adaptive modulation, advanced signal processing algorithms and error correction coding to maintain
effective communication links.

42. Thank you
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