1/15/2019 From Tibet to the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 1/14
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ESG JANUARY 14, 2019 / 7:45 AM / UPDATED 10 HOURS AGO
From Tibet to the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong
Delta is losing sand
Mai Nguyen, James Pearson 6 MIN RE AD
MO CAY, Vietnam (Reuters) - In the dead of night, the entire front half of shopkeeper Ta Thi Kim Anh’s
house collapsed. Perched on the sandy banks of the Mekong River, it took just a few minutes for one half
of everything she owned to plunge into its murky depths.
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1/15/2019 From Tibet to the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand
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“Our kitchen, our laundry room, our two bedrooms, all gone,” said Kim Anh, speaking amongst the
twisted metal and rubble of her house, from which she still sells eggs, soap and instant noodles to
villagers in Ben Tre, a province in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta region.
“We’d be better off living in a cave instead,” said Kim Anh, who has used coconut husks and old tires to
reinforce the riverbank under her home.
1/15/2019 From Tibet to the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 3/14
Upstream damming and extensive mining of the Mekong’s riverbed for sand is causing the land between
the sprawling network of rivers and channels near the mouth of one of the world’s great rivers to sink at
a pace of around 2 cm (0.75 inches) a year, experts and officials said.
The 4,350 km (2,700-mile) river, known as the Lancang in its upper reaches, flows from China’s Tibetan
Plateau along the borders of Myanmar, Laos and Thailand, through Cambodia and finally Vietnam,
where it forms the delta known in Vietnam as the “Nine Dragons”.
Reuters visited three provinces straddling different branches of the delta, where it has supported
farming and fishing communities for millennia.
Across the region, local authorities are struggling with a rapid pace of erosion that is destroying homes
and threatening livelihoods in the Southeast Asian country’s largest rice-growing region.
A key cause is the years of upstream damming in Cambodia, Laos and China that has removed crucial
sediment, local officials and experts said.
1/15/2019 From Tibet to the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 4/14
That sediment, vital for checking the mighty Mekong’s currents, has also been lost due to an insatiable
demand for sand - a key ingredient in concrete and other construction materials in fast-developing
Vietnam - that has created a market both at home and abroad for unregulated mining.
“It’s not a problem of the lack of water, it’s the lack of sediment,” said Duong Van Ni, an expert on the
Mekong River at the College of Natural Resources Management of Can Tho University, the largest city in
A boat transports coconuts past a collapsed house damaged by landslide along Mekong river in Mo Cay town,
Vietnam December 18, 2018. Picture taken December 18, 2018. REUTERS/Kham
1/15/2019 From Tibet to the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 5/14
the Mekong Delta region.
“SAND NEVER REACHES US”
At this time of year the waters of the Mekong used to flow into Vietnam as a milky-brown crawl, locals
and officials said.
Now, the river runs clear. And without fresh sediment from upstream, the deeper riverbed creates
stronger currents, which in turn eat away at the banks of the Mekong, where those who rely on the river
for their livelihoods have their homes.
The problems began when China built its first hydropower plants in the Upper Mekong Basin, said Ni at
Can Tho University. That left Laos, Cambodia and Thailand as the main source of sediment for the
Mekong in Vietnam, he said.
Sand mining in Cambodia boomed over the last 10 years, fueled in part by demand from wealthy but
cramped Singapore, where it is used to reclaim land along its coast, and culminating in a government
ban of all Cambodian sand exports in 2017 under pressure from environmental groups.
Hydroelectric projects have continued, however. Earlier this month, Cambodian Prime Minister Hun
Sen opened a $816 million hydroelectric dam in Stung Treng province, near the border with Laos, built
by companies from China, Cambodia and Vietnam.
1/15/2019 From Tibet to the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 6/14
The new dam is the southeast Asian country’s biggest hydroelectric project to date and will have a
catastrophic impact on fisheries and biodiversity in the Mekong river, environmental groups have said.
Hun Sen has dismissed criticism of the project, which he says benefits Cambodia and its people.
“Since China built hydropower plants, new sand almost never reaches us,” said Ni. “If we use up the
sand we have here, there will be no more”.
China’s Foreign Ministry said in response to Reuters’
questions that it “pays great attention to the concerns
and needs of downstream countries on the Mekong”,
adding that its regulation of water flows from hydro
dams “has already become an important instrument in
preventing floods and droughts”.
Singapore’s Ministry of National Development said in a
statement emailed to Reuters the city state imports sand
on a commercial basis from various countries. “We have
stringent controls to ensure that suppliers obtain sand
in accordance with the source country’s laws and regulations,” it said.
SLINGSHOTS AND SAND THIEVES
Slideshow (12 Images)
1/15/2019 From Tibet to the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 7/14
Regional officials in southwest China’s Yunnan province have defended the building of dams on the
Mekong there as “fully legally compliant”.
Downstream, however, the problem is made worse by thieves who illegally mine for sand, usually at
night.
“The unlicensed sand miners are very quick and devious,” Nguyen
Quang Thuong, vice head of Ben Tre province’s agriculture
department, told Reuters in a recent interview.
“They escape very fast, so having groups of local people helping out
the authorities is very helpful.”
One such group in Ben Tre, some of whom are as old as 67, have
been using homemade weapons such as slingshots and rudimentary catapults to drive the sand thieves
away.
“We patrol 24/7, and in the first few months we managed to get rid of 90 percent of the thieves,” said
Nam Lai, one of the group. “Since 2018, none of them dare to go near our shore”.
Still, activists and environmental groups worry that on the Mekong, which runs through six countries
with competing needs to exploit the river’s hydroelectric potential, the damage has already been done.
Chinese court sentences Canadian to death
1/15/2019 From Tibet to the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 8/14
Pianporn Deetes, at the International Rivers campaign group, who has worked on the Mekong for two
decades, said there was a lack of political will among the countries that share the river to acknowledge
the cross-border impact of such projects.
“Without the recognition of the existing problems, I don’t think there is any hope,” she said.
Reporting by Mai Nguyen and James Pearson; Additional reporting by Kham Nguyen and Minh Nguyen in MO CAY, Vietnam; Prak Chan
Thul in PHNOM PENH; Aradhana Aravindan in SINGAPORE and Ben Blanchard in BEIJING; Editing by Alex Richardson
Our Standards: The Thomson Reuters Trust Principles.
WORLD NEWS JANUARY 14, 2019 / 8:01 PM / UPDATED 34 MINUTES AGO
China court sentences Canadian to death as
diplomatic row deepens
Philip Wen, Christian Shepherd, David Ljunggren 5 MIN RE AD
BEIJING/OTTAWA (Reuters) - A Chinese court on Monday sentenced a Canadian man to be executed
for drug smuggling, prompting Canada’s Prime Minister Justin Trudeau to accuse China of using the
death penalty arbitrarily.
1/15/2019 From Tibet to the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 9/14
The ruling, and Trudeau’s reaction, could aggravate already sour relations between Beijing and Ottawa
following the arrest of a senior Chinese executive in Canada and China’s subsequent detention of two
Canadians.
The Dalian Intermediate People’s Court in China’s northeast province of Liaoning re-tried Robert Lloyd
Schellenberg, who had appealed his original 15-year prison sentence, and decided on execution, the
1/15/2019 From Tibet to the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 10/14
court said in a statement.
Schellenberg was told in court he had the right to appeal to Liaoning High Court within 10 days upon
receiving the ruling, the intermediate court said in a second statement.
“It is of extreme concern to us as a government, as it should be to all our international friends and allies,
that China has chosen to begin to arbitrarily apply (the) death penalty ... as in this case,” Trudeau told
reporters in Ottawa.
Schellenberg’s aunt, Lauri Nelson-Jones, said the family’s worst fears had been confirmed.
“Our thoughts are with Robert at this time. It is rather unimaginable what he must be feeling and
thinking,” she said in a statement to Reuters.
“It is a horrific, unfortunate, heartbreaking situation. We anxiously anticipate any news regarding an
appeal.”
China-Canada ties turned icy in early December after Meng Wanzhou, chief financial officer of Chinese
telecommunications giant Huawei Technologies Co Ltd [HWT.UL], was arrested in Vancouver on a
U.S. extradition warrant.
China warned of unspecified consequences unless Meng was released, and detained Michael Kovrig, a
Canadian diplomat on unpaid leave from the embassy in Beijing, and Michael Spavor, a Canadian
consultant, on suspicion of endangering state security.
1/15/2019 From Tibet to the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 11/14
Beijing has not drawn a direct link between the detentions and the arrest of Meng, wanted by U.S.
authorities for allegedly misleading multinational banks about Iran-linked transactions. Western
diplomats in Beijing, however, say the cases are a tit-for-tat reprisal.
Lu Shaye, China’s ambassador to Canada, suggested in a newspaper article last week that the arrest of
Kovrig and Spavor was “China’s self-defense,” but did not give details.
Earlier on Monday, China’s government dismissed Trudeau’s statement that Kovrig enjoyed some form
of diplomatic immunity.
A Chinese foreign ministry spokeswoman said Trudeau should “earnestly study” the Vienna Convention
governing diplomatic ties so as to “not become a laughing stock.”
Trudeau said Ottawa “will continue to engage strongly” with Beijing over Kovrig’s status and what he
called China’s arbitrary use of justice.
Rights groups condemned the Schellenberg sentence while Guy St-Jacques, who was Canada’s
ambassador in Beijing when Kovrig worked there, expressed concern at how quickly the courts had
acted.
1/15/2019 From Tibet to the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 12/14
“The Canadian government will make representations in Beijing, but based on past experience I am not
sure whether this will work,” he told the CBC. “We are in a very difficult place.”
FILE PHOTO: A general view of the Intermediate People's Court of Dalian, where the trial for Robert Lloyd
Schellenberg, a Canadian citizen on drug smuggling charges, will be held, in Liaoning province, China January
14, 2019. REUTERS/Stringer
1/15/2019 From Tibet to the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 13/14
222 KG OF METHAMPHETAMINE
St-Jacques said Canada should immediately call for a top-level meeting of foreign policy and security
advisers from the two nations “to impress upon the Chinese side that they have to abide by international
law”.
Alex Lawrence, chief spokesman for Canadian Foreign Minister Chrystia Freeland, declined to
comment.
William Nee of Amnesty International noted that drug-related offences did not meet the threshold of
the “most serious crimes” to which the death penalty must be restricted under international law.
Drug smuggling is routinely punished severely in China. Beijing has previously executed foreign
nationals convicted of drug-related crimes - a Briton was executed in 2009.
The court said Schellenberg had conspired with others in an attempt to smuggle 222 kg (489.43 lb) of
methamphetamine from China to Australia in late 2014.
Chinese state television said in an earlier report that Schellenberg argued in court that he was a tourist
visiting China and was framed by criminals.
A lawyer for Schellenberg, Zhang Dongshuo, told Reuters his client would probably appeal against the
death sentence.
1/15/2019 From Tibet to the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand
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The Liaoning High Court in late December ordered the case retried after prosecutors said the sentence
was too light and improper.
Beijing considers the number of people executed in China to be a state secret. International human
rights organizations estimate the annual figure at around 2,000.
Additional reporting by Michael Martina in BEIJING, Meg Shen and Twinnie Siu in HONG KONG, Tyler Choi in TORONTO; Writing by
Se Young Lee and David Ljunggren; editing by Mark Heinrich and Marguerita Choy
Our Standards: The Thomson Reuters Trust Principles.
1/15/2019 As sand mining grows, Asia’s deltas are sinking, water experts warn | Reuters
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-sandmining-water/as-sand-mining-grows-asias-deltas-are-sinking-water-experts-warn-idUSKCN1M1244 1/6
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BIG STORY 10 SEPTEMBER 21, 2018 / 10:40 PM / 4 MONTHS AGO
As sand mining grows, Asia’s deltas are sinking,
water experts warn
Manipadma Jena 5 MIN RE AD
STOCKHOLM (Thomson Reuters Foundation) - Sand mining from rivers is depriving many low-lying
Asian deltas of the sediment they need to maintain themselves, raising the risk of worsening land loss to
sea level rise, researchers say.
Combined with losses of soil-holding mangroves and accelerating groundwater extraction, which can
lead to land sinking, the mining is increasing climate-related threats for those living in low-lying coastal
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areas, they said.
“We have created a recipe for climate disaster,” said Marc Goichot of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF).
Deltas dependent on the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna, Mekong and Yangtze rivers are now sinking and
shrinking, according to research carried out by WWF – a situation worsened by climate-related warming
and rising sea level.
That is a problem not only because the deltas are home to millions of people but because they produce a
significant share of the region’s food.
The Mekong delta, for instance, home to 17 million people, is a major source of rice for the region and
underpins a quarter of Vietnam’s GDP, Goichot said.
“It is 40,000 square kilometers – larger than many countries - and most of it is sinking,” he said.
MORE FLOODS, MORE SALT
At the heart of the problem, Goichot said, is a lack of enough sediment moving down the rivers – and
much of that is the result of mining of sand as a construction material and for other uses, he said.
In some major rivers in Asia, such as the Mekong, Yangtze and Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna, as much
as 90 percent of the sediment that once traveled down the system is now collecting in reservoirs or
1/15/2019 As sand mining grows, Asia’s deltas are sinking, water experts warn | Reuters
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being mined, WWF’s research showed.
That means much less material is arriving in delta areas to replace soil lost to coastal erosion and other
natural processes.
For those living in the deltas, it can mean growing risk of floods, inundation from coastal storm surges
and worsening salt contamination in drinking water.
Kusum Athukorala, former chair of the Sri Lanka Water Partnership, said the loss of sand also means
less water-storage capacity in rivers, and less water flowing in to restore aquifers.
That is a particular problem as climate change brings longer and hotter dry season and growing water
stress, he said.
Worldwide, over half a billion people live in delta areas, WWF said.
According to the U.N. Environment Programme, though record keeping is poor, global consumption of
sand and gravel likely exceeded 40 billion tonnes in 2012, up from 9 billion tonnes in the 1970s, making
it one of the world’s most extracted resources by volume.
“To give a sense of its use, for every bucket of cement, five to seven buckets of sand are used in concrete.
For every kilometer of road built, 30,000 tonnes of sand is used as its base,” Goichot said.
But sand is just as important in the river systems it is harvested from, he said.
1/15/2019 As sand mining grows, Asia’s deltas are sinking, water experts warn | Reuters
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“Keeping sand in the rivers is the best adaptation to climate change. If a river delta receives enough
sediment, it builds itself above sea level in a natural reaction,” Goichot, told the Thomson Reuters
Foundation in an interview in Stockholm.
GROWING DEMAND
But sand mining also feeds Asia’s rapidly growing cities. New buildings and roads require it and urban
land is often expanded by pouring sand into wetlands or rice paddies.
The island state of Singapore has expanded its land area 20 percent in the last 50 years, using sand
dredged from the seabed but also imported by Vietnam, Malaysia and Cambodia, said Goichot.
Sand mining remains unregulated in many areas, however, and illegal sand mining operations operate in
as many as 70 countries worldwide, Goichot said.
“In India unregulated sand mining is really an (escalating) menace,” said Himanshu Thakkar,
coordinator of the South Asia Network on Dams, Rivers and People (SANDRP).
India issues sand mining licenses, he said, which limit the quantities of sand that can be taken and the
locations where mining is allowed. But with limited monitoring, “the actual mining may be very
different,” he said.
1/15/2019 As sand mining grows, Asia’s deltas are sinking, water experts warn | Reuters
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River sand is preferred for construction in many cases because desert sand is too rounded to bind
concrete well, while seabed sand contains salt that can corrode metal and dredging it can be costly.
But too much harvesting of river sand is now taking a toll on those living downstream, Goichot said,
with the Mekong delta, for instance, losing 12 metres of land along its coast each year, the equivalent of
a football field and a half of land every day.
In India, insufficient effort is being put into finding alternative sources of sand, including from
construction waste or de-silting of reservoirs, Thakkar said. That means “the rivers and everyone
dependent on them are sufferers”.
Reporting by Manipadma Jena ; editing by Laurie Goering : Please credit the Thomson Reuters Foundation, the charitable arm of
Thomson Reuters, that covers humanitarian news, climate change, resilience, women's rights, trafficking and property rights. Visit
news.trust.org/climate
Our Standards: The Thomson Reuters Trust Principles.
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Search here...   English नेपाली िह ी বাংলা ‫اردو‬
Sandmining is destroying Asia’s rivers
Uncontrolled and mostly illegal extraction of sand and rocks from riverbeds for construction is killing
rivers across South Asia and China, and must be tightly controlled
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Banned in 1991, sand mining from riverbeds continues illegally in
Nepal [image by Nabin Baral]
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Categories: Articles Tags: biodiversity governance rivers Regions: Bangladesh China India Myanmar Nepal Pakistan
Topics: Biodiversity Water
Share this story There is no house or road or bridge or port in South Asia whose builders
can claim to have built it with legally obtained sand alone. Illegal mining
of sand from riverbeds is so ubiquitous in the subcontinent that on the
rare occasions it is stopped temporarily by a judicial order, house prices
go up and editorials criticising the judgement are written in financial
newspapers.
Reporting illegal sand mining is the most dangerous thing a journalist can
do in India. In the last couple of years, three journalists have been killed,
allegedly by the illegal sand mining mafia, one each in the states of Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar. A fourth journalist reporting on
illegal mining of sand from the beaches of Tamil Nadu has been
repeatedly threatened; anonymous callers – claiming to speak on behalf
of a local politician from the party that rules the state – have ordered her
to stay away from the area or else.
The Third Pole, May 5, 2017
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Post monsoon sand being extracted daily out of rivers near Mangalore [image by
Ashwin Kamath]
Apart from journalists, there was the death of the monk who opposed
illegal sand mining around Hardwar, where the Ganga comes down from
the Himalayas and enters the north Indian plains. The monk had been on
hunger strike and had been taken to hospital, where he died. Mystery
surrounds the cause of his death.
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Still, activists have continued to oppose illegal sand mining in India. The
recent order by the Uttarakhand High Court declaring the Ganga and the
Yamuna as living entities was in response to a petition by an activist,
seeking an end to illegal sand mining around Hardwar. As part of the
same order, the court banned all sand mining in the area for four months,
and asked the government what it planned to do to stop illegal mining.
There is no response from the authorities yet.
There was a recent raid on illegal miners in the suburbs of India’s capital
New Delhi a er a rash of media reports. Within hours, some morning
walkers at the Okhla Bird Sanctuary along the Yamuna river were beaten
up, reportedly by miners who suspected that walkers and joggers had
informed the authorities about the illegal extraction.
In India, perhaps the most blatant case of illegal sand mining takes place
in the lowest reaches of the Ganga, between the Farakka barrage and the
confluence of the river with the Bay of Bengal. Pontoons are anchored in
the middle of the river, large pumps are set up on them, and the sand is
pumped up and sent to the riverbank through a pipe.
Asked about this, o icials in the West Bengal state government said that
the riverbed is under the jurisdiction of either local municipalities or the
National Waterways Authority of India (NWAI). The mayor of
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Chandannagar – one of the largest municipalities along this stretch of the
river – said it was the responsibility of his counterpart on the other bank.
There was no o icial response from NWAI. Uno icially, its o icials say
they cannot do anything because local politicians are involved in illegal
sand mining. One of them also said, “We keep quiet because extracting
the sand and the silt keeps the navigation channel dredged and open.”
The e ects are there for all to see. Riverbank erosion has increased, to the
point that one of the bridges over the Ganga has become unusable – a
girder collapsed because so much sand and silt were removed around its
foundations. Residents now have to take a slow ferry or a 50 kilometre
detour to cross the river.
Illegal sand mining from the mountains to the sea in Pakistan
For over 12 years Nadeem Mirbahar, an ecologist and expert at the IUCN
Commission on Ecosystem Management, has been watching sand and
gravel being dug illegally from the bed of the Malir river that flows
through parts of Karachi and the Hub river in Pakistan’s southwestern
province of Balochistan.
But the government remains indi erent. “It’s an issue about which most
people are not aware, not even the communities living near the riverbed
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create a ruckus. Therefore there no state policy or planning to control the
indiscriminate excavation of the riverbeds by identifying and designating
areas from where the miners can quarry the building material. That is
causing a colossal ecological problem,” Mirbahar told thethirdpole.net.
“The people along the Malir who rely on wells o en complain not just of a
drop in the water levels with many wells running dry, but of water quality
degradation,” said Mirbahar. However, the residents do not realise sand
mining is one of the main reasons. The sand acts as a filter before the
water percolates into the ground, and so without the sand, water will just
rush down to become flash floods downstream.
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Mining in Poonch river using heavy machinery is destroying river habitats [image
courtesy: Hagler Bailly Pakistan]
The situation is similar across the the Jhelum river (in Punjab), and the
Neelum and the Kunhar rivers (in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), according to
Vaqar Zakaria, an environmental flow specialist and managing director of
Hagler Bailly Pakistan, a consultancy firm.
See Riverbed mining destroys rivers in Jhelum basin
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Zakaria thinks the impact of sand mining may be less downstream in the
plains, as river ecology evolves with the change in slope. However, less
sediment flowing down the rivers does result in erosion of the banks and
loss of fertility in irrigated areas and delta regions. Trapping of sediment
in the Mangla resevoir on the Jhelum, for example, has reduced fish
species downstream of the dam. Clearer waters mean the predators have
a field day eating the young of other fish.
For over 12 years, Zakaria has been working in the Poonch river in the
Mahaseer National Park. Its entire stretch from the Indian border to
Mangla dam was declared a national park in 2010. The river has a high
diversity of fish species, particularly the endangered Mahaseer (Tor
putitora), which was on the IUCN Red List in 2013. Yet, says Zakaria,
extensive sand and gravel mining and illegal fishing continues at several
locations along the river, due to ine ective protection and management.
Sand mining and gravel extraction picks up every winter, when the water
flow is low, and it is easier to mine the sand from the exposed riverbed.
Nowadays, it is no longer a matter of using manual shovels and spades.
Mechanised shovels and donkeys with tractors tear apart the riverbed.
Rampant illegal riverbed mining in Nepal
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In 1991, the government of Nepal banned riverbed sand mining citing the
collapse of a bridge on the Bagmati river in Kathmandu. But illegal sand
mining is still rampant in most rivers across the country. A case study
done by Tribhuvan University in 2007 said that about 40% of the total
demand for sand in the Kathmandu valley was met through illegal
riverbed mining. As the activities are illegal, it was hard to quantify the
amount of sand being extracted, the authors of the study pointed out.
According to this and other studies, significant sand and gravel extraction
from riverbeds started in the 1960s and has been increasing
exponentially as the demand for construction materials rises due to rapid
urbanisation.
“Most of the riverbed extraction destroys the vegetative cover of the
aquatic environment and reduce the nutrient inputs into the river so its
severely a ects aquatic life,” said Subodh Sharma, professor at the
department of environmental sciences and engineering in Kathmandu
University.
Uncontrolled riverbed mining has also put bridges in danger, as riverbeds
have been lowered significantly. A study done in western Nepal’s Tinau
river revealed that the riverbed has been lowered by 2.5 metres in the last
15 years. “We haven’t done enough studies of the impact yet,” said
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Sharma. “Whatever little we have done shows that the future of our rivers
is very uncertain and they have been raped. It is not a term I want to use,
but I cannot find another.”
Sand mafia too strong for Bangladesh o icials
In Bangladesh, illegal sand mining from rivers and wetlands is carried out
with support from elected public representatives, according to local
residents. Construction companies install heavy machinery in the rivers
and extract sand, damaging not just the riverbed but the farms on the
banks. Illegal sand extraction hastens riverbank erosion across the
Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna delta that makes up most of Bangladesh.
The sand thus extracted is used not only for the construction industry,
but also to fill in wetlands prior to laying claim over it.
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In Bangladesh sandmining happens in the open, here at the Dharla river in
Kurigram [image by: Sheikh Rokon]
Recent media reports say illegal sand mining is rampant Narayanganj,
Tangail, Sirajganj, Munshiganj, Rajshahi and Manikganj districts, and
almost rivers of Bangladesh – big and small – are a ected. There is hardly
ever any action taken against the illegal sand mining mafia, despite
complaints from green activists.
Syed Rizwana Hasan, chief executive of Bangladesh Environmental
Lawyers’ Association (BELA) told thethirdpole.net, “Use of heavy
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machinery leading to indiscriminate and unscientific mining has become
a cause of concern as these are changing the riverbed characteristics and
exacerbating riverbank erosion. In Bangladesh, most of the sand mining
from rivers is being done with the support of elected public
representatives as they are not aware of the damages.”
Exporting sand
To add to this, the Bangladesh government has recently decided to start
exporting sand to Maldives and Singapore, a er extracting it from the bed
of the Jamuna river, as the Brahmaputra is called in Bangladesh.
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Labourers, allegedly backed by politicians, cart away sand from Jamuneshwari
River in Nilphamari [image by Sheikh Rokon]
The decision was reportedly taken at a meeting of the National Sand
Corridor Management Committee with land minister Shamsur Rahman
Sharif in the chair on March 5. The ministry stated that the sand would be
sold at 1 taka (about 1 US cent) per cubic feet.
China, the biggest sand market
In China, demand for sand is greater than anywhere else in the world due
to rapid urbanisation. Demand for cement has increased 400% over the
past two decades, according to the United Nations Environment
Programme.
In the past four years, China has used more cement than the US used in
the entire 20th century.
Cement manufacturing needs sand, and all that sand has to come from
somewhere. In the region around Shanghai, it came until recently from
the bed of the Yangtze River. By the late 1990s miners had pulled out so
much that bridges were destabilised, shipping was hampered, and
swaths of riverbank collapsed.
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In 2000, Chinese authorities banned the activity along the lower and
middle reaches of the river.  This simply drove many sand miners to
Poyang Lake, China’s largest freshwater body of water that flows into the
Yangtze about 600 kilometres upstream of Shanghai.
NASA’s Earth Observatory released dramatic satellite images of Poyang
Lake. Comparing images from 1995 and 2013, the agency showed how
miners had dramatically transformed the lake.
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Poyang lake in 1995 [image by: Nasa Earth Observatory]
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Poyang lake in 2013 [image by: Nasa Earth Observatory]
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A recent study estimates that 236 million cubic metres of sand are
removed from the lake very year —about 9% of the total produced by
China. That makes Poyang the biggest sand mine on the planet.
Researchers say sand mining is the major reason why the lake’s water
level has dropped dramatically in recent years. The lower water levels
have led to declining water quality and supply to surrounding wetlands –
Asia’s largest winter migration spot for endangered Siberian cranes and
white storks.
Mekong sand
The Mekong river is another major source of sand for China’s construction
industry. On the Yunnan stretch of the river, sand dredging is generally
allowed with permission from county or provincial authorities, who have
banned sand dredging in certain places, usually in ecological hotspots.
But there hasn’t yet been a clear assessment of how exactly sand
dredging operations in Yunnan have a ected the biodiversity and fish
populations of the Mekong. However, the overall loss of sediment, from
dredging and also held back by large dams, has visibly transformed river
landscapes in countries like Vietnam, where the rich Mekong delta
constitutes the region’s rice bowl.
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Dredging has taken place for years along the Mekong, but the industrial
scale is relatively new. On the Lower Mekong between Laos and Vietnam,
50 million tonnes of sand were extracted in 2011 alone, WWF estimates –
much more than the river produces in a year.
See Why silt is so important for the Mekong
This led the riverbed to drop by more than a metre in the delta between
1998 and 2008, allowing salt water to seep further into rice paddy fields
and the entire delta to subside.
The solution
A complete ban on sand mining would have the same e ect as a
prohibition on alcohol or prostitution – it would only drive the industry
further underground and raise house prices, as happens every time the
authorities try to clamp down on the practice.
Across the countries, all experts agree that the one practical solution is to
designate stretches of rivers from which sand can be extracted – and this
designation must be done on ecological principles. Contracts for mining
along these stretches can be given in a transparent manner. It will enable
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Harnessing South Asia’s
riversAugust 15, 2012
Will waterways succeed
where motorways have
not?October 31, 2017
Top 2017 stories:
Sandmining is destroying
South Asia’s abused
wetlands surviving – just
the authorities to control the amount of sand and gravel extracted. It will
also earn them royalty – they get nothing now.
Various state governments in India and national governments in other
South Asian countries have such stretches where extraction of sand and
gravel from the riverbed is permitted and licensed. But this system has
not kept pace with the demand for construction material, and that needs
to be sorted out immediately. Sri Lanka has just passed a law to regulate
and have a proper mechanism to mine sand, gravel, and rocks, a law that
can serve as a model for other countries in the region.
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Asia’s riversDecember 27, aboutFebruary 02, 2016
Reply
5 comments
Waldo Terry | Friday May 5th, 2017 at 06:32 PM
I do not agree with the “solution” you propose, that is not a
solution: River mining must be absolutely prohibited because it
is an activity incompatible with its sustainability.
The solution: Look for other sources of construction material
supply; to make more e icient its use; to reuse the rubbish and
waste of construction material and of the roads.
Krishna Roka | Monday May 8th, 2017 at 07:43 AM
I think Waldo Terry’s comment is better than the one suggested by the
author of the article.
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Reply
Reply
Arturs Pupausis | Wednesday November 15th, 2017 at 01:55 AM
So this means that concrete is not “renewable” or sustainable, period.
I would like to hear from anyone to prove me wrong.
The problem with Chinese construction is that it is o en poor quality
and does for possibly even takes twice as much concrete than in US
when comparing average lifespan of a building.
It means the solution is to make longer lasting buildings, at end of their
lifespan reuse as much material as possible. As well make more
e icient use of indoor space.
But ultimately economics are geared towards resources over
consumption ;-( Maybe tax on construction may help if that money
would not be wasted for running tax o ice, but going to research and
use of construction material reuse.
Waldo Terry | Friday May 5th, 2017 at 08:28 PM
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Reply
Reply
I do not agree with the “solution” you propose, that is not a
solution. River mining must be absolutely prohibited because it
is an activity incompatible with its sustainability. The solution:
Look for other sources of construction material supply; to make
more e icient its use; to reuse the rubbish and waste of
construction material and of the roads.
Dr Satendra K Jain | Tuesday May 9th, 2017 at 10:38 AM
The one of the best alternative is Bottom Ash produced at Coal
Fired Thermal Power Plant.
If anyone using it and wish to use may please inform at
skj108@gmail.com
Leave a Reply
1/15/2019 Sand mining: the global environmental crisis you’ve never heard of | Cities | The Guardian
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Sand mining: the global environmental crisis you’ve
probably never heard of
Vince Beiser
Cities is supported by
About this content
From Cambodia to California, industrial scale sand mining is causing wildlife to die, local trade to
wither and bridges to collapse. And booming urbanisation means the demand for this increasingly
valuable resource is unlikely to let up
Mon 27 Feb 2017 07.15 GMT
T
imes are good for Fey Wei Dong. A genial, middle-aged businessman based near Shanghai,
China, Fey says he is raking in the equivalent of £180,000 a year from trading in the humblest
of commodities: sand.
Fey often works in a fishing village on Poyang Lake, China’s biggest freshwater lake and a
haven for millions of migratory birds and several endangered species. The village is little more than a
tiny collection of ramshackle houses and battered wooden docks. It is dwarfed by a flotilla anchored
just offshore, of colossal dredges and barges, hulking metal flatboats with cranes jutting from their
decks. Fey comes here regularly to buy boatloads of raw sand dredged from Poyang’s bottom. He ships
it 300 miles down the Yangtze River and resells it to builders in booming Shanghai who need it to make
concrete.
The demand is voracious. The global urbanisation boom is devouring colossal amounts of sand – the
key ingredient of concrete and asphalt. Shanghai, China’s financial centre, has exploded in the last 20
years. The city has added 7 million new residents since 2000, raising its population to more than 23
million. In the last decade, Shanghai has built more high-rises than there are in all of New York City, as
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well as countless miles of roads and other infrastructure. “My sand helped build Shanghai Pudong
airport,” Fey brags.
Hundreds of dredgers may be on the lake on any given day, some the size of tipped-over apartment
buildings. The biggest can haul in as much as 10,000 tonnes of sand an hour. A recent study estimates
that 236m cubic metres of sand are taken out of the lake annually. That makes Poyang the biggest sand
mine on the planet, far bigger than the three largest sand mines in the US combined. “I couldn’t believe
it when we did the calculations,” says David Shankman, a University of Alabama geographer and one of
the study’s authors.
All that dredging, researchers believe, is a key reason why the lake’s water level has dropped
dramatically in recent years. So much sand has been scooped out, says Shankman – 30 times more than
the amount that flows in from tributary rivers – that the lake’s outflow channel has been drastically
deepened and widened, nearly doubling the amount of water that flows into the Yangtze. The lower
water levels are translating into declines in water quality and supply to surrounding wetlands. It could
be ruinous for the area’s inhabitants, both animal and human.
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A building problem
Poyang Lake, which sits in a verdant rural area best known for a waterfall in the nearby hills, is Asia’s
largest winter destination for migratory birds. It hosts millions of cranes, geese and storks during the
cold months – as well as several endangered and rare species. It is also one of the few remaining
habitats for the endangered freshwater porpoise. Studies have found that the sediment stirred up and
the noise generated by sand boats interfere with the porpoise’s vision and sonar so drastically they
cannot find fish and shrimp to feed on. And there are fewer fish to be found in the first place, say locals.
“The boats are destroying our fishing areas,” says one wrinkled fisherwoman selling plastic bags of
crayfish. The dredging destroys fish breeding grounds, muddies the water and tears up her nets. These
days, she says, she’s lucky to make £1,200 a year.
“I’ve been fishing here for 30 years, and there are fewer and fewer fish,” says Tan Jung Hwa, another
local fisherman. He’s taken to working part-time on the sand boats because he can’t earn enough
otherwise.
The intersection of Poyang Lake and the Yangtze River. Photograph:
Xinhua/Rex/Shutterstock
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Lake Poyang may be a unique place, but the damage being done there is not. All around the world,
riverbeds and beaches are being stripped bare, and farmlands and forests torn up to get at the precious
sand grains. It’s a worldwide crisis that nobody has heard about.
The main driver of this crisis is our era’s unprecedented urban growth. Cities are expanding at a pace
and on a scale far greater than at any time in human history. The number of people living in urban areas
has more than quadrupled since 1950, to about 4 billion today. More than half of the world’s people now
live in cities – with another 2.5 billion to come in the next three decades, according to the UN.
All these new cities require mind-boggling amounts of sand. Just about every apartment block,
skyscraper, office tower and shopping mall that gets built anywhere from Beijing to Lagos is made with
concrete, which is essentially just sand and gravel glued together with cement. Every yard of asphalt
road that connects those buildings is also made with sand. So is every window in every one of those
buildings.
In India, the amount of construction sand used annually has more than tripled since 2000, and is still
rising fast. There is so much demand for certain types of construction sand that Dubai, which sits on the
edge of an enormous desert, imports sand from Australia.
Sand dredgers in Poyang Lake by Hamashu village. Sand mined here is
sold to builders in Shanghai. Photograph: Vince Beiser
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China in particular is on a city-building spree that beggars anything the world has ever seen. Over half a
billion Chinese now live in urban areas, triple the total of 60 years ago. That’s roughly equal to the
populations of the US, Canada and Mexico combined. China is also home to the world’s biggest urban
agglomeration: the Pearl River Delta, across from Hong Kong, bursting with somewhere between 42 and
60 million inhabitants. Even Nanchang, the unglamorous provincial city that is the nearest major urban
area to Lake Poyang, is fringed with fast-growing forests of high-rise apartment blocks.
In the past few years, China has used more cement than the US used in the entire 20th century. Last
year alone, the nation used enough construction sand to cover the entire state of New York an inch
deep.
All that sand has to come from somewhere. In the region around Shanghai, it came until recently from
the bed of the Yangtze River. That turned out to be a bad idea. By the late 1990s miners had pulled out
so much that bridges were undermined, shipping was snarled, and 1,000ft swaths of riverbank
collapsed.
Unnerved by the damage to a waterway that provides water to 400 million people, Chinese authorities
banned sand mining on the Yangtze in 2000. That sent the miners swarming to Poyang Lake.
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The boats used to dig up the sand are essentially gigantic floating platforms, fitted with two huge
conveyor belts studded with buckets that haul up sand from the bottom of the lake. The sand is then
transferred to transport ships. In one narrow part of the lake, dozens of dredgers extend from the shore
in a line, leaving only a narrow passageway for a tugboat hauling a barge piled up with yellow sand.
“We used to make more money, but now there is too much competition,” complains a crew member
aboard one of the dredgers. “There are too many people doing this job.”
Catastrophic damage
Sand mining is causing environmental damage worldwide. In some places locals dig out riverbanks
with shovels and haul it away with pickup trucks or donkeys; in others multinational companies dredge
it up with machinery. Everywhere, the process impacts its surroundings in ways that range from
cosmetic to catastrophic.
Fishers on Lake Poyang look out at industrial sand dredging boats.
Photograph: Vince Beiser
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In mid-January, just north of Monterey, California, several dozen cheering activists made an odd
political statement: they dumped 200 pounds of bagged, store-bought sand onto a beach. They were
returning the grains to where they had come from. The sand had originally been mined from that beach
– a beach which, according to researchers, is gradually disappearing as a result.
“This is the fastest eroding shoreline in California,” says professor Ed Thornton, a retired coastal
engineer with the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey who has been studying the impact of the
mine for years and who spoke at the demonstration. “We’re losing eight acres a year of pristine shore,
some of the most beautiful in the world. It’s because of sand mining.” (A spokesperson for Cemex, the
company that operates the mine, says via email that Thornton’s conclusions “are based on what we
believe to be erroneous, speculative data and unsound theory”.)
The beach is the only one in the US that is still being mined for construction sand. Cemex, a global
construction firm based in Mexico, operates a dredger that sucks up an estimated 270,000 cubic metres
of sand every year. For most of the 20th century there were many such sand mines along the California
coast, but in the late 1980s the federal government shut them down due to the erosion being suffered
by the Golden State’s famous beaches. The Cemex plant is still operating thanks to a legal loophole – it
appears to sit above the mean high-tide line, putting it out of federal jurisdiction. But protesters want
state authorities to step in.
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Environmentalists in many places are similarly calling on their governments to rein in sand mining. In
Northern Ireland, activists are trying to stop dredging in Lough Neagh, an important bird sanctuary. In
southern England, developers want to dredge sand to expand the port of Dover from a stretch of
offshore sandbars and shoals, prompting an outcry from conservationists who fear that would
endanger the seals, birds and other marine life for whom the sandbars provide habitat and food.
Different types of sand mining inflict different types of damage. Dredging from river beds destroys the
habitat of bottom-dwelling creatures and organisms. The churned-up sediment clouds the water,
suffocating fish and blocking the sunlight that sustains underwater vegetation. Kenyan officials shut
down all river sand mines in one part of the country a few years ago because of the environmental
damage it was causing. India’s supreme court recently warned that “the alarming rate of unrestricted
sand mining” is disrupting riparian ecosystems all over the country, with fatal consequences for fish
and other aquatic organisms and “disaster” for many bird species.
Demonstrators protest against sand mining operations in Marina,
California, in January 2017. Photograph: Adara Shilling
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Sand extraction from rivers has also caused millions of dollars in damage to infrastructure. When
stirred, sediment clogs up water supply equipment, and all the earth removed from river banks leaves
the foundations of bridges exposed and unsupported. A 1998 study found that each tonne of aggregate
mined from a California river caused $3 in infrastructure damage – costs that are borne by taxpayers. In
Ghana, sand miners have dug up so much ground that they have exposed the foundations of hillside
buildings, putting them at risk of collapse.
It’s not just a theoretical risk. Sand mining caused a bridge to collapse in Taiwan in 2000, and another
the following year in Portugal, as a bus was passing over it; 70 people were killed. Another bridge
collapse in India in 2016 that killed 26 may have been caused by sand mining, though the local
government denies it.
Mining sand from the floodplains near rivers is less damaging but it can alter the water’s course,
creating dead-end diversions and pits that have proven fatal to salmon in Washington state. In
Australia, flood plains that are home to the world’s biggest collection of rare carnivorous plants are
Cattle graze on the dried up bed of Poyang Lake. Photograph:
Xinhua/Barcroft Images
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being wiped out by sand mining. In Wisconsin and Minnesota, farmers fear that a recent boom in sand
mining is polluting their water and air. In Vietnam, miners have torn up hundreds of acres of forest and
farmers’ fields to get at underground sand deposits.
As land quarries and riverbeds become exhausted, sand miners are turning to the seas. The UK, for
instance, gets about one fifth of the nation’s sand from the ocean floor. Worldwide, thousands of ships
vacuum up millions of tonnes from the seabed each year, tearing up habitats and muddying waters
with sand plumes that can affect aquatic life far from the original site.
Closer to shore, in places such as coastal Cambodia, dredging threatens important mangrove forests,
seagrass beds and endangered species like Irrawaddy and spinner dolphins, and the royal turtle. On
land, sand miners have devoured whole swaths of beach, from Jamaica to Russia.
The most dramatic impact of ocean sand mining is surely felt in Indonesia, where sand miners have
completely erased at least two dozen islands since 2005. The stuff of those islands mostly ended up in
Singapore, which needs titanic amounts to continue its programme of artificially adding territory by
reclaiming land from the sea. The city-state has created an extra 20 square miles in the past 40 years
and is still adding more, making it by far the world’s largest sand importer. The demand has denuded
beaches and river beds in neighbouring countries to such an extent that Indonesia, Malaysia and
Vietnam have all restricted or banned the export of sand to Singapore.
“It’s the same story as over-fishing and over-foresting,” says Pascal Peduzzi, a researcher with the
United Nations environment programme who authored a study on sand mining. “It’s another way to
look at unsustainable development.” The problem is that the supply of sand that can be mined
sustainably is finite – but as the great urbanisation boom is proving, the demand for it is anything but.
Reporting for this article was supported by the Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting. Follow Guardian Cities
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As 2019 begins…
1/15/2019 Sand mines boom in Asia — at a cost to nature - World news - World environment | NBC News
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In this Aug. 2, 2011 photo, a Vietnamese vessel hauling sand plies the Tatai River in southwestern Cambodia.
By
DENIS D. GRAY
updated 8/22/2011 1:47:05 PM ET
KOH KONG, Cambodia — Round a bend in Cambodia's Tatai River and
the virtual silence of a tropical idyll turns suddenly into an industrial
nightmare.
Lush jungle hills give way to a flotilla of dredgers operating 24 hours a
day, scooping up sand and piling it onto ocean-bound barges. The
churned-up waters and fuel discharges, villagers say, have decimated
the fish so vital to their livelihoods. Riverbanks are beginning to
collapse, and the din and pollution are killing a promising ecotourism
industry.
What is bad news for the poor, remote Tatai community is great tidings
for Singapore, the wealthy city-state that is expanding its territory by
reclaiming land from the sea. Sand from nearby countries is the prime landfill and also essential building material for Singapore's spectacular
skyline.
As more countries ban its export to curb environmental damage — entire Indonesian islands have been all but wiped off the map — suppliers to
Singapore scour the region for what still can be obtained, legally or not. Cambodia, a poor country where corruption is rife and laws are often
flouted, is now the No. 1 source.
Singapore is by no means the only nation taking part in what is a global harvest of sand from beaches, rivers and seabeds. Officials and
environmentalists from China to Morocco have voiced concern and urged curbs. As construction booms in emerging economies and more sources
dry up, however, exploitation of the remaining ones is likely to intensify.
Sand mining began anew in May on southwestern Tatai River, which empties into the ocean almost directly north of Singapore, across 1,300
kilometers (800 miles) of open water.
Despite denials by the main owner of sand mining rights in Koh Kong province, two Cambodian officials told The Associated Press that the sand is
destined for the island nation.
Singapore will not say where its sand comes from; the Construction and Building Authority said it is not public information. The National
Development Ministry said the state's infrastructure development company buys it from "a diverse range of approved sources."
The mining visible on the Tatai River clearly violates some of Cambodia's own legal restrictions, not to mention a recent government order to
suspend it temporarily.
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Vessels of a Vietnamese company were tracked by boat from about 10 kilometers (6 miles) upriver to the Gulf of Thailand, where nearly a dozen
seagoing barges, tugs hovering around them, took on the sand.
The AZ Kunming Singapore, a 5,793-ton (5,255-metric ton) barge pulled by the AZ Orchid, was seen arriving empty from the open ocean, its tug
flying a Singaporean flag. Both are registered with the Singapore government, which would not comment on the barge's cargo or destination.
Ships from several countries, including China, were spotted in sand-mining operations in Koh Kong province, where residents joked about going to
Singapore and planting a Cambodian flag there.
The vessels included one from Winton Enterprises, a Hong Kong-registered group that was subcontracted to export sand to Singapore, according
to Global Witness, a London-based environmental group that published a detailed account of the trade last year.
The report said that miners had penetrated protected mangrove, estuary and sea grass areas, breeding grounds for marine life along a coastline and
hinterland harboring some of the country's last wilderness areas.
Cambodia's cabinet spokesman, Siphan Phay, who was investigating the issue in Koh Kong, appeared angry that the temporary halt order was
being ignored. He described the activity as illegal mining destined for Singapore, a surprising statement given that government ministers awarded
the concession.
A police officer in the economic crime division, who demanded anonymity given the issue's sensitivity, also said the sand is going to Singapore.
Ly Yong Phat, who holds the major concession in Koh Kong, has at times openly acknowledged the Singapore connection. But in a recent AP
interview, amid tightening restrictions and mounting criticism, he said his company had not shipped sand to Singapore for more than a year
because "our sand did not meet their standards."
The dredging, he added, was for local sale and to deepen river channels.
However, a Malaysian company, Benalec Holdings, said it was ready to tap up to 530,000 tons for a reclamation project in Singapore from several
sources in Cambodia, including Ly Yong Phat's LYP Group.
Known as the "King of Koh Kong," Ly Yong Phat is one of Cambodia's biggest tycoons and a senator with close ties to Prime Minister Hun Sen. His
holdings include hotels, a casino and agricultural plantations.
Land reclamation has enlarged Singapore by more than a fifth, and up to 100 square kilometers (nearly 40 square miles) more are slated for
reclamation by 2030. What was once seabed is now Changi, among the world's finest airports, and more recently the Marina Bay complex, which
includes a 2,560-room hotel and casino developed by Las Vegas Sands Corp.
Mountains of sand are needed for such fills. U.N. statistics show Singapore imported 14.6 million tons last year, ranking it among the world's top
customers. Global Witness estimated that nearly 800,000 tons a year, worth some $248 million, were streaming to Singapore from Koh Kong
alone.
The U.N. figures show that Cambodia supplied 25 percent of Singapore's imports in 2010, followed by Vietnam, Malaysia, Myanmar and the
Philippines. With its secrecy and lax enforcement of environmental regulations, Myanmar could emerge as a major supplier.
The damage caused by sand extraction has spurred clampdowns on exports.
Malaysia imposed a ban in 1997, though the media there frequently report on massive smuggling into neighboring Singapore. Former Prime
Minister Mahathir Mohamad complains that sand pirates are "digging Malaysia and giving her to other people."
1/15/2019 Sand mines boom in Asia — at a cost to nature - World news - World environment | NBC News
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An Indonesian ban came in 2007, following years of strained relations with Singapore over the sand on islands lying between the two countries.
When miners finished with Nipah Island, reportedly all that was left was three or four palm trees protruding above the waterline. Environmental
groups say smuggling is believed to be continuing.
Vietnam banned exports late last year.
Cambodia outlawed the export of sand from rivers in 2009 but allows it from some seabeds. Recently, some government officials said that rivers
where seawater flowed into fresh water, replenishing sand naturally, were exempt.
Global Witness spokesman Oliver Courtney said the trade in Cambodia revealed a "mismatch between Singapore's reliance on questionably
sourced sand and its position as a leader for sustainable development." The city-state prides itself on environmentally sound urban planning.
The dredging of the Tatai River began on May 17 "with a fury," creating a veritable traffic jam on the water, said Janet Newman, owner of the
riverside Rainbow Lodge.
"Before you could see crab pots bobbing in the river everywhere and fishermen going out. Now there is nothing and nobody," the British woman
said.
Chea Manith of the Nature Tourism Community of Tatai said 270 families along the river have seen an estimated 85 percent drop in catch of fish,
crab and lobsters and were being forced to eke out a living from small garden plots. Tourists have all but vanished.
Armed with a petition, village leaders, tourism operators and a wildlife group met with Ly Yong Phat in early July. He appeared sympathetic,
Newman said. He substantially reduced the dredging and has promised to stop altogether in October.
A subsequent letter from the Minister of Water Resources and Meteorology ordered the LYP group to halt operations temporarily on the Tatai,
citing a breach of regulations. The letter was obtained by Cambodia's Phnom Penh Post newspaper, which made it available to the AP.
Hun Sen himself expressed concern over the mining in the river.
"We hoped that the prime minister's recent promise to review the impacts of the sand trade would lead to proper regulation of dredging
operations," said Courtney of Global Witness. "Unfortunately, the pledge does not appear to have been followed up with meaningful action."
The mining has continued on the Tatai, and violations, such as dredging closer than 150 meters (165 yards) from riverbanks, were clearly evident.
The Post also obtained a Ministry of Industry, Mining and Energy letter extending LYP Group's concession in Koh Kong until Sept. 2012.
"We are just little people. We cannot do anything," Chea Manith said.
Newman sounded a more optimistic note. "It's my hope that the LYP Group will become sympathetic through this experience of having seen the
reaction from people passionate about protecting their environment," she said. "It would be sad if they just went somewhere else to dump the same
on others."
___
Associated Press writers Sean Yoong in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Alex Kennedy in Singapore; Jim Gomez in Manila, Philippines; Aye Aye Win in
Yangon, Myanmar; and Sopheng Cheang in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, contributed to this report.
Copyright 2011 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.
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1/15/2019 Sand mining - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand_mining 1/5
Sand mining
Sand mining is the extraction of sand, mainly through an open pit but sometimes mined from beaches and inland dunes or dredged from ocean and river beds.
Sand is often used in manufacturing, for example as an abrasive or in concrete. It is also used on icy and snowy roads, usually mixed with salt, to lower the melting
point temperature on the road surface. Sand can replace eroded coastline.[1] Some uses require higher purity than others; for example sand used in concrete must
be free of seashell fragments.
Sand mining presents opportunity to extract rutile, ilmenite and zircon, which contain the industrially useful elements titanium and zirconium. These minerals
typically occur combined with ordinary sand, then are separated in water by virtue of their different densities, before the sand is redeposited.
Sand mining is a direct cause of erosion, and impacts the local wildlife.[2] Various animals depend on sandy beaches for nesting clutches, and mining has led to the
near extinction of gharials (a species of crocodile) in India. Disturbance of underwater and coastal sand causes turbidity in the water, which is harmful for
organisms like coral that need sunlight. It can also destroy fisheries, financially harming their operators.
Removal of physical coastal barriers, such as dunes, sometimes leads to flooding of beachside communities, and the destruction of picturesque beaches causes
tourism to dissipate. Sand mining is regulated by law in many places, but is often done illegally.[3] Globally, it is a $70 billion industry, with sand selling at up to
$90 per cubic yard.[4]
By country
Australia
India
Sierra Leone
United States
Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa and Florida
China
See also
References
Contents
1/15/2019 Sand mining - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand_mining 2/5
External links
In the 1940 mining operations began on the Kurnell Peninsula (Captain Cook's
landing place in Australia) to supply the expanding Sydney building market. It
continued until 1990 with an estimate of over 70 million tonnes of sand having
been removed. The sand has been valued for many decades by the building
industry, mainly because of its high crushed shell content and lack of organic
matter, it has provided a cheap source of sand for most of Sydney since sand mining operations began. The site has now been reduced to a few remnant dunes and
deep water-filled pits which are now being filled with demolition waste from Sydney's building sites. Removal of the sand has significantly weakened the
peninsula's capacity to resist storms. Ocean waves pounding against the reduced Kurnell dune system have threatened to break through to Botany Bay, especially
during the storms of May and June back in 1974 and of August 1998.[5] Sand Mining also takes place in the Stockton sand dunes north of Newcastle and in the
Broken Hill region in the far west of the state.
A large and long-running sand mine in Queensland, Australia (on North Stradbroke Island) provides a case study in the (disastrous) environmental consequences
on a fragile sandy-soil based ecosystem, justified by the provision of low wage casual labor on an island with few other work options.[6] The Labor state
government pledged to end sand mining by 2025, but this decision was overturned by the LNP government which succeeded it. This decision has been subject to an
allegation of corrupt conduct.[7]
Sand mining contributes to the construction of buildings and development. However, the negative effects of sand mining include the permanent loss of sand in
areas, as well as major habitat destruction.
Sand mining is a practice that is becoming an environmental issue in India. Environmentalists have raised public awareness of illegal sand mining in the states of
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh[8] and Goa of India.[9][10][11][12][13] Conservation and environmental NGO Awaaz Foundation filed a public interest litigation in
the Bombay High Court seeking a ban on mining activities along the Konkan coast.[13] Awaaz Foundation, in partnership with the Bombay Natural History Society
also presented the issue of sand mining as a major international threat to coastal biodiversity at the Conference of Parties 11, Convention on Biological Diversity,
Hyderabad in October 2012.[14] [15] D. K. Ravi, an Indian Administrative Service officer of the Karnataka state, who was well known for his tough crackdown on
the rampant illegal sand mining in the Kolar district, was found dead at his residence in Bengaluru, on March 16, 2015. It is widely alleged that the death is not due
to suicide but the handiwork of the mafia involved in land grabbing and sand mining.[16][17]
By country
Sand mine in the Czech Republic.
Australia
India
1/15/2019 Sand mining - Wikipedia
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Recently, activists and local villagers have protested against sand mining on Sierra Leone's Western Area Peninsular. The activity is contributing to Sierra Leone's
coastal erosion, which is proceeding at up to 6 meters a year.[18]
The current size of the sand mining market in the United States is slightly over a billion dollars per year. The industry has been growing by nearly 10% annually
since 2005 because of its use in hydrocarbon extraction. The majority of the market size for mining is held by Texas and Illinois.[19]
Silica sand mining business has more than doubled since 2009 because of the need for this particular type of sand, which is used in a process known as hydraulic
fracturing. Wisconsin is one of the five states that produce nearly 2/3 of the nation’s silica. As of 2009, Wisconsin, along with other northern states, is facing an
industrial mining boom, being dubbed the "sand rush" because of the new demand from large oil companies for silica sand. According to Minnesota Public Radio,
"One of the industry's major players, U.S. Silica, says its sand sales tied to hydraulic fracturing nearly doubled to $70 million from 2009 to 2010 and brought in
nearly $70 million in just the first nine months of 2011."[20] According to the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (WDNR), there are currently 34 active
mines and 25 mines in development in Wisconsin. In 2012, the WDNR released a final report on the silica sand mining in Wisconsin titled Silica Sand Mining in
Wisconsin. The recent boom in silica sand mining has caused concern from residents in Wisconsin that include quality of life issues and the threat of silicosis.
However, these are issues that the state has no authority to regulate. According to the WDNR (2012) these issues include noise, lights, hours of operation, damage
and excessive wear to roads from trucking traffic, public safety concerns from the volume of truck traffic, possible damage and annoyance resulting from blasting,
and concerns regarding aesthetics and land use changes.
As of 2013, industrial frac sand mining has become a cause for activism, especially in the Driftless Area of southeast Minnesota, northeast Iowa and southwest
Wisconsin.
Much sand is extracted by dredges from the bottom of rivers such as the Red River in Yunnan, or quarried in dry river beds. Due to the large demand for sand for
construction, illicit sand mining is not uncommon.[21]
Heavy mineral sands ore deposits
Beach theft
Resource depletion
Sierra Leone
United States
Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa and Florida
China
See also
1/15/2019 Sand mining - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand_mining 4/5
Sand mining in Tamil Nadu
Sand mining in Kerala
Environmental issues with mining
1. "Battle lines in the sand" (http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/battle-lines-in-the-sand/2005/11/01/11308232
10734.html). The Sydney Morning Herald. 2 November 2005.
2. Green Left - Opposition to sand mining on Stradbroke (http://www.greenleft.org.au/1997/269/17263) Archived
(https://archive.is/20120903184252/http://www.greenleft.org.au/1997/269/17263) 3 September 2012 at
Archive.today
3. Land and Environment: Sand Mining (http://localhistory.kingston.vic.gov.au/htm/article/294.htm)
4. Mills, Ryan; Staats, Eric (17 November 2016). "Shrinking Shores: Florida sand shortage leaves beaches in lurch"
(http://www.naplesnews.com/story/news/special-reports/2016/11/17/shrinking-shores-florida-sand-shortage-lea
ves-beaches-lurch/92052152/). Naples Daily News. Retrieved 3 November 2017.
5. Kurnell - A Pictorial History (http://www.ssec.org.au/our_environment/our_bioregion/kurnell/history/industries/sa
ndmining.htm)
6. Victorian sand mining moves closer to full production:: ABC Western Victoria (http://www.abc.net.au/westernvic/
stories/s1630536.htm)
7. [1] (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/24/queensland-sandmining-corruption-watchdog-asked-to-inv
estigate-donation)
8. Illegal Mining In Madhya Pradesh (http://www.ndtv.com/topic/illegal-mining-in-madhya-pradesh), NDTV.
9. Rajadhyaksha, Radha (10 Jan 2010). "No attacker brought to book so far" (http://articles.timesofindia.indiatime
s.com/2010-01-10/mumbai/28118792_1_activists-anandini-thakoor-sand-mining-mafia). Times Of India.
Retrieved 22 April 2013.
10. B, Viju (24 March 2011). "Creeks and rivers up for sale" (http://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Second-Natur
e/entry/creeks-and-rivers-up-for). Times Of India. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
11. Singh, Vijay (3 April 2012). "NCP leader waves gun at tehsildar" (http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012
-04-03/mumbai/31280601_1_sand-mining-tehsildar-sand-mafia). Times Of India. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
12. B, Viju (Oct 27, 2009). "Sand mining issue haunts Naik" (http://mobiletoi.timesofindia.com/mobile.aspx?article=y
es&pageid=9&sectid=edid=&edlabel=TOIM&mydateHid=24-10-2009&pubname=Times%20of%20India%20-%2
0Mumbai&edname=&articleid=Ar00901&publabel=TOI). Times Of India. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
13. B, Viju (25 Sep 2010). "HC bans sand mining across Maharashtra" (http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/20
10-09-25/mumbai/28251944_1_sand-mining-sand-extraction-crz-areas). Times of India. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
A sand mining operation in the Red
River, in Jinping County, Yunnan
References
1/15/2019 Sand mining - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand_mining 5/5
Kiwis Against Seabed Mining (http://www.blacksands.org.nz/)
Exposes Cops-sand mafia nexus in India (http://www.newskarnataka.com/features/newskarnatakas-undercover-operation-exposes-cops-sand-mafia-nexus/)
Jakob Villioth (2014-08-05). "Building an economy on quicksand" (http://www.ejolt.org/2014/08/building-an-economy-on-quicksand/). ejolt. "Sand has by
now become the most widely consumed natural resource on the planet after fresh water"
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sand_mining&oldid=872693748"
This page was last edited on 8 December 2018, at 16:14 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and
Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
14. "Effects of Sand mining in coastal bio diversity" (http://www.cbd.int/kb/record/sideEvent/2682?RecordType=side
Event&Event=COP-11). Convention on Biological Diversity.
15. Resources on sand mining (http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/thesaurus/sand-mining)
16. Mondal, Sudipto (17 March 2015). "IAS officer who took on sand mafia found dead in Bengaluru residence" (htt
p://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/ias-officer-who-took-on-sand-mafia-found-dead-in-bengaluru/article1-1
327089.aspx). Hindustan Times. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
17. "IAS Officer, Who Took On The Sand Mafia, Found Dead in Bengaluru" (http://www.ndtv.com/bangalore-news/ia
s-officer-who-allegedly-received-threat-calls-from-sand-mafia-found-dead-in-bengaluru-747123). NDTV. 16
March 2015. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
18. "Unsustainable Sand Mining in Sierra Leone" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120801210608/http://www.enviro-
news.com/news/unsustainable-sand-mining-in-sierra-leone.html). Enviro-News.com. 30 July 2012. Archived from
the original (http://www.enviro-news.com/news/unsustainable-sand-mining-in-sierra-leone.html) on 1 August
2012.
19. Industrial Sand Mining Industry Trends and Market Size Research (http://www.pellresearch.com/Industrial-Sand-
Mining.htm)
20. MPR News Primer: Frac Sand Mining (http://minnesota.publicradio.org/display/web/2012/03/08/frac-sand-mining
-mpr-news-primer/)
21. Xu Jingxi, Crackdown planned on illegal river sand mining (http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2012-08/08/conte
nt_15651006.htm), China Daily, 2012-08-08
External links
Exploring Sand-Mining in Yangon, Myanmar:
Status, Regulations and Impacts
By: Bethia Kadoe
May 2018
A Practitioner Report
Submitted to the faculty of Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts,
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science in Environmental Science and Policy in the Department of
International Development, Community, and Environment
And accepted on the recommendation of
Timothy J. Downs, D.Env., Chief Instructor
ABSTRACT
Exploring Sand-Mining in Yangon, Myanmar:
Status, Regulations and Impacts
Bethia Kadoe
Sand is one of the most exploited commodities in the world and yet the issue of sand-
mining is often overlooked amidst today’s environmental challenges. Climate change, coupled
with exponential population growth, contributes to the need for more sand and to meet this
need through sustainable means. The government of Myanmar, a developing country in
Southeast Asia, is beginning discussions on how to manage this important resource as it is
drafting its National Environmental Policy. Myanmar’s political and economic progress in the last
decade has propelled the country to consume more raw materials than ever before. This report
seeks to provide an overview of sand market in Myanmar by a) establishing a baseline
understanding of sand-mining activities by focusing on the sand consumption rate of the
capital, Yangon Division and b) the current regulatory framework and c) outline the main
environmental and social impacts associated with sand mining.
© 2018
Bethia Kadoe
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ACADEMIC HISTORY
Name (in Full): Date:
Bethia Kadoe May 9, 2015
Baccalaureate Degree: Bachelor of Arts
Source: Westminster College Date: May 9, 2015
Other degrees, with dates and sources:
Occupation and Academic Connection since date of baccalaureate
degree:
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report would not have been possible without the support and expertise of
Vicky Bowman, Director of Myanmar Center for Responsible Business (MCRB) for
her unwavering support to help me secure the funds and contacts necessary for
travel to mining sites. Her passion in helping businesses and communities inspire
me to produce this report.
Sincere thanks and appreciation go to Hannah Baleta and Sami Tornikoski at World
Wildlife Fund, Myanmar for letting me go along with the survey team to conduct
the sand mining questionnaire and giving me project support. I am thankful for
Swe Hlaing Win and Salai Thura Zaw, my survey teammates for making my
research experience enjoyable whether we walk or ride a boat from one location to
the next in all weather. I am also thankful to the staff at both MCRB and WWF
Myanmar for their administrative assistance and generosity during my office visits.
I would like to thank Professor Timothy Downs for encouraging me to pursue my
research interests and reading through my drafts to make this practitioner project
as informative as it can be.
Lastly, I am thankful for the support of my family, grandparents, aunts and uncles
who always believe in me and pray for me. I could not have done this without their
encouragement and patience. Thank you to all the friends at IDCE for taking an
interest and for giving advice on my project.
This work would not have been possible without the International Development,
Community, and Environment Travel Award which allowed me to travel to Yangon
and the financial support from MCRB for a daily stipend for necessities during site
visits.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Glossary vii
1.0 Introduction 1
2.0 Background 3
2.1. Existing environmental laws and regulations 5
3.0 Methods 7
4.0 Findings and Discussion 7
5.0 Limitations 19
6.0. Conclusion and Recommendations 20
Appendix A 22
References 30
vi
Glossary
DWIR - Directorate of Water Resources and Improvement of Rivers
GA – General Administrative Department
Sud - Unit of measure for a volume of sand having 10 feet length, 10 feet width
and 1-foot height
Kyat - Currency of Myanmar. Officially known as Myanmar Kyat (MMK)
EIA – Environmental Impact Assessment
SIA – Social Impact Assessment
EMP – Environmental Management Plan
vii.
1.0. Introduction
The issue of sand mining has only recently emerged to the forefront of
environmental concerns which weigh many developing and developed countries
today. A report by United Nations Environment Programme (Peduzzi, 2014)
detailed that globally between 47 and 59 billion tonnes of materials, 68% to 85%
of which are sand, and gravel are mined every year and that the amount being
mined is increasing exponentially, mainly because of economic growth in Asia.
Sand, a key ingredient for making concrete and asphalt, has been exploited
in the last two decades particularly, as the world’s cities need to develop housing
units and commercial towers for the world’s growing population. Cities are
expanding at unprecedented rates than at any other time in history. According to
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs’ Report on World
Urbanization Prospects, the largest urban growth would take place in India, China
and Nigeria, which accounts for 37 percent of the projected growth of the world’s
urban population between 2014 and 2050. (UNDESA, 2014)
Sand mining is ultimately, a global problem. To accommodate the needs of
urban population growth, and industrialization, construction has to keep up
building livable spaces. Shanghai, for example, has added 7 million new residents
since 2000, which came up to more than 23 million. (Beiser, 2017) The sand used
for the new high-rise buildings in Shanghai came mainly from China’s biggest
freshwater lake, Poyang Lake. Hundreds of dredgers could be seen on the lake on
any given day. A study by Lai et al. (2014) estimated that 236 million cubic meters
of sand are extracted from the lake annually. This had negative consequences such
as lower water levels, increased drought risk, and a wider and deeper outflow
channel of the lake.
Rising population aside, sourcing the sand is also a difficult task for the
procurers as there are only limited sources. Desert sand cannot be used as a
source because it has been eroded by the wind and therefore too smooth and
rounded to be combined with other construction materials. As a result, sand miners
turn to riverbeds, floodplains and beaches to meet the demands by a growing
urban population.
Due to its limited sources, sand is mined and delivered to the buyer,
sometimes at great social and economic costs. Illegal mining in India has been a
problem, largely ignored by its own government as it is trying to pursue its own
Agenda, affordable “housing for all” program. (Gopalan and Venkataraman, 2015)
The resulting consequences are that the states of Gujarat and Maharashra are
hotspots for illegal mining within Vasai creek. Workers earn 1,000 rupees
(approximately, US$15) for a day of diving into the creek to dig sand and each
diver brings 2000 to 4000 kg of sand every day. (Srivastava, 2017) Violence has
erupted, and blood has been spilled to curb the efforts of the villagers, local and
state officials by the sand mafia, a collection of business men who profit from daily
operations of sand mining activities (Sugden, 2013).
Illegal sand mining is also reported in Singapore, the top importer in the
world with 517 million tonnes of sand in the last 20 years (UN Comtrade, 2014).
Singapore imports most of its sand from neighboring countries such as Indonesia,
Malaysia, Thailand and Cambodia although Indonesia banned its sand export after
the disappearance of 24 Indonesian sand islands (Peduzzi, 2014). Singapore uses
most of its sand for land reclamation purposes as it needs ever increasing amounts
of land for development purposes.
Therefore, there is a real need for knowledge to tackle the complexities of
sand trade as it is a common problem facing all the countries of the world. The
country of Myanmar, where this research was carried out, has its own local sand
supply sources, mainly the Irrawaddy River and Ngapali Beach. (Hulst, 2015) This
report seeks to answer questions such as:
1. How much sand is being extracted from the river annually?
2. What are current regulatory framework on the sand-mining industry?
3. What recommendations can be made to lessen the negative impacts of
sand mining based on existing literature?
2.0. Background
Myanmar is a participating country in the global sand trade. In recent years,
similar to the path of its neighboring countries, Myanmar’s sand and gravel mining
sectors have been rising rapidly due to population growth and migration of people
from rural to urban areas. Yangon Division, which includes the Yangon, the
previous capital of Myanmar, has the highest consumption rate out of all the 7
States and 7 Divisions to accommodate rising standards of living for a population
of more than 7.3 million in 2014. (Yangon, Myanmar Population and Housing
Census, 2014) Roughly 69% of Myanmar’s population live in rural areas and 31%
live in urban regions although this gap is projected to close in 2040. (UNDESA,
2018)
In addition to national consumption, Myanmar exports a substantial amount
of sand to its neighboring countries. 4 million cubic meters of sand was exported to
Singapore for a value of US$12 million between 2011 and 2014 according to
Eleven Weekly media which interviewed local representatives. (Myanmar Business
Network, 2014) Almost all the exported sand came from Myanmar’s southern
coastal region such as Myeik and Kawthaung Areas. Not all exported sand,
however, is not accounted for. Frontier Myanmar (Hulst, 2015) reported that beach
sand was being mined illegally in Ngapali Beach on the Bay of Bengal in Rakhine
State.
While estimates vary on how much construction sector contribute to the
national economy, according to Asian Development Bank, the construction sector
comprised 5.3% of the GDP in 2013 and 5.8% of GDP in 2015, which came up to
roughly US$3.4 billion and US$3.67 billion respectively. Construction industry is
growing rapidly over the last 10 years as can be seen by the growth of cement
industry in Fig. 1.
Figure 1. Total Trade of Myanmar from 2007 to 2016. Lack of available data in
2012. Source: Chart made by the author based on data from U.S.Geological Survey
Minerals Yearbooks (2007 - 2015) and the Observatory of Economic Complexity
(2016)
Fig. 2. Study Area Townships
2.1. Existing laws and regulations
The newly democratic government, brought about by the political revolution
that began in the 1980s, made significant changes to the laws and regulations
regarding sand mining. Sand, considered as a natural resource, is owned by the
state. As such, under Article 37 of Myanmar’s 2008 Constitution, the Union is the
ultimate owner of all lands and all-natural resources above and below the ground,
above and beneath the water and in the atmosphere in the Union. Therefore, it
can enact necessary law to supervise extraction and utilization of these State-
owned natural resources.
The Directorate of Water Resources and Improvement of Rivers, under the
Ministry of Transport, oversees the operations of sand mining as one of its duties
for river training and navigation. Together with the General Administrative
Department, the DWIR gives mining licenses and renewals. Myanmar drafted the
Environmental Conservation Law which was enacted in March 2012. The objectives
of this law are to provide interim management guidelines for different industries
while the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation drafts a
detailed National Environmental Policy with the help of United Nations
Development Programme. It is expected to be published in 2018. (Myanmar
Ministry of Information Announcement, 2017)
According to the Conservation of Water Resources and Rivers Law
implemented in 2006, Chapter V, Article 13, “no person shall carry out sand
suction, sand dredging, sand excavating, river shingle suction, panning for gold,
gold mineral dredging or resource production for commercial purpose in the river-
creek boundary, bank boundary, and waterfront boundary, without the
recommendation of the Directorate.” Similarly, Article 14 dictates that “no person
shall carry out sand suction, sand dredging, sand excavating, river shingle suction,
panning for gold, gold mineral dredging or resource production from the sandbank
maintained for prescribed river training work, prohibited place in the river and
creek or the watercourse.”
3.0. Methodology
This project aims to provide an overview of sand market in Yangon by
1. Determining the locations and amounts of sand distribution.
2. Identification of the main environmental and social impacts associated with sand
mining based on existing literature.
To seek answers to components of Part 1, an aggregate mining survey
(Appendix A) is used as a guide to ask the sand mining businesses, categorized
into extraction and distribution sites. Maps depicting the locations of sand mining in
Irrawaddy was provided by World Wildlife Fund-Myanmar survey team who has
been tracking the sand mining boats and barges from satellite.
For Part 2, existing literature and data were reviewed concerning
environmental and social impacts that result from sand mining.
4. Findings and Discussion
4.1 Survey Results – Status of Mining by Town/Ward
The results of the survey are shown in Table 1. 113 sand and gravel mining
businesses were surveyed to determine the length of operation years, and the
amount of coarse sand, small gravel, large gravel distribution centers and volume
of sand and gravel sold.
According to the survey results, Hlaing Thar Yar and Shwe-Pyi-Thar
townships have the most number of businesses. The average length of operation
range from 1.5 years in Thilawa to 20.5 years in Thingangyun. Coarse sand
distribution centers are greater in number than small gravel distribution although
there are many businesses that sell both as they are both complementary goods
for making cement. The total volume of sand sold is more than 3.5 million cubic
meters and total volume of gravel sold is 473,191 cubic meters estimated for the
year 2016-2017.
Region
or
District
Township
or Ward
No.
surveys
complete
d
Av.
Length
of
operation
(yrs)
No.
Coarse
sand
distributi
on
No. Small
gravel
distribution
No.
Large
Gravel
Distrib
ution
Vol of
construction
sand sold
(m3)
Vol.
Gravel
sold (m3)
Yangon Hlaing
Thar Yar
30 7.4 27 18 4 864,000 86,685
Insein
Ywar Ma
8 12.6 7 6 5 180,768 36,904
Kamar-
yut
8 10.5 5 3 3 165,272 25,470
North
Dagon
7 10 4 2 2 304,721 10,188
Pazun-
daung
4 8.5 4 4 0 77,471 43,355
Shwe-
pyi-thar
36 8.8 30 18 16 1,479,693 157,205
Than
Lyin
12 5.6 9 9 9 299,557 76,693
Tharkayta 4 5.3 3 2 0 46,483 15,494
Thilawa 2 1.5 2 0 0 56,671 0
Thingang
yun
2 20.5 2 2 2 92,965 21,197
Total 113 9.07 93 64 41 3,567,601 473,191
Table 1. Results of the aggregate mining survey in Yangon
Fig. 3. Volumes of Sand distributed in Yangon
According to Fig. 3, 41% of the sand is distributed in Shwepyithar
Township, 1323.328 acres of which is officially designated as industrial zones.
(Myanmar Industries Association, 2018) Hlaing Thar Yar township, which houses
the Shwe Lin Ban Industrial Zone, occupies the next highest distribution rate, 24%.
The rest of the townships visited do not house any industrial zone and therefore
consumes relatively small amounts of sand compared to Shwepyithar and Hlaing
Thar Yar.
4.2 Technology and Practice
Most sand mining businesses have all kinds of machinery such as boats,
small tractors, wheel loaders, large trucks to transport and distribute sand and
employ local workers both on the boat which extracts sand from the river and in
the distribution site for customer service. Image 1 and 2 were taken in near Pyay,
right above Yangon Region in the Irrawaddy River. Sand is mined in the river with
boats.
Images 1 and 2: Sand being mined by boats in Pyay
Image 3: Extracted sand from the boat is again mixed with water to be spread
onto dry land.
Images 4 and 5: Two distribution sites showing sand being collected on land
through connecting pipes
Images 6 and 7: Examples of sand collection sites
Image 8: Sand is distributed around town to the customers
The sand mined from the river is mixed with water and the boats tend to
carry as much as they can of this mixture on the boat. The water from this mixture
is expelled back into the river. This process is done in the river, on the journey
back to the distribution site until the water is gone.
When the boats reach to their respective distribution sites, often located
next to their local home shops, the sand is mixed with water again as shown in
Image 3. Images 4 and 5 show sand being collected in two distribution sites.
Images 6 and 7 are included to show the size of the collection sites, which can
collect up to thousands of suds. The collected sand is sold and delivered to
customers over the next few days or weeks. Some sand mining businesses have
contractual agreements with construction companies and will not hesitate to buy
and resell from other distributors to fulfill their contractual obligations.
In addition to uses by the construction industry, the sand is bagged and
used locally by villagers to prevent flooding of the houses, on the streets and in the
neighborhood in the rainy season and to combat fire in the fire-prone hot and dry
season. There are two types of sand sold in the businesses: fine sand and
construction sand. Locals use fine sand for non-construction purposes. Some
distributors combine the two types and sell them as construction sand as both can
potentially be used for construction.
Yangon division does not receive any gravel deposits in the Irrawaddy River.
Therefore, it does not grant any gravel mining permits. According to the
Department of Waterways and in Yangon Division, there was no limit to suds (1
sud = 10 ft length x 10 ft width x 1 ft height) per plot before 2015. Those who
applied were usually granted a license. After 2015, when a business applies for a
license, they are considered for two factors.
1) Is the location suitable for sand-mining? This is determined by the survey
teams of DWIR.
2) What is the size of the boat? Only boats which have a carrying capacity of
less than 30 suds is granted.
There are several plots in Yangon division ranging from 40-50 in a given
year. The guidelines that come along with a sand-mining permit are that a
company is allowed only 2 boats, each boat carrying less than 30 suds of sand at a
time. Businesses are also only allowed to dredge sand for only up to 1 meter under
the existing bed level although this guideline is not adhered to in practice.
4.3 Monitoring/Compliance
Monitoring is performed by a survey team either employed or contracted out
by the DWIR each year when the licenses need to be renewed. In the past,
because the licenses are applied and granted throughout the year, the survey
teams also work throughout the year. In the future, the DWIR hopes to create a
timeline during which there is a call for application, a period of consideration,
surveying and granting of licenses.
Regarding the survey procedure, the team is sent out to the plot which
holds the interest of the business in the application. Usually, it is a plot they held in
the previous year or a new plot they are interested in. Then, the team conducts
the survey and reports the results to the DWIR.
4.4 Licensing and Operations
The requirements for a license include the application for the license and a
map showing the plot/s of interest and a survey fee of 30,000 Kyats for the
Directorate of Water Resources and Improvements of Rivers and a fee of 500
Kyats per sud allowance to the General Administrative Department. The procedure
to obtaining a license is as follows:
1. The business submits the application, the map and the application fee to the
GA
2. The GA corresponds with the DWIR to conduct a survey
3. Depending on the survey’s results, the DWIR either supports or discourages
the GA to give the license.
4. The business is either granted or denied the license.
4.5 Business Operations
The license is renewed yearly. The businesses have to pay taxes to the
Municipals for collecting sand on their own properties/sites and a “profit tax” to the
Business Association for conducting business.
The sales of a typical sand-mining business varies throughout the year. The
end of the rainy season (end of September or beginning of October) signals the
beginning of an intensive construction period for the Building Sector. Free from the
encumbrance of rain and the high heat which is inevitable in the hot season, the
construction businesses consume a large flow and volume of sand and gravel for
making cement in their daily operations. The price of sand increases to 7,000-
8,000 Kyats or doubles depending on the location of the business. The price of
construction sand is often higher than that of fine sand. Sand businesses normally
operate yearlong with the exception of the Thingyan Festival, which marks the
Burmese New Year during the month of April.
4.6 Sand Mining Locations
Sand consumed by industries in Yangon is mined mostly in Hlaing River,
near Ba-Yint-Naung and Warr-Ta-Yar and also near the convergence of the three
waterways, namely the Yangon River, Bago River, and Pa-zun-taung Chaung
(creek). Although sand mining in the creek was allowed in the past, the GA banned
this practice and as a result, land mass has filled the creek and some gravel
businesses are operating on top of this newly filled land. There are no sand-mining
in the Pan Hlaing River due to the lack of usable sand. The type of sand preferred
by construction companies is coarse sand which has good binding properties with
other construction materials.
4.7 Sand Mining and Environmental Impacts
Sand is mined by dredging boats in the Irrawaddy River. When the
aggregate particles are too fine to be used, they are rejected by dredging boats,
releasing vast dust plumes and changing water turbidity. This can in turn result in
major changes to aquatic and riparian habitats over large areas. Reported incidents
of landslides and river erosion due to dredging up the Dawei River basin for sand is
an example. (Myanmar Business Network, 2014)
For the purpose of this practitioner report, only the main environmental
impacts are shown in Table 2.
Medium Main Impact Consequences
Air Increase levels of air
pollutants concentration
Human health risks
Flora and Habitat loss Alteration of fish population,
Fauna Increasing level of weed infestation
Physical disturbance of the
habitat
Degradation of aquatic biota, Alter
number of animal species
Vegetation is destroyed Reduction of farmlands and grazing
lands
Water Increase water turbidity Reduced light penetration, and
oxygen levels that affect aquatic
populations, changes in nutrients
parameters, increase infections and
death risks for aquatic animals.
Increase soil and coastal
erosion
Seawater intrusion
Affect infrastructure projects
Water quality deterioration Increase water salinity, alternation of
water sources, increased water
treatment costs
Deformation of riverbeds
and banks
Drying up wells around the river,
lateral channels erosion and
instability, negative effect on
groundwater, waterways siltation,
influence the uncertainty of slopes
and levees
Soil Decreased soil quality Increase infertility on otherwise fertile
soils due to lowering groundwater
levels, changes in soil geochemistry
(increase concentration of lead,
arsenic, mercury, etc.)
Soil erosion Watercourses, wetlands and lakes
pollution
Table 2. Main environmental impacts of sand mining (Source: Marius Dan
Gavriletea, 2017)
In addition to producing negative environmental consequences on air, flora
and fauna, water, soil and land, there are also other social costs associated with
sand mining. Mohapatra et al. conducted a study on hazards and health risks
encountered by using manual sand dredgers in Udupi, India. They found that most
of the workers were unaware of health problems such as hypertension or diabetes
mellitus. Majority of their participants (73%) showed bilateral sensory deficit of
hands and varied levels of diminished sensation and trench feet due to prolonged
exposure to non-freezing cold water. (Mohapatra et al. 2017)
5.0. Limitations
Due to the short period of the survey conducted over 3 weeks in August
2017, the findings do not capture the entirety of the sand mining sector in Yangon,
Myanmar. Some businesses were temporarily closed due to the seasonality effects
(construction slows during the rainy months) and some were closed because their
production sources were halted by the sudden ban upstream for gravel mining by
the DWIR Ayarwaddy Division. Additionally, efforts to seek official documents from
the DWIR Yangon division were not successful.
6.0 Conclusion and Recommendations
According to the findings, 8.5 million metric tonnes of sand were distributed
in Yangon between 2016 and 2017 as reported by 113 sand mining businesses.
Therefore, we can conclude that at least 8.5 million metric tonnes were extracted
from the river.
Recognizing the implementation of the impending National Environmental
Policy to be released in 2018, this report makes several recommendations for three
stakeholders: DWIR Yangon Division, sand mining businesses, and the locals who
live in sand-mining locations.
For DWIR Yangon Division:
• State/Regional Governments should undertake a regional or strategic
environment assessment of sand and aggregates mining throughout their
State/Region, to determine where and how it may be undertaken sustainably
without causing environmental harm, and ensure that arrangements are in
place for obtaining revenue from the practice.
• There should be a special unit for monitoring and surveillance and this unit
should patrol the sand mining locations either on a weekly or bi-weekly basis
and can be called upon as necessary when incidents arise.
• Create an online database where legally registered boats are tracked.
• Have a merit-based system that rewards law-abiding businesses, and/or
certification of “sustainable mining”.
• On the basis of this assessment, licenses for sand and aggregates extraction
should be issued on the basis of a transparent tender process, with clear rules
to prevent environmental damage, and effective monitoring and enforcement.
For sand mining businesses:
• Ensure licenses are obtained legally, and have penalties for illegal activity.
• Report accurate information to the DWIR and GA.
• Ensure that the contractor hired for writing an EIA or SIA has a good reputation
as some contractors have been reported to provide these documents without
careful assessment of the site in place. According to Annex 1 of the EIA
Procedure, No.132, the Criteria for Extraction of Rock, Gravel or Sand from a
River or Marine Waters should be ≥1,000 m3
/a but <50,000 m3
/a (for IEE type
economic activities) and ≥50,000 m3
/a (for EIA type activities).
• Adhere to the regulations provided by the DWIR and GA: have incentives to
comply and penalties for non-compliance.
• Report any incidents of riverbed deterioration or water level oddities to the
officials.
For Locals:
• Understand the laws and regulations surrounding sand mining and learn about
the environmental and social impacts of the practice.
• Participate in workshops given by government officials or organization such as
MCRB to promote “sustainable mining” practices.
• Avoid letting children play in sand collection sites without clothes, shoes or
supervision: these sites are hazardous. Educate children about hazards.
I believe that future studies of sand mining in this region will benefit greatly
from extensive interviews with state or local government officials at the beginning
of the research. By learning more through collaborations among the stakeholders –
sand miners, regulators, locals and researchers – we can create best practices and
promote sustainable mining in Myanmar. This can be a model for other nations in
Asia and elsewhere.
References cited
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environmental-crisis-never-heard>. Accessed 1 Mar. 2018.
Byrnes, Mark R.; Hammer, Richard M.; Tibaut, Tim D.; and Snyder, David B.
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Feb. 2018.
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myanmar-industries/industrial-zones/239-industrial-zones-yangon> Accessed 19
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(2014): 1698-1706.
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Appendix A – Surveys Used
A1: Aggregate Mining Survey
DISTRIBUTION SITE QUESTIONS
1. Distribution site information:
General information about the site
State or Region:
Township:
Nearest town or village:
Company name (if there is one):
Name of person interviewed (not required)
GPS point & photos
2. What is being extracted? Stored? Transported?
Category of
sediment
Present price per
Sud (Gyin)?
Fine sand Yes □ No □
Construction sand Yes □ No □
Gravel Yes □ No □
Pebbles Yes □ No □
3. If transported, means of transport (barge, large truck, small truck, rail)
4. Where is the material from?
Material River Location / State /
Township
Fine sand
Construction sand
Gravel
Pebble
5. Approximate size of storage or extraction site.
6. Number of people working on site?
Number of full time staff In mining A
distribution
center
Less than 3 people
4 to 10 people /
More than 11 people
7. Equipment vehicles operating on site. Take photos if possible
Type of equipment Extraction
method (if
known)
& number
Distribution
sites
& number
Comments
Small tractor /light truck
Large truck
Mechanical shovel/wheel
loader
Conveyor belt
Dredger
Bargest
8. Number of years of distribution operation
This is the first year □
More than 1 but less than 5 □
More than 5 but less than 10 □
More than 10 □
Don’t know □
9. Has the distributor always received material from the same locations?
10. How is material transported from extraction site to distribution site?
If barges, what is size of barge, take photo if possible
11. Calendar of operations
a. When can you obtain each category of material (G = Gravel, S = Sand)
b. When is demand greatest and lowest?
Type Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
No
operati
on
Limite
d
oper.
Intensi
ve
oper.
12. Is there a difference in price between months or seasons?
13. What is the most sought after grain size?
14 Is there ever a problem obtaining supply?
15. Estimation of quantities distributed annually from site
Approximate quantity sold / year
Fine sand
Construction sand
Gravel
Pebbles
Quantity can be in tons, cubic metres or truck loads (if trucks, get a photo of the
standard vehicle
16. How many other distributors are there in this area?
17. What is the demand trend for each produced category?
Category Trend
fine sand Same every
year □
Increasing
□
Decreasing
□
Don’t know
□
coarse
sand
Same every
year □
Increasing
□
Decreasing
□
Don’t know
□
gravel Same every
year □
Increasing
□
Decreasing
□
Don’t know
□
Pebbles Same every
year □
Increasing
□
Decreasing
□
Don’t know
□
18. What is the availability trend for each material?
Category Trend in Availability
Trend in
Availability
Trend in Price
Fine sand
Coarse sand
Gravel
Pebble
19. Changes to supply. Do you receive material from more than 1 extraction
site?
Has this changed over time?
Increase in supply sites because of growing demand? □
Decrease supply sites because of replenishment rates? □
Change in supply sites but no increase or decrease
20. Have you observed an increase in different sizes in gravels or pebbles being
supplied?
A.2: Extraction Site Survey
Nature of the extraction:
General information about the site
State or Region:
Township:
Nearest town or village:
Company name (if there is one):
Name of person interviewed (not required)
GPS point & photos
1. What size material is targeted for extraction?
2. Is this led by market demand or availability on site?
3. Are the different categories of materials found at different locations in the
site? (emerged islands, beaches, river banks, thresholds, rapids, different depths
under water, different places in the river bed)
Category Location
fine sand
coarse sand
gravel
pebbles
4. If different categories are available on site: do you specialise in one (or two)
grain size(s) only , or will you extract whatever is available?
5. Estimation of quantities produces annually per category
6. Where are the best extraction sites in this area?
7. Is there a competition for the concessions on the best sites?
8. How are concessions distributed?
9. To your knowledge, are there any other active in-stream dredging operations
within ten km of this operation?
Yes □ No □
List any other operations on a separate page
10. How do you identify the sites that will be good for extraction?
Ex: Downstream areas with lateral erosion? Empirically?
11. What is the availability trend for each produced category?
Category Trend
fine sand Same every
year □
Increasing
□
Decreasing
□
Don’t know
□
coarse
sand
Same every
year □
Increasing
□
Decreasing
□
Don’t know
□
gravel Same every
year □
Increasing
□
Decreasing
□
Don’t know
□
Pebbles Same every
year □
Increasing
□
Decreasing
□
Don’t know
□
12. Are changes to the river occurring? If so where in the river bed are those
changes occurring? (emerged islands, beaches, river banks, thresholds, rapids,
different depths under water, different places in the river bed)
13. Changes in quantities extracted over time?
a. Increase in extraction/sales because of growing demand? □
b. Decrease because of reduced replenishment rates? □
c. Other □
If other, please describe:
14. Has there been a change in the depth for extraction (need to dredge deeper)
and/or islands disappearing or changing shape?
Yes □ No □
If yes, please describe:
Can you estimate the increase or decrease in depth (50 cm, 1 m, 1,5 m, 2m)
15. Have you observed changes to the size of gravels or pebbles being
extracted?
16. Did you observe silt at extraction sites of other categories (fine sand; coarse
sand, gravel)
17. Are taxes paid on quantities extracted?
THE AYEYARWADY
RIVER AND THE
ECONOMY OF
MYANMAR
REPORT
MM
2018
VOLUME1:RISKSANDOPPORTUNITIESFROMTHE
PERSPECTIVEOFPEOPLELIVING ANDWORKINGINTHE
BASIN
Published inMay 2018 by WWF-World Wide Fund For Nature
(Formerly World Wildlife Fund). Any reproduction in full or
in part must mention the title and credit the above-mentioned
publisher as the copyright owner.
© Text 2018 WWF
All rights reserved
ISBN 978-2-940443-06-2
WWF is one of the world’s largest and most experienced
independent conservation organizations, with over
5 million supporters and a global Network active in
more than 100 countries.
WWF’s mission is to stop the degradation of the planet’s
natural environment and to build a future in which humans
live in harmony with nature, by: conserving the world’s
biological diversity, ensuring that the use of renewable natural
resources is sustainable, and promoting the reduction of
pollution and wasteful consumption.
CONTENTS
SUMMARY		
Introduction	4
What makes the Ayeyarwady Unique?	 6
A connected Ayeyarwady	 8
Risks facing the Ayeyarwady sub basins 	 9
	
How do different sectors depend on the Ayeyarwady? 	 10	
Agriculture	12
Fisheries	16
The Irrawaddy Dolphin	 18
Mining & Extractives	 20
Oil & Gas	 23
Industry & Manufacturing 	 24
Navigation	27
Construction	28
Tourism	31
Energy 	 32
CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS	 35
BIBLIOGRAPHY	39
54
INTRODUCTION Myanmar’s Ayeyarwady River is both unique and special. It is
one of the largest free-flowing rivers in Southeast Asia. There
is just one other river with this title, the Thanlwin or Salween
River, which also traverses Myanmar’s undulating landscapes.
Although the river is “free-flowing”, it is not pristine. The
Ayeyarwady is the engine of the Myanmar economy. It feeds the country’s population
with fish and rice, and enables goods to be transported to people up and down the
river. Its waters are used to power turbines for electricity, while sand from its basin is
a key component for infrastructure like houses, offices and roads.
This document attempts to identify different ways that the Ayeyarwady River is
important to both Myanmar’s economy and society. It also aims to highlight the
importance of balanced development that will ensure the naturally functioning
systems within the river continue to support growth and development, as they
have for hundreds of years. It is a culmination of perspectives and inputs from
stakeholders along the river regarding their perceived risks and opportunities.
76
THEAYEYARWADYRIVER
WHATMAKES
UNIQUE?
WHAT MAKES
THE AYEYARWADYRIVER
UNIQUE?
Length 2170 km
Area 413,710km2
91% lies in Myanmar, 5% in China, 4% in India
ABIGRIVER
THEBASIN
The ARB (Ayeyarwady River Basin) is the largest
and most economically significant river in Myanmar
It covers 61% of the country’s landmass.
5 of Myanmar’s largest cities are in the basin
Yangon
5 million
Mandalay
1.2 million
NayPyiDaw
0.9 million
Pathein
237,000
Monywa
182,000
PEOPLE
The basin is home to 66% of Myanmar’s population (34 million people)
On average, there is 79 people per km2 living in the basin
The majority of these people live in the Ayeyarwady’s agricultural heartlands,
the dry zone and the delta - particularly in Yangon and Mandalay
BIODIVERSITY
One of the most biologically diverse regions in the world
around 1,400 mammal, bird and reptile species
More than 100 of these species are globally threatened
388 identified species of fish
50% of these fish endemic to the Ayeyarwady River
Each time the river is surveyed, new species are discovered
MAGWAY
MANDALAY
SAGAING
PYAY
BAGO
NAYPYIDAW
UNIQUENATURALDYNAMICS
The natural dynamics of the Ayeyarwady, particularly its sediment dynamics, are of
particular interest. The Ayeyarwady is the 22nd largest river in the worldin terms of water
THESEDIMENTLIFELINE
Between 261 and 354 million tons per year of suspended sediment coarse through the
Ayeyarwady’s waters every year. This sand, stone and rock are a lifeline and the main
enabler of the Ayeyarwady’s nutrient rich delta, which is home to the
largest concentration of people, fish and fields of rice paddies in the country.
INVALUABLESERVICES
The river has many other natural dynamics or ecosystem services including provisioning,
regulating and supporting cultural services that take place in the Ayeyarwady Basin,
supporting irrigation, inland water transport, fisheries, aquaculture, potable water
supply, biodiversity, and ecotourism. These were recently quantified in the State of the
Basin Report (2018) to be worth 2-7 billion USD a year. These ecosystem services equate
to between 6% and 16% of GDP per capita in Myanmar. Additional significant values not
calculated include the value of hydropower as well as positive and negative impacts of
floods on the river system and ecosystem services. This document attempts to further
identify what values these ecosystem services provide towards the economy and
society of Myanmar.
THISHUGERIVER
COVERSANAREA
10% LARGER
THANGERMANY
34MILLION
PEOPLELIVEIN
THERIVER’SBASIN
MYANMAR’SLARGEST
CITIESAREINTHE
AYEYARWADYBASIN
NEW SPECIES
AREDISCOVERED
EVERYTIME
THERIVERISSURVEYED
SERVICESPROVIDED
BYTHERIVERCONTRIBUTE
2-6BILLIONUSD
TOMYANMAR’SECONOMY
EVERYYEARCHINWINRIVER
AYEYARWADYRIVER
98
The Ayeyarwady is at the heart of many activities in Myanmar. In each of its sub basins, a unique set of
needs and risks is associated with the river. As part of the WWF-funded Ayeyarwady River in the Economy
Project, a series of workshops were held in each of these sub basins (upper, Chindwin, middle, lower and
delta) to identify the goods and services provided by the river, but also to identify how these demands are
putting the river at risk, and ultimately the sectors themselves, which depend on a healthy Ayeyarwady.
30 participants attended each workshop. They represented a diversity of backgrounds; academia,
government, private sector and civil society. They identified the goods and services provided to their
sub basins that depend on their stretch of river. These include provisioning services such as water for
irrIgation, regulating services such as flood recession ponds for fish spawning, supporting services such as
safe habitats for biodiversity, and cultural services for tourism, as well as spiritual sites along the basin.
They were also asked to identify how these sectors providing goods and services are impacting upon the
river system, creating risks for the stretch of river in their region.
The top risks identified in each sub-basin are shown in the following figure. These include flooding,
mining, bank erosion, pollution, sedimentation, navigation challenges, river morphology changes, and fish
species degradation.
In addition to the individual risks identified within each localized sub-basin, there are also interlinked
risks from up to downstream.
For instance, increased mining or deforestation in the upper catchment may shift the sediment dynamics
downstream, causing bank erosion or sedimentation. As the Ayeyarwady flows through the country,
hydropower dams trap sediment and may reduce the valuable ecosystem services provided to flood
recession agriculture in its lower stretches. Because of this sedimentation the river widens and becomes
more shallow, causing significant challenges for boats navigating the waters. The use of pesticides and
fertilizers upstream also causes pollution for those using the river downstream. These are just a few of the
ways that risks are transported geographically throughout the entire river basin.
It is of paramount importance that economic development plans taking place, especially
in the upper reaches of the Ayeyarwady and its tributaries, take into account their impacts on the users
downstream. This includes not only water availability and quality, but also the timing of flows and
sediment dynamics. For instance, the flooding risks identified by stakeholders in the lower basin may
be due to a sediment deficit in the upper reaches. This in turn limits the flow of sediment to the delta,
contributing to its sinking. The lack of sediment may be due to a number of factors including regulation
of flows from dams, the trapping of actual sediment from dams or perhaps the extraction of sediment
for the construction sector. Individually these impacts may be small, but cumulatively they may result in
a vulnerable delta, the home of the majority of Myanmar’s population, infrastructure, and fish and rice
production.
A CONNECTED AYEYARWADY
Interdependencyofsectorsandsub-basinswiththeAyeyarwadyRiver
DELTA
LOWER
CHINDWIN MIDDLE
UPPER
BANKEROSION
FLOODING
RIVERMORPHOLOGYCHANGES
POLLUTION
NAVIGATIONPROBLEMS
MINING
SEDIMENTATION
BIODIVERSITYDEGRADATION
FISHSPECIESDEGRADATION
14% 17%
16%
31%
22% 43%
17%12%
12%
16%
23%
19%
19%
31%
8%
RISKSFACINGTHE
SUBBASINS
AYEYARWADY
20%
18%
21%
23%
18%
1110
SUPPORT DIFFERENT
SECTORS OF THE ECONOMY?
CULTURAL
TOURISM
NAVIGATION
PROVIDING
REGULATING
SUPPORTING
SPIRITUAL EXPERIENCES &
SENSE OF PLACE
WATER
RAW MATERIALS MINING
HYDROPOWER
AGRICULTUREFISH, FOOD &
OTHER AQUATIC PRODUCTS
URE
HABITAT
FLOOD MODERATION
DREDGING
ENGINE
OVERFISHING
INDUSTRY
USE OF PESTICIDES AND FERTILIZERS
FISHERIES
THE
AYEYARWADY
RIVER
HOW DO DIFFERENT SECTORS DEPEND
ON THE AYEYARWADY?
AND WHAT ARE THE
IMPACTS?
POLLUTION
SEDIMENTATION
EROSION
FLOODING
ECOSYSTEM
FRAGMENTATION
BIODIVERSITY
DEFORESTATION
FISHREDUCTION
LOSS
1312
AGRICULTURE
AgricultureisoneofthemostsignificantcontributorstotheMyanmareconomy.
Agriculturerepresents:32%oftheGDPand17.5%ofthetotalexportearnings
Agricultureemploys:61.2%ofthelabourforce(FAO2009-2010).
The huge value that Myanmar receives from the agricultural sector is largely due
to the ecosystem services provided by a healthy Ayeyarwady River. For instance, according to the State of the Basin
Report, the estimated annual economic values attributable to irrigation water supplies (provisioning services) is 62 to
121 million USD in the dry season and is 29 to 50 million USD due to yield gains in the monsoon season. This means
that the clean water provided from the Ayeyarwady alone contributes 6% to the value of agricultural exports from
Myanmar. This is without considering the value of other ecosystem services including sediment nutrients for example.
Rice is the most cultivated crop in Myanmar (8 million hectares) but mainly during the monsoon season (with
other crops grown during the dry season). Beans and pulses are the second most grown crop in the country (4
million hectares), most of which are produced during the cool and dry season. Other important crops include maize,
groundnuts, sesame, sunflower, and culinary crops (2.5 million hectares). The ARB is home to the majority of crops
grown in the country
RICEPADDY OILSEEDS CEREALS PULSES TOBACCO
&BETEL
TEA COFFEE SUGARCANE FRUIT FIBRE
Restofthecountry
AyeyarwadyBasin
WHERE ARE MYANMAR’S CROPS GROWN?
AGRICULTURE AT RISK
Myanmar’smostproductiveagriculturalzones(theAyeyarwadyBasin)areintheareasmostvulnerabletoclimatechange.Inthefaceof
potentialcyclones,flooding,intenserainfall,extremedaytemperatures,droughtorsealevelrise,thecountry’sfuturefoodsupplyisatrisk.
For example, the main paddy producing region is the coastal and delta zone, particularly the Ayeyarwady basin, while the intensive
mixed upland crop area is in the central dry zone. Under climate change projections, the coastal zone will experience increased
rainfall during a shorter and more intense wet season, leading to flooding . At the same time, sea level rise will increase inundation
and lead to greater salinity intrusion in coastal areas. Cyclones will exacerbate these effects through associations with flooding,
as well as wind damage. In the dry zone, drought risk will rise, particularly as the length of the monsoon shortens. This will be
complemented by increased heat stress, as maximum temperatures may rise up to 4°C by 2051.
CYCLONE FLOOD INTENSE
RAINFALL
LOWHIGH
NONEMEDIUM
WHAT AND WHERE ARE THE CLIMATE
CHANGE RISKS FACING MYANMAR?
EXTREME DAY
TEMPERATURES
DROUGHT SEA LEVEL RISE
2852870ha
11602493.65ha
234341ha
5330936.8ha 535176ha
842735ha
343989ha
8517506.1ha 224954.9ha
80024.1ha
1534ha
93535.2ha 11812ha
10069ha
308493ha 889859.9ha
796590.1ha
738267.5ha
17283.95ha
1514
RICE
PULSES
LIVESTOCK
Riceaccountsfor43%ofallagriculturalproductionvalue,nearly5timesashighasthesecondhighestvalue
commodity,poultry.ThisistobeexpectedgiventhewaterresourceadvantagesofMyanmarandthefertile
delta.
When summed across all regions and states, it is evident that the Ayeyarwady Basin is a
key region for agricultural production and is therefore rightfully referred to as the ‘rice
bowl’ of Myanmar, with 71% of the country’s rice production coming from the Ayeyarwady
Basin even though it represents only 69% of sown area of paddy in the basin. This means
that rice grown in the delta is more productive per hectare than elsewhere in the basin.
ThesecondmostcultivatedcropinMyanmararepulses,agroupthatcomprisesblackgram,greengram,
chickpeas,pigeonpeas,andothergrams.
India (58% importers of all legume exports) and China (18% importers of all legume
exports) are the largest buyers of Myanmar beans and pulses, resulting in Myanmar being
the second largest global exporter of beans and pulses, after Canada.
Pulses are now the top foreign exchange earner among agriculture commodities,
representing 12% of total export value from the country (1.4 billion USD) .
In FY2011, the area planted to pulses was estimated at 4.4 million hectares (about 55% of
the area planted to paddy). They are sown mainly in the central dry zone, followed by delta,
hilly, and coastal zones. According to the national agricultural statistics, 96% of all pulses
produced within Myanmar are grown within the Ayeyarwady Basin.
Thelivestockandfisheriessectorcontributed7.4%ofGDPinFY2010.However,outsideofofficialGDP
numbers,livestockisanintegralpartoftheagriculturaleconomy:cattle(andbuffalo)providedraftpower
andruraltransport,dairycattleprovidemilk,andotherlivestockandpoultryprovidefoodandincome.
In 2012, the livestock population comprised 14 million cattle, 3.1 million buffaloes, 4.6
million sheep and goats, 10.3 million pigs, 172 million chickens, 15 million ducks, and
1.9 million other poultry. Estimated
per capita consumption of meat is 11.3
kilograms (compared to 88 kg per
person annually in Germany), milk (15.3
kilograms), and eggs (52) per year.
Cattle are densely populated in the
central dry zone (Middle Ayeyarwady),
making up about 50% of the country’s
total. The value of animal products
exports was $47.1 million in FY2012, a
large proportion from hides. This is small
compared to the $641.7 million of fish
exports (marine and freshwater) and
$2600 million of crop exports. However,
official statistics suggest that the growth
in livestock and dairy production has
been much faster than for crops. This is
indicated by the figure below, showing
the dramatic increase of meat production.
Within the meat sector, chicken has
grown fastest (accounting for 995,380
MT, or 51.3% of total meat produced in
FY2010), followed by pork and beef. Milk
production has also made large gains.
2001
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
2005 2008 2011 2013
THOUSANDTONS
MEATPRODUCTIONINMYANMAR
1716
FISHERIES
MYANMAR INLAND FISHPOND AREA ACCORDING TO
REGIONS
Likerice,fishisamajorcontributortoMyanmar’snationaldiet,estimatedtoaccountfor
approximately60%ofanimalproteinintake.Nationally,thelivestockandfisheriessector
contributed7.4%ofGDPinFY2010.
According to national statistics, fisheries provide jobs for approximately 3.2 million people (0.15% of total
employment). The significant value attributed to fisheries, is especially dependent on a healthy Ayeyarwady River.
According to the State of the Basin Assessment, the ecosystem services provided by the River range between 350 to
530 million USD in freshwater capture and 380 to 600 million USD in aquaculture to Ayeyarwady basin.
According to updated statistics, Myanmar fish production is composed of three tiers: one third inland capture fish,
one third marine capture fish and one third aquaculture fish, for a total of 2.9 million metric tons in 2015. According
to these statistics, Myanmar fish production is composed of about 863,000 metric tons or 30% of inland capture
fish, 1,062,000 metric tons or 37% of marine capture fish, and 942,000 metric tons or 33% of aquaculture fish. The
trends in fisheries production in Myanmar are shown below, where marine fisheries have remained relatively stable,
aquaculture has grown at a rapid pace, while capture freshwater fish is believed to have dropped somewhat in the last
few years.
2004
0
50
100
150
200
250
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
AYEYARWADY
YANGON
BAGO
OTHERS
PONDAREA(’000ACRES)
TRENDS IN MARINE CAPTURE FISHERIES,
FRESHWATER FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE
The Ayeyarwady Basin is the most important source of inland fisheries for the country. Both
for wild caught fish but also increasingly for aquaculture as the for example, the Ayeyarwady
Delta now represents 70% (Ayeyarwady and Yangon regions) of all ponds in the country. The
relative importance of the Ayeyarwady is show in the figure below .
The growth of aquaculture (8% a year estimated) in the Ayeyarwady is a risk to the indigenous
species in the basin. This risk is especially acute since there is so little known about the
wild fish in the Ayeyarwady. For instance, the overall number of fish species recorded in
the Ayeyarwady Basin is 388, of which 311 are present in the Myanmar part. The others
being found in India and China. Among the 388 fish species, 193 (50 %) are endemic to the
basin, and 100 (26 %) of the endemics are presently known only from Myanmar. Imported
exotic fish species tend to outcompete the natural, indigenous fish species within a river.
According to the SOBA report on fisheries, “there is very little research around the benefits or
negative impacts of stocking natural water bodies with cultured fish. Fishers complain about
competition between stocked fish and native fish, with a frequent reduction of the wild stock.
In 2007, only 7.4% of the leasable fisheries yield consisted of species originally existing in the
area. This point requires further investigation.”
TOTALCATCH(t)
500,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
capturefreshwaterfish
capturemarinefish
aquaculturefish
1918
In addition to the fish, the Irrawaddy Dolphin is also at risk, and is currently critically
endangered in Myanmar. There are roughly 60 dolphins left in the Ayeyarwady River.
The Irrawaddy Dolphin habitat overlaps strongly with severe threats from growing human
activities. The primary factor responsible for population declines is incidental mortality in
small-scale fisheries, especially gillnets and electro-fishing. Habitat loss and degradation
is also a major contributing threat in many freshwater areas, especially from existing and
planned dams in the Ayeyarwady River, and in coastal estuarine habitats from declining
freshwater flows, increasing commercial vessel traffic and pollution.
“Some fishermen feel that a significant part of this stems from the fishing licenses offered by
the Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Rural Development. The competitive bidding process
and the short-term length of the fishing contracts encourages over-fishing, to the detriment of
both dolphins and the cooperative fisherman.”
THE IRRAWADDY RIVER
WORKINGTOGETHER
One of the potential lifelines for the Irrawaddy Dolphin is cooperative fishing, whereby
fisherman and dolphins work together to catch their fish. Cooperative fishing is also more
effective. In 2006 and 2007, DOF and WCS conducted a study, which found that dolphin-
assisted fishing resulted in fewer empty nets and higher weight and value of the catch.
However, from 2011 to 2013, cooperative fisherman experienced a 17% drop in income. Over
40% of the fishermen say they have no other source of income, while about 38% rely on
additional income from farming. Agricultural income is susceptible to seasonal shocks, which
make it inconsistent from year to year.
THETOURISMLIFELINE
Ecotourism, in the form of tourists going to view the cooperative fishing, one of the only
places in the world where this is practiced, in addition to seeing the endangered Irrawaddy
Dolphin, is hoped will relieve some of the financial pressures on the fishermen, reducing the
need to practice electrofishing. The potential for ecotourism for the dolphins is significant.
The Mandalay Region, where most of the Irrawaddy Dolphin can be found, hosted more than
38 5031 tourists in 2016. Among them, 19 810 tourists used river cruises. Although these
cruises were likely to go to Bagan, there is a potential for dolphin watching to be an additional
activity. If this is the case, the same number of boat tours for dolphin watching could amount
to an income of about 10.5million US$ in 2016.
60IRRAWADDY
DOLPHINS
REMAININTHE
AYEYARWADY
RIVER
DOLPHIN
The Ayeyarwady River is one of
the only places in the world where
dolphins work together with man to
catch fish. Sadly, this age-old alliance
is under threat. Could tourism save
the Irrawaddy Dolphins?
2120
MINING & EXTRACTIVES
Myanmar’snaturalresourcesincludeoilandgas,mineralsincludinggold,silverandcopperand
gemssuchasrubiesandjade.Theextractivesectoraccountedfor6%ofGDP,23.6%ofState
revenueand38.5%ofexportsin2013.
The mining sector is an important driver of economic growth and a source of employment. Artisanal mining is
widespread throughout the Ayeyarwady Basin but is a particularly important income source for many people in the
Upper Ayeyarwady, Middle Ayeyarwady, and the Chindwin Basin.
Mining in the Ayeyarwady Basin is a growing and important part of the Myanmar economy. Sagaing Region and
Mandalay Region are the two areas of the country home to the majority of the mines. Both of these areas are in the
Ayeyarwady Basin, hence the high proportion (87%) of mines that are found within the Ayeyarwady Basin.
AnalysisofremotesensingdatasuggeststhatmininghasexpandedrapidlywithintheAyeyarwadyBasinandnowdirectlyaffectsmore
than740km2.Thisequatestoalmost1%ofdegradationintheChindwinBasinfromminingactivitiesalone.Muchofthisexpansionisinthe
ChindwinRiverBasinoraroundMandalay.
WHERE ARE MYANMAR’S MINES?
AcrossMyanmar,thereare585mines.
509ofthoseareintheAyeyarwadyRiverBasin. 220
63
26 38 40
6 1
209
KAYAHSTATE SHANSTATE KACHINSTATE MONSTATE KAYINSTATE MANDALAY
REGION
SAGAING
REGION
TANINTHARYI
REGION
BAGOREGION
“Mininghasexpandedrapidly
withintheAyeyarwadyBasinand
nowdirectlyaffectsmorethan740
km2.Thisequatestoalmost1%of
degradationintheChindwinBasin
fromminingactivitiesalone.”
2322
“Eventhesesmall-scaleindustriesare
responsibleforsignificantdeforestation
withinthebasin,duetotheirneedto
burnthecrudeoilforrefiningintomore
appropriatefuels.”
OIL & GAS
MyanmarisanimportantnaturalgasandpetroleumproducerinAsia.Itis
hometooneoftheworld’soldestpetroleumindustries,withitsfirstcrudeoil
exportsdatingbackto1853.Today,thecountryisoneofthemajornaturalgas
producersintheAsiancontinent.
According to DICA, Myanmar has received more than US$69 billion in cumulative foreign direct
investment (FDI) as of January 2017. The oil and gas sector attracted over US$22.4 billion in FDI
which is approximately 32% of the total FDI from 154 permitted foreign enterprises. This makes
the country’s oil and gas sector one of the top sectors for FDI in the country, followed by power,
manufacturing, transport and communication.
Most of the oil & gas blocks exist within the Ayeyarwady river basin, with the majority of the remaining
wells situated offshore.
The oil and gas within the Ayeyarwady basin is home to a large artisanal sector. Myanmar has a long
history of artisanal oil extraction, with individuals or small informal enterprises extracting oil with
equipment sometimes as simple as a bucket and rope. There is existing artisanal extraction in several oil
field areas that provides important primary or secondary livelihoods for communities.
Hand-gouged wells are widespread in Ngashan Taung in Kyaukpadaung Township, Mandalay Region;
Kalay township in Sagaing Region; and Myaing, Pauk, Gangaw and Minhla Townships in Magwe
Region. In Minhla, there are tens of thousands of small-scale operations scattered over a couple of
dozen or more sites. Most operations occupy plots as small as 5 to 10 square feet. The government
needed to introduce tighter safety and environmental standards to the hand-gouged oil business.
These small-scale industries are responsible for significant deforestation within the basin, due to their
need to burn the crude oil for refining into more appropriate fuels. This creates negative impacts on the
river basin as a whole, including reduced water retention and increased erosion of sediments into the
Ayeyarwady River.
2524
INDUSTRY & MANUFACTURING
Theeconomiccontributionoftheindustrysectortotheeconomyrosesubstantiallyfrom26.5%
in2010to34.4%in2014,whiletheshareofagricultureshrankfrom36.8%to27.9%inthe
sameperiod. Myanmar’sindustrialsectorhasgrownrapidlyinrecentdecades.
Most of the industrial activity is located close to the major urban and transport centres in the Ayeyarwady Basin,
especially the large cities of the Middle Ayeyarwady, the Lower Ayeyarwady, and the Ayeyarwady Delta.
Myanmar’s industrial sector is diverse and includes activities, such as food and beverages; clothing and apparel;
construction materials; personal, electrical, and household goods; printing and publishing; industrial raw materials;
minerals and petroleum products; agricultural and industrial machinery/equipment; transport vehicles; and electrical
goods.
Food and beverages are the major industrial sub-sector in Myanmar, accounting for approximately 62% of the
national industrial operation. Major food and beverage developments are located in Yangon and Mandalay, garment
manufacturing in Pathein and Yangon, and mineral and petroleum product manufacturing in Monywa and Mandalay.
Small-scale enterprises make up 80% of the industrial sector
within the Ayeyarwady Basin. While small-scale industry
dominates smaller population centres, it is also prominent in
urban centres, making up 42% of the total industry in Yangon
and 50% in Mandalay. Small-scale industries can cause
significant water pollution risk due to inadequate treatment
processes and lack of knowledge to mitigate pollution risks.
MANDALAY
SHAN
NAYPYITAW
KAYAH
BAGO
YANGON
KAYIN
MON
TANINTHARYI
AYEYARWADY
MAGWAY
RAKHINE
CHIN
SAGAING
KACHIN
KACHIN
REGISTEREDINDUSTRYINSTATESANDREGIONSACROSS
MYANMAR
SAGAING
SHAN
CHIN
MANDALAY
MAGWAY
RAKHINE
NAYPYITAW
KAYAH
BAGO
YANGON
KAYIN
AYEYARWADY
MON
TANINTHARYI
SMALL-SCALE MEDIUM-SCALE LARGE-SCALE
1334 172 53
350
273
5
1306
172
68
142
25
478
2822
659
90
168
189
998
718
21
2645
502
132
180
347
1025
2057
608
152
324
164
3271
3165
761
3885
2692
2307
347
125
3167
1732
4856
773
1955
1346
“Small-scaleindustriescan
causesignificantwater
pollution.”
2726
“Manyoftheactivitiestaking
placewithinthebasinhinder
navigation,includingindustrial
pollutionortheregulation
oftributariesthroughdam
infrastructure.”
NAVIGATION
Myanmarhasanextensiverivernetworkthatiswellpositionedtoservethe
country’smaintransportcorridors,includingthelinkbetweenYangonand
Mandalay.However,inlandwatertransportisfacingunprecedentedpressuresat
themoment.
Main rivers are difficult to navigate because of shallow waters during the dry season, shifting navigation
channels, and lack of terminal facilities. However, growth projections remain high, and the sector has been
identified as a major bottleneck for increased trade both within the country and within the region.
The Ayeyarwady Basin is home to 70% of all navigable rivers in Myanmar. The majority of navigation
is represented by transport between Yangon, Mandalay and Bawmaw. Passenger transportation is the
highest in Ayeyarwady Region and cargo transportation is the highest in Mandalay Region.
According to the AIRBM Synthesis State of the Basin Report, “in the last few years there has been
a significant reduction in waterborne freight transport. A number of factors are perceived to have
contributed to this including a backlog of dredging works, slow loading and unloading times, and the
growth of land-based transport.”
Navigation is impacted by changes in river flows, sediment transport, the seasonality of flow and the onset
of the monsoon season. Many of the activities taking place within the basin hinder navigation including
industrial pollution or the regulation of tributaries through dam infrastructure. Other activities such as
sand mining in areas that require dredging are seen as supporting navigation. However, the sediment
dynamics of areas where sand or gravel is being extracted, and the impact downstream is less understood.
2928
CONSTRUCTION
Constructionaccountsforaround5.2%ofGDPoraround18%ofindustrialoutput.
Evenwiththissmalleconomiccontribution(directly),thesectorhasdevastating
impactsontheriver.
However, the construction sector has important linkages with other
sectors of the economy. For instance, approximately 30% of outstanding credit from the banking sector is
for construction and real estate. Therefore, not only is employment affected with a slowing or uncertain
construction sector, but the banking sector sees risks too. “Improving regulations in the construction
sector, and ensuring that these are enforced, is critical though needs to be managed carefully. Better
regulations could improve urban planning, the quality of construction, environmental sustainability, and
the welfare of urban dwellers. Ensuring a phased approach that is predictable and transparent is critical
to avoid big shocks, which may be difficult for the economy to recover from given the importance of the
construction sector.” (World Bank, 2016)
More importantly for the Ayeyarwady River, the construction sector is a driver for the extraction of sand.
Typically, coarse sand and gravel is targeted for extraction, as these are the most desirable construction
materials. Approximately 10 million tonnes of gravel and sand a year are reportedly extracted from these
sites for construction. This is believed to be a gross underestimate of the total sand extraction from
the Ayeyarwady River (estimated to be 20 million tonnes, or approximately 10% of the total estimated
sediment budget of 220 million tonnes). Since the majority of construction and development is taking
place in the basin, it is safe to assume the majority of the buildings, roads and bridges being built are using
sand from the river. Given the volumes of materials recorded during the survey, the level of development
in Myanmar, and the large volumes of sand and gravel required for construction, road building and dam
building, it is highly likely that continued risks such as bank erosion and the increasing vulnerability of a
sinking delta will continue.
Sandmininghasdevastating
impactsontheriver.
3130
ManyofMyanmar’sflagshiptourist
destinationsaresituatedwithinthe
AyeyarwadyBasin.
TOURISM
TOURIST
ATTRACTIONS
IN THE
AYEYARWADY
BASIN
AreportbytheWorldTourismandTravelCouncilclaimsthatemploymentinthetraveland
tourismsectorwithinMyanmar,includingjobsindirectlysupportedbytheindustry,hasgrownby
6.5%reaching877,500jobsin2014.
Their estimates include the direct contribution of travel and tourism to GDP at 3%, while together with the indirect
contribution; the total contribution of tourism to GDP is 6.6%. In terms of employment, the total contribution is 5.8%.
From a tourism perspective, there are six flagship destinations in the country. These are Yangon, Bagan, Mandalay,
Inle Lake, Kyaikhtiyo (Golden Rock) and Ngapali Beach in Rakhine State. Emerging areas include the mountains
of Putao, Nagaland, Hakha and Natmataung (Mt. Victoria) in Chin State, and Loikaw in Kayah State and the Myeik
Archipelago in Tanintharyi Division in Southeastern Myanmar. Many of the above locations are situated within the
Ayeyarwady River Basin (Yangon, Bagan, Mandalay). The following figure shows the tourist arrival to four main sites
in 2016, highlighting the importance of a healthy Ayeyarwady River Basin for tourism.
m^ p p ml o q
YANGON
INLELAKE
BAGAN
MANDALAY
RiverBasin
385031(30%)
178787(14%)
283877(22%)
428370(34%)
3332
As a result of the increasing wealth of people in Myanmar as the country develops, electricity
consumption has increased significantly in the last five years at an annual average growth rate of
15.7%. Therefore, increasing energy production is at the forefront of the development pathway for
the country. Hydropower is a potential solution to the energy deficit.
There are 29 existing hydropower plants in Myanmar with a total installed capacity of 3,298
MW, and six power plants under construction with a total installed capacity of 1,564 MW. The
remaining 51 projects with total installed capacity of 42,968 MW are in various stages of pre-
construction development.
The Ayeyarwady Basin (including Chindwin) currently has 17 hydropower plants in existing
and under construction, 31 planned and 1 suspended. The Ayeyarwady has the highest installed
capacity in operation (2,100 MW). If all proposed hydropower projects are built, the Ayeyarwady
and Thanlwin would have around 28,100 MW (58% of all hydropower) and 16,500 MW (34%)
respectively.
According to the WWF Alternative Power Sector Vision for Myanmar, it is critically important
that decision makers within Myanmar take into consideration the potential unintended
consequences of hydropower development in the upper catchments of Myanmar on the lower and
delta catchments of the country. In particular, regulation of flow, connectivity of species including
fish for migration and the flows of sediment need to be understood. The “Business as Usual,”
Myanmar Energy Master Plan places great emphasis on deriving energy from coal-fired power
plants and big dams, despite the long-term risks and environmental damage associated with these
methods. However, to meet this increasing demand, WWF have indicated that technically a 100%
renewable, greener future is possible. WWF believes that Myanmar has the chance to leapfrog the
fossil fuel-based electricity era that started over 130 years ago and embrace the renewable energy
era.
ENERGY
InMyanmar,thetotalinstalledcapacityinthefirsthalfof2017was5389MW,ofwhich3255
MW(60.4%)fromhydropower,1920MW(35.6%)fromgas,120MW(2.2%)fromcoal,94.3
MW(1.75%)formdiesel.
Currently,justone-thirdofthepopulationhasaccesstotheelectricity.Electricityaccessibilityofstatesandregionsisshownbelow. Yangon
hasaccesstoelectricitywithover60%.Kayah,NayPyiTawandMandalayhaveabout30-40%accesstoelectricity.
SHAN
AYEYARWADY
KAYAH
KACHIN
KAYIN
TANINTHARYI
NAYPYITAW
CHIN
RAKHINE
MON
SAGAING
BAGO
MAGWAY
MANDALAY
31% 24% 27% 23% 39%69% 33% 48% 27% 15% 43% 12% 36%8%12%
YANGON
UPPER AYEYARWADY
CHINDWIN BASIN
MIDDLE AYEYARWADY
LOWER AYEYARWADY
EXISTING1 PLANNED12 SUSPENDED1
EXISTING1 PLANNED6
EXISTING12 PLANNED11
EXISTING3 PLANNED2
HYDRPOWERPROJECTSINTHE
AYEYARWADYSUBCATCHMENTS
INSTALLEDENERGYCAPACITYIN
MYANMAR
WWFhaveindicatedthat
technicallya100%renewable,
greenerfutureispossible.
DIESEL
HYDROPOWER
COAL
GAS
3534
“WWFcareaboutpeopleandnature
beingabletothrivealongsideeach
other.Thisiswhatwebelievein
Myanmartoo.Wewouldliketo
supporteconomicandsocialgrowth
inMyanmarwithoutjeopardizingthe
integrityoftherivers.”
CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS ON THE
VALUE OF THE AYEYARWADY RIVER TO THE
ECONOMY AND SOCIETY OF MYANMAR
A CALL TO ACTION
Through this document it is evident that the Ayeyarwady Basin provides the majority of economic value to the country.
It is also evident that some of these sectors are contributing to degradation of ecosystem goods and services provided
by the river. Although economic growth and social development are needed in Myanmar, this does not have to be at
the cost of the river health.
WWF care about people and nature being able to thrive alongside each other. This is what we believe in Myanmar too.
We would like to support economic and social growth in Myanmar without jeopardizing the integrity of the rivers. The
Ayeyarwady River provides goods and services to enable a majority of economic and social activities that take place
within Myanmar. Without these services of the river, the economy of Myanmar would not be the same. With looming
decisions around hydropower development, industrial expansion, fisheries and in general, economic growth in the
country, decision-makers cannot afford to operate in isolation. Without a common vision for the future, all sectors
will compete with one another and miss opportunities for holistic efficient development. Highlighting major risks
and opportunities for different sectors through a series of short narratives and numbers, shows what is at stake when
taking a narrow view of planning – and all that can be gained through a more thoughtful, long-term and integrated
approach.
Our call to action for a sustainable, free-flowing Ayeyarwady Basin is as follows:
Finally, the coordination of strategies and plans is of critical importance as Myanmar continues on its economic
growth and social development trajectory. This is true not only for the Government of Myanmar, but also for
development assistance in the country. River basin planning in particular has an important role to play in supporting
the coordination of an entire spectrum of economic activities – from mining to tourism and from the upper catchment
to the delta. It is important that this planning takes place in a coordinated manner to ensure that the unique position
of the Ayeyarwady River, home to the endemic Irrawaddy Dolphin, productive fisheries, industry and mining is able to
continue providing the basis of the Myanmar economy.
Economicplanningdecisionmakersneedtoinvestigatetheconnectionsandtrade-offsbetweendifferent
developmentpathwaysandhowtheyinteractwiththenaturalcapitalandecosystemservicesthatthepeopleof
Myanmardependon.
Privatesectorneedtoensurethattheyactasgoodwaterstewardsinthecountry,eventhoughinsomecases
thereisuncertaintyintermsofregulations.Reducingwater-relatedrisks,whetherphysical,regulatoryor
reputationalinthebroaderAyeyarwadyBasiniscriticalfortheirlong-termbusinessambitions.
Civilsocietyneedtocontinuetheirdemandfortransparentdialoguebetweendecision-makers,privatesector
andcivilsocietyregardingpreferableoptionsforsustainabledevelopmentintheAyeyarwadyBasin.
3736
“WITHOUT THE SERVICES
PROVIDED BY THE RIVER,
MYANMMAR’S ECONOMY WOULD
CEASE TO EXIST AS IT DOES TODAY.
BUT ACTIVITIES ON THE RIVER
HAVE MANY NEGATIVE IMPACTS.”
3938
Reports
Asian Development Bank (ADB) Economics Working Paper Series
No. 470. 2015. Myanmar’s Agricultural Sector. http://www.themimu.
info/sites/themimu.info/files/documents/Ref_Doc_Myanmars_
Agricultural_Sector_ADB_Dec2015.pdf
Ayeyarwady Integrated River Basin Management Project (AIRBM), 2017.
State of the Basin (SOBA) Synthesis Report.
Ketelsen, T., Taylor, L., Mai Ky Vinh, Hunter, R., Johnston, R., Shaoyu
Liu, Kyaw Tint, Khin Ma Ma Gyi and Charles, M. 2017. State of
Knowledge: River Health in the Ayeyarwady. State of Knowledge Series
7. Vientiane, Lao PDR, CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and
Ecosystems.
MoEE, Power Development Opportunities in Myanmar, Myanmar
Investment Forum 2017, 6 - 7 June 2017.
World Bank, 2016. Myanmar Economic Monitor. Accessed: http://www.
worldbank.org/en/country/myanmar/publication/myanmar-economic-
monitor-december-2016
World Bank. 2016. Assessing Farm Production Economics: Myanmar.
Assesst_Farm-Production-Economics_WB_Feb2016.pdf
World Bank. 2017. Myanmar Economic Monitor. Accessed: http://
documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/271301485510327677/
pdf/112317-WP-MEM-Jan27-17-final-PUBLIC.pdf
WWF, 2017. Alternative vision for Myanmar’s power sector. Accessed:
https://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/alternative_vision_
for_myanmar_s_power_sector_draft.pdf
Websites and news reports
IIED, 2013. “IIED shines a light on small-scale mining”
Extractives Industry Transparency Initiative (EITI), Myanmar.
Accessed: https://eiti.org/myanmar
Mekong Flows, Biodiversity. Accessed 9 April 2018: http://mekongriver.
info/biodiversity
Myanmar Times. 2016. Can eco-tourism save the Ayeyarwady’s
dolphins? https://www.mmtimes.com/lifestyle/13738-can-eco-tourism-
save-the-ayeyarwady-dolphins.html
WCS. 2017. Dolphins in Myanmar. Accessed: https://programs.wcs.org/
myanmar/Wildlife/Dolphin.aspx
WWF, 2017. Accessed 9 April 2018. http://www.wwf.org.mm/en/news_
room/publications/?uNewsID=303391
Databases
Observatory of Economic Complexity, https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/
visualize/tree_map/hs92/export/mmr/show/0713/2016/
Myanmar Information Management Unit, (MIMU) http://themimu.info/
BIBLIOGRAPHY
40
Why we are here
To stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and
to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature.
http://www.wwf.org.mm/en/
ဧရာဝတီမြစ်နှင့်
မြန်မာ့စီးပွားရေး
REPORT
MM
2018
အခန်း (၁) - မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသတွင် နေထိုင်
လုပ်ကိုင်နေသူများ၏ ရှုထောင့်မှ
အန္တရာယ်နှင့် အခွင့်အလမ်းများ
မာတိကာ
အကျဉ်းချုပ်		
နိဒါန်း	 ၄
ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ကို တမူထူးခြားစေသည့် အချက်များ	 ၆
ဆက်နွယ်ချ ိတ်ဆက်နေသော မြစ်ဧရာ	 ၈
ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းငယ်များ ကြုံတွေ့နေရသည့် ဘေးအန္တရာယ်များ	 ၉
	
ကဏ္ဍအမျ ိုးမျ ိုးက ဧရာဝတီကို မှီတည်နေပုံ 	၁၀	
စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေး	 ၁၂
ရေလုပ်ငန်းများ	 ၁၆
ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင်	 ၁၈
သတ္တုတွင်းနှင့် တူးဖော်ရေးလုပ်ငန်းများ	 ၂၀
ရေနံနှင့် သဘာဝဓာတ်ငွေ့	 ၂၃
စက်မှုနှင့် ထုတ်လုပ်မှုလုပ်ငန်းများ	 ၂၄
ရေကြောင်းပို့ဆောင်ရေး	 ၂၇
ဆောက်လုပ်ရေး	 ၂၈
ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်း	 ၃၁
စွမ်းအင် 	 ၃၂
နိဂုံးချုပ် လေ့လာတွေ့ရှိမှုများ	 ၃၅
ကျမ်းကိုးစာရင်း	 ၃၉
Published inMay 2018 by WWF-World Wide Fund For Nature
(Formerly World Wildlife Fund). Any reproduction in full or
in part must mention the title and credit the above-mentioned
publisher as the copyright owner.
© Text 2018 WWF
All rights reserved
ISBN 978-2-940443-06-2
WWF is one of the world’s largest and most experienced
independent conservation organizations, with over
5 million supporters and a global Network active in
more than 100 countries.
WWF’s mission is to stop the degradation of the planet’s
natural environment and to build a future in which humans
live in harmony with nature, by: conserving the world’s
biological diversity, ensuring that the use of renewable natural
resources is sustainable, and promoting the reduction of
pollution and wasteful consumption.
54
နိဒါန်း
မြန်မာနိုင်ငံရှိ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်သည် အလွန်ထူးခြားသော မြစ်
တစ်စင်း ဖြစ်ပါသည်။ ၎င်းသည် အရှေ့တောင်အာရှရှိ လွတ်လပ်စွာ
စီးဆင်းနေဆဲ အကြီးဆုံး မြစ်များထဲမှ တစ်စင်း ဖြစ်သည်။
လွတ်လပ်စွာ စီးဆင်းနေဆဲ မြစ်ဟူသော ခေါင်းစဉ်အောက်တွင်
ရှိသည့် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံကို ဖြတ်၍ စီးဆင်းနေသော အခြား တစ်ခု တည်းသော မြစ်မှာ သံလွင်မြစ်ပင် ဖြစ်သည်။
လွတ်လပ်စွာ စီးဆင်းနေဆဲ မြစ်ဆိုသော်လည်း သဘာဝအတိုင်း မပြောင်းလဲဘဲ စီးဆင်းနေသော မြစ်တော့
မဟုတ်ချေ။ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်သည် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ စီးပွားရေးအတွက် အင်ဂျင်တစ်လုံးလိုပင် ဖြစ်သည်။ ၎င်းသည်
မြန်မာ ပြည်သူများအတွက် ဆန်စပါးနှင့် ငါးကို ပေးသည့်အပြင် မြစ်ကြောင်းတလျှောက် မြစ်အထက်ပိုင်းနှင့်
အောက်ပိုင်းဒေသ ကုန်စည်ကူးသန်း ရောင်းဝယ်ရေးအတွက် သယ်ယူပို့ဆောင်ရေးကိုလည်း အထောက်အကူ
ပြုသည်။ ထို့အပြင် ရေအားလျှပ်စစ် ထုတ်လုပ်သော တာဘိုင်များအတွက်လည်း ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ရေကို
အသုံးပြုကြသည်။ ထို့အတူ အိမ်၊ ရုံး၊ လမ်းများ ဆောက်လုပ်ရာတွင်လည်း မြစ်ထဲမှ သဲကို လိုအပ်သည်။
ဤစာတမ်းတွင် ဧရာဝတီမြစ်သည် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ လူမှုရေးနှင့် စီးပွားရေးတွင် မတူညီသော နည်းလမ်းများဖြင့်
အရေးပါနေကြောင်း ဖော်ပြသွားမည် ဖြစ်သည်။ ထို့ပြင် မြစ်အတွင်း နှစ်ပေါင်းထောင်ချ ီရှိခဲ့သော သဘာဝအတိုင်း
လည်ပတ်နေသည့် စနစ်များကို မထိခိုက်စေဘဲ ဖွံ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်မှုကို ထောက်ပံ့ပေးနိုင်သည့် ဘက်မျှသော ဖွံ့ဖြိုး
တိုးတက်မှု၏ အရေးပါပုံကို မီးမောင်းထိုးပြလိုသော ရည်ရွယ်ချက်လည်း ပါဝင်သည်။ ယင်းသည် မြစ်ကြောင်း
တလျှောက်ရှိ ဆက်စပ်ပတ်သက်သူများ တွေ့ကြုံလေ့လာခဲ့ရသော ဘေးဖြစ်နိုင်ချေများနှင့် အခွင့်အလမ်းများဆိုင်ရာ
ရှုမြင်သုံးသပ်မှု ပေါင်းစုံကို စုစည်းထားခြင်းလည်း ဖြစ်သည်။
76
98
ဧရာဝတီမြစ်သည် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံရှိ အမျ ိုးမျ ိုးသောလုပ်ငန်းများ၏ နှလုံး​သွေးကြော ဖြစ်သည်။ ၎င်း၏ မြစ်ဝှမ်းငယ်တစ်ခုချင်းစီ
တွင်လည်း မတူထူးခြားသော လိုအပ်ချက်များနှင့် ဘေးဖြစ်နိုင်ချေများ ရှိနေသည်။ WWF က ရန်ပုံငွေချထား ဆောင်ရွက်သည့်
စီးပွားရေးအတွက် ဧရာဝတီမြစ်၏ အခန်းကဏ္ဍ စီမံကိန်း၏ တစ်စိတ်တစ်ပိုင်းအဖြစ် မြစ်ကြီး၏ မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသငယ်များ
(အထက်ပိုင်း၊ ချင်းတွင်း၊ အလယ်ပိုင်း၊ မြစ်အောက်ပိုင်းနှင့် မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသများ) တွင် မြစ်က ထောက်ပံ့ပေးနေသော
ကုန်ပစ္စည်းနှင့် ဝန်ဆောင်မှုများကို ဖော်ထုတ် သတ်မှတ်ရန်နှင့် ယင်းတို့ကို လိုလားမှုကြောင့် မြစ်နှင့် ယင်း၏အပေါ်
မှီခိုနေရသော ကဏ္ဍများအပေါ် သက်ရောက်စေနိုင်မှုတို့ကို ဖော်ထုတ်သိရှိရန် ဆွေးနွေးပွဲများ ပြုလုပ်ခဲ့ပါသည်။
ဆွေးနွေးပွဲတစ်ခုချင်းတွင် အစိုးရဘက်မှအရာရှိများ ၊ ပညာရေးနယ်ပယ်၊ ပုဂ္ဂလိကအဖွဲ့အစည်းများ၊ လူမှုစီးပွားရေးဆိုင်ရာ
အဖွဲ့အစည်းများမှ လူအယောက် ၃၀ ခန့် ပါဝင်ခဲ့ကြသည်။ ဆွေးနွေးပွဲတွင် တက်ရောက်လာသူများကို ၎င်းတို့နေထိုင်ရာ
ဒေသရှိ စီးပွားရေးကဏ္ဍများက မြစ်မှ ထောက်ပံ့ပေးသော အရာဝတ္ထုနှင့် ဝန်ဆောင်မှုများအပေါ် မည်ကဲ့သို့ မှီတည်နေသည်ကို
ဖော်ထုတ် ဆွေးနွေးစေခဲ့သည်။ ယင်းတွင် ရေပေးဝေရေး အတွက် မြစ်ရေကဲ့သို့သော ထောက်ပံ့ပေးသည့် ဝန်ဆောင်မှု၊ ငါးများ
ပေါက်ပွားရန် ရေလွှမ်းလွင်ပြင်များ ကဲ့သို့သော ထိန်းညှိပေးသည့် ဝန်ဆောင်မှုများ၊ ဇီဝမျ ိုးစုံမျ ိုးကွဲများ အတွက် ဖူလုံသော
စားကျက်မြေများ ကဲ့သို့သော ပံ့ပိုးပေးသည့် ဝန်ဆောင်မှုများ၊ ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းများနှင့် မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသတလျှောက် ကိုးကွယ်
ယုံကြည်မှုဆိုင်ရာ ဌာနများအတွက် ယဉ်ကျေးမှု အမွေအနှစ်ဆိုင်ရာ ဝန်ဆောင်မှုများ စသည်တို့ပါဝင်သည်။
တက်ရောက်လာသူများကို ၎င်းတို့နေထိုင်ရာဒေသရှိ မြစ်ကြောင်းတလျှောက် ဘေးဖြစ်နိုင်ချေများ ဖန်တီးမှုနှင့်
အရာဝတ္ထုများနှင့် ဝန်ဆောင်မှုများ ထောက်ပံ့ပေးနေသည့် အထက်ပါ ကဏ္ဍများက မြစ်စီးဆင်းမှု စနစ်အပေါ် မည်သို့
သက်ရောက်မှု ရှိသည်တို့ကို ဖော်ထုတ်ဆွေးနွေးစေခဲ့သည်။
မြစ်ဝှမ်းငယ် တစ်ခုချင်းစီတွင် ဖော်ထုတ်ရရှိမှု အများဆုံးဖြစ်သော ပြဿနာများကို ပုံတွင် ဖော်ပြထားသည်။ ထိုပြဿနာများ
တွင် ရေကြီးရေလျှ ံခြင်း၊ ကမ်းပါးပြိုခြင်း၊ ညစ်ညမ်းခြင်း၊ နုန်းအနည် ပို့ချခြင်း၊ ရေကြောင်းသွားလာရေး ခက်ခဲလာခြင်း၊
မြစ်ကြောင်းပြောင်းလဲခြင်းနှင့် ငါးမျ ိုးစိတ်များ လျော့နည်းလာခြင်းတို့ ပါဝင်သည်။
မြစ်ဝှမ်းငယ်တစ်ခုချင်းစီအတွင်းရှိ ကဏ္ဍများမှ သက်ရောက်သော ဆိုးကျ ိုးများသာမက မြစ်ညာမှသည် မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ထိ
အပြန်အလှန် ဆက်စပ်နေမှုများလည်း ရှိသည်။ ဥပမာအားဖြင့် မြစ်အထက်ပိုင်းတွင် သစ်တောပြုန်းတီးမှုသည်
မြစ်အောက်ပိုင်းတွင် နုန်းအနည်ပို့ချမှု သို့မဟုတ် ကမ်းပြိုမှုများကို ဖြစ်ပေါ်စေသည်။ ထိုသို့သော နုံး အနည်အနှစ်များ ပို့ချမှုက
မြစ်ပြင်ကို ကျယ်၍ တိမ်လာစေကာ ရေပြင်တွင် လှေများ သွားလာရန် ခက်ခဲစေသည်။ မြစ်ညာပိုင်းတွင် ဓာတုမြေဩဇာများနှင့်
ပိုးသတ်ဆေးများ အသုံးပြုမှုက မြစ်အောက်ပိုင်းနေသူများအတွက် ရေထုညစ်ညမ်းမှုကို ဖြစ်စေသည်။ စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေးအတွက်
ကောင်းကျ ိုး ဖြစ်စေနိုင်သော ရေလွှမ်းလွင်ပြင်များဖြစ်ပေါ်မှုကိုလျော့နည်း စေသည်။ ဤအချက်များသည် မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသကြီး
တလျှောက် ပထဝီအနေအထားအရ သယ်ဆောင်လာပေးသည့် ဘေးဖြစ်နိုင်ချေ နည်းလမ်းများထအနက် အနည်းငယ်သာ
ရှိသေးသည်။
စီးပွားရေးဖွံ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်မှုစီမံကိန်းများသည်အထူးသဖြင့်ဧရာဝတီမြစ်နှင့်မြစ်လက်တက်များရှိရာအထက်ပိုင်းတွင်တည်ရှိပါက
ပိုမို၍ အလွန်အရေးကြီးပြီး မြစ်အောက်ပိုင်းတွင် နေထိုင်သူများအပေါ် သက်ရောက်နိုင်မှုများကို ထည့်သွင်းစဉ်းစားရပါမည်။
ထိုသို့ သက်ရောက်စေမှုများတွင် ရေရရှိနိုင်မှုနှင့် ရေအရည်အသွေးတို့အပေါ်သာ သက်ရောက်သည်မဟုတ်ဘဲ ရေစီးဆင်းမှု
နှုန်းများ၊ နုံးအနည်အနှစ်ပို့ချမှု ဖြစ်စဉ်များအပေါ်တွင်ပါ သက်ရောက်စေသည်။ လတ်တလောတွင် မြစ်အောက်ပိုင်းရှိ
ဆက်စပ်ပတ်သက်သူများက ဖော်ထုတ်ပြောပြခဲ့သော ရေကြီးရေလျှ ံမှု ဆိုးကျ ိုးများမှာ မြစ်အထက်ပိုင်းရှိ နုံးအနည်အနှစ်
ပို့ချမှုများကြောင့် ဖြစ်နိုင်သည်။ ထိုသို့မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသသို့ နုံးပို့ချမှုနည်းသွားသောကြောင့်ဒေသသည် ပင်လယ်ထဲသို့
နိမ့်ဆင်းလာ၍ နစ်မြုပ်လာနိုင်သည်။ နုံးပို့ချမှုနည်းလာရခြင်းမှာ ဆည်များကြောင့် ရေစီးဆင်းမှုနည်းလာခြင်း၊ နုံးများသယ်
ယူပို့ချမှုကိုဆည်များ မှဟန့်တားထားသကဲ့သို့ဖြစ်ခြင်း၊ ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးလုပ်ငန်းများအ တွက်သဲ များထုတ်ယူခြင်း စသော
အကြောင်းများစွာပါဝင်သည်။ ထိုအချက်တစ်ခုချင်းစီသည် သိသာစွာ သက်ရောက်မှု မရှိသော်လည်း အချက်အားလုံး
တပြိုင်တည်းဖြစ်နေသောကြောင့် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ လူဦးရေအများစုနေထိုင်ရာ၊ အခြေခံအဆောက်အအုံများ၊ ဆန်စပါး နှင့်ငါးများ
ထုတ်လုပ်ရာ မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသသည် ထိခိုက်ဆုံးရှုံးမှုဖြစ်နိုင်သော ဒေသဖြစ်လာသည်။
ဆက်နွယ်ချိတ်ဆက်နေသော မြစ်ဧရာ
ဧရာဝတီမြစ်အတွင်းရှိ ကဏ္ဍများနှင့်မြစ်ဝှမ်းငယ်များ အပြန်အလှန်မှီတည်နေပုံ
UPPER
14% 17%
16%
31%
22% 43%
17%12%
12%
16%
23%
19%
19%
31%
8%
20%
18%
21%
23%
18%
ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းထဲတွင် ကြုံတွေ့နေရသော ထိခိုက်ဆုံးရှုံးစေနိုင်သော ဆိုးကျ ိုး
အခြေအနေများ
ကမ်းပြိုခြင်း
ရေကြီး၊ ရေလျှံခြင်း
မြစ်ကြောင်းပြောင်းလဲခြင်း
ရေထုညစ်ညမ်းခြင်း
ရေလမ်းသွားလာရေးပြဿနာများ
သတ္တုတွင်း လုပ်ငန်းများ
မိုင်းလုပ်ငန်းများ
ဇီဝမျ ိုးစုံမျ ိုးကွဲများ လျော့နည်းလာခြင်း
ငါးမျ ိုးစိတ်များ လျော့နည်းလာခြင်း
မြစ်အလယ်ပိုင်း
ချင်းတွင်းမြစ်ဝှမ်း
မြစ်အောက်ပိုင်း
မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်
1110
SUPPORT DIFFERENT
SECTORS OF THE ECONOMY?
URE
ကဏ္ဍအမျ ိုးမျ ိုးက
ဧရာဝတီမြစ်အပေါ် မှီတည်နေပုံ
၎င်းတို့ထံမှ သက်ရောက်မှုများ
ရေထုညစ်ညမ်းခြင်း
နုံးအနည်အနှစ်
ပြဿနာများ
ကမ်းပြိုခြင်း
ရေကြီးရေလျှံခြင်း
ဂေဟစနစ်ပျက်စီးလာခြင်း
ဇီဝမျ ိုးစုံမျ ိုးကွဲများ
ဆုံးရှုံးခြင်း
တောပြုန်းခြင်း
ငါးများ နည်းပါးလာခြင်း
ယဉ်ကျေးမှု
ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်း
ယုံကြည်ကိုးကွယ်မှုဆိုင်ရာ
တွေ့ကြုံခံစားမှုများ
ထောက်ပံ့ပေးခြင်း
စည်းမျဉ်းဥပဒေများ
ပံ့ပိုးပေးခြင်း
ရေ
ရေကြောင်းသွားလာရေး
ရေအားလျှပ်စစ်
သောင်တူး၍
ရေကြောင်းရှင်းခြင်း
ဓါတ်မြေသြဇာနှင့်
ပိုးသတ်ဆေးများ
အသုံးပြုခြင်း
အင်ဂျင်
အလွန်အကျွံ ငါးဖမ်းခြင်း
သတ္တုတွင်းလုပ်ငန်း
စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေး
စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်း
ရေလုပ်ငန်းများ
ကုန်ကြမ်းပစ္စည်းများ
ငါး၊ အစားအစာနှင့်
အခြားရေထွက်ပစ္စည်းများ
ရေကြီးရေလျှံမှု
ထိန်းပေးခြင်း
ကျက်စားရာနယ်မြေများ
ဧရာဝတီမြစ်
1312
စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေး
စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေးသည် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ အဓိကစီးပွားရေးကဏ္ဍများအနက် တစ်ခုဖြစ်ပြီး
ပြည်တွင်း အသားတင် ထုတ်ကုန် တန်ဖိုး၏ ၃၂%၊ ပို့ကုန်များမှ ရရှိသော ဝင်ငွေ
စုစုပေါင်း၏ ၁၇.၅% နှင့် အလုပ်အကိုင် အခွင့်အလမ်း ၆၁.၂% ထောက်ပံ့ပေးနိုင်သည်။
(FAO ၂၀ဝ၉-၂၀၁၀)
စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေးကဏ္ဍ ဤသို့ တန်ဖိုးမြင့်တက်နေရခြင်းမှာ ကောင်းမွန်သော ဧရာဝတီမြစ်မှ
ထောက်ပံ့ပေးသော ဂေဟစနစ် ဝန်ဆောင်မှုများကြောင့် ဖြစ်သည်။ ဥပမာအားဖြင့်
ဧရာဝတီမြစ်မှဆည်မြောင်းရေပေးဝေရေးလုပ်ငန်းများသို့ ထောက်ပံ့ပေးသောရေသည်
တန်ဖိုးအားဖြင့် နွေရာသီတွင် ခန့်မှန်းခြေ အမေရိကန်ဒေါ်လာ ၆၂ မှ ၁၂၁သန်းအတွင်း
ဖြစ်ပြီး မိုးရာသီတွင် အမေရိကန်ဒေါ်လာ ၂၉ မှ ၅၀ သန်းခန့်အတွင်း ရှိသည်ဟု
ခန့်မှန်းထားသည်။ ဤတန်ဖိုးကိုကြည့်ခြင်းဖြင့် မြစ်မှပံ့ပိုးပေးသောသန့်ရှင်းသောရေတစ်မျ ိုးတည်းသည်ပင် စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေး
ထွက်ကုန်တန်ဖိုး၏၆%ခန့်ထောက်ပံ့ပေးနေကြောင်းသိနိုင်သည်။ဤသည်မှာမြစ်မှထောက်ပံ့ပေးသောရေတစ်ခုတည်းကိုသာ
တွက်ချက် ထားခြင်းဖြစ်ပြီး အခြားထောက်ပံ့ပေးသော အရာများ (ဥပမာအားဖြင့် သဲ) ကို ထည့်သွင်းတွက်ချက်ထားခြင်းမဟု
တ်သေးချေ။
ဆန်စပါးသည် အဓိကစိုက်ပျ ိုးသီးနှံဖြစ်ပြီး ဧရိယာအားဖြင့်ဟက်တာပေါင်း ၈ သန်းခန့်တွင် စိုက်ပျ ိုးကြသည်။ အထူးသဖြင့်
မိုးရာသီတွင် အများဆုံးစိုက်ပျ ိုးသည်။ အခြားကောက်ပဲသီးနှံများကိုမူ နွေနှင့်ဆောင်းရာသီတွင် စိုက်ပျ ိုးသည်။ ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုးကို
ဒုတိယအများဆုံး (ဧရိယာဟက်တာပေါင်း ၄သန်းခန့်) စိုက်ပျ ိုးကြပြီး နွေနှင့်ဆောင်းရာသီတွင်အများဆုံးစိုက်ပျ ိုးသည်။ အခြား
ပြောင်းဆန်၊ မြေပဲ၊ နေကြာ၊ နှမ်းနှင့် အခြားသီးနှံများကိုလည်း စိုက်ပျ ိုးကြ၍ ဧရိယာပေါင်း ဟက်တာ ၂.၅သန်းခန့်ရှိသည်။
ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းသည် ကောက်ပဲသီးနှံများ အများဆုံးစိုက်ပျ ိုးရာဒေသ ဖြစ်သည်။
မြန်မာ့ ကောက်ပဲသီးနှံများ ထွက်ရှိရာ နေရာ
စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေးကဏ္ဍ ထိခိုက်ဆုံးရှုံးစေနိုင်သော အခြေအနေ
ထွက်နှုန်း အများဆုံးဖြစ်သော ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသသည် ရာသီဥတုပြောင်းလဲမှုဒဏ်ကို အခံရဆုံးသော ဇုံထဲတွင်
တည်ရှိနေသည်။ နောင်တွင်ဖြစ်လာနိုင်သော ဆိုင်ကလုန်းများ၊ ရေကြီးရေလျှ ံမှု၊ မိုးရေချ ိန် မြင့်တက်ခြင်း၊ နေ့အပူချ ိန်
မြင့်တက်ခြင်း၊ မိုးခေါင်ခြင်း၊ ပင်လယ်ရေမျက်နှာပြင် မြင့်တက်လာခြင်း အစရှိသော ရာသီဥတုပြောင်းလဲမှုများကြောင့် နိင်ငံ၏
စားနပ်ရိက္ခာ ကဏ္ဍသည် ထိခိုက်လာနိုင်သည်။
ဥပမာအားဖြင့်ဆန်စပါးအဓိကစိုက်ပျ ိုးရာဒေသများသည်ကမ်းရိုးတန်းဒေသနှင့် မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသတို့ဖြစ်ပြီး အခြားကောက်
ပဲသီးနှံများအများဆုံးစိုက်ပျ ိုးရာဒေသများသည် အလယ်ပိုင်းမိုးနည်း ရပ်ဝန်းတွင် တည်ရှိသည်။ သို့သော်ရာသီဥတုပြောင်းလဲ
မှုများကြောင့် ကမ်းရိုးတန်းဒေသများတွင် အချ ိန်တိုတောင်း၍ ဆိုးရွားပြင်းထန်သောမိုးရာသီတွင် မိုးရေချ ိန်လက်မတိုးလာမှုကို
ကြုံတွေ့လာရမည်ဖြစ်ပြီး ရေလွှမ်းမိုးမှုဖြစ်စဉ်များလည်း တိုးပွားလာမည်။ တစ်ချ ိန်တည်းမှာပင် ပင်လယ်ရေမျက်နှာပြင်
မြင့်တက်လာမှုကြောင့် ပင်လယ်ရေ ဝင်ရောက်မှု ပြဿနာများလည်း ပိုမိုဖြစ်လာမည်။ ဆိုင်ကလုန်းမုန်တိုင်းများကလည်း
ရေကြီးရေလျှ ံမှုများနှင့် လေတိုက်နှုန်းပြင်းထန်မှုများကို ပိုမိုဆိုးရွားလာစေမည်။ အလယ်ပိုင်းမိုးနည်းရပ်ဝန်းဒေသတွ
င်မူ မိုးခေါင်ရေရှားပါးမှုများ ပိုမိုပြင်းထန်လာမည်ဖြစ်ပြီး မိုးရာသီကာလသည်လည်း တိုတောင်းလာမည်ဖြစ်သည်။
အပူချ ိန်များလည်း မြင့်တက်လာမည်ဖြစ်ပြီး ၂၀၅၁ ခုနှစ်တွင် အပူချ ိန် ၄ ဒီဂရီဆဲလ်စီးယပ် မြင့်တက်လာမည်ဟု ခန့်မှန်းရသည်။
ဆိုင်ကလုန်း ရေကြီးရေလျှံမှု
မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ မည်သည့်နေရာများတွင်
မည်ကဲ့သို့သော ရာသီဥတုပြောင်းလဲမှုများကို
ကြုံတွေ့နေရပါသနည်း။
2852870ha
11602493.65ha
234341ha
5330936.8ha 535176ha
842735ha
343989ha
8517506.1ha 224954.9ha
80024.1ha
1534ha
93535.2ha 11812ha
10069ha
308493ha 889859.9ha
796590.1ha
738267.5ha
17283.95ha
ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသ
ကျန်ဒေသများ
ဆန်စပါး ဆီထွက်
သီးနှံများ
ကောက်နှံပင် ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုး ကွမ်းနှင့်
ဆေးရွက်ကြီး
လက်ဖက် ကော်ဖီ ကြံ ချည်မျှင်
မြင့် နိမ့်
လတ် မရှိ
နေ့အပူချိန်လွန်ကဲခြင်း မိုးခေါင်ခြင်း
မိုးရေချိန်မြင့်တက်ခြင်း
ပင်လယ်ရေမျက်နှာပြင်
မြင့်တက်ခြင်း
သစ်သီး
1514
ဆန်စပါး
ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုး
မွေးမြူရေး
ဆန်စပါးသည် စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေးထုတ်ကုန် တန်ဖိုး စုစုပေါင်း၏ ၄၃% ရှိပြီး ဒုတိယ တန်ဖိုးအမြင့်ဆုံးဖြစ်သည့်
မွေးမြူရေးထုတ်ကုန်ထက် ၅ ဆ ပိုသည်။ ဤသို့ဖြစ်ရခြင်းမှာ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ ရေသယံဇာတ ကြွယ်ဝမှုနှင့်
စိုက်ပျ ိုးမြေကောင်းသော မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသတို့ကြောင့် ဖြစ်သည်။
ပြည်နယ်နှင့်တိုင်းဒေကြီးအားလုံး ပေါင်းကြည့်မည်ဆိုပါက ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ် ဒေသသည် စိုက်ပျ ိုး
ရေးအတွက် အလွန်အရေးကြီးကြောင်း သိနိုင်သည်။ မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသသည် မြစ်ဝှမ်းတစ်ခုလုံးရှိ စပါး
စိုက်ပျ ိုးမြေ စုစုပေါင်း၏ ၆၉% သာ ပိုင်ဆိုင်သော်လည်း နိုင်ငံ့ ဆန်စပါး စိုက်ပျ ိုးထုတ်လုပ်မှု၏ ၇၁%
ကို ထုတ်လုပ်ပေးနိုင်နေသဖြင့် မြန်မာ့ “ဆန်အိုးကြီး” ဟု တင်စား ခေါ်ဝေါ်ထိုက်သည့်ဒေသ ဖြစ်သည်။
ယင်းကိုကြည့်ခြင်းဖြင့် ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသ၏ တစ်ဧက ထွက်နှုန်းသည် ကျန်ဒေသများထက်
ပိုများကြောင်း သိနိုင်သည်။
မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် ဒုတိယအများဆုံး စိုက်ပျ ိုးသော သီးနှံမှာ ကုလားပဲ၊ ပဲစင်းငုံ အစရှိသော ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုး
ဖြစ်သည်။ အိန္ဒိယ (ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုးတင်ပို့မှု၏ ၅၈%) နှင့် တရုတ် (ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုး တင်ပို့မှု၏ ၁၈%) တို့သည်
မြန်မာ့ ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုးကို အဓိက ဝယ်ယူ တင်သွင်းသည့် နိုင်ငံများဖြစ်ပြီး မြန်မာနိုင်ငံသည် ကမ္ဘာပေါ်တွင်
ကနေဒါနိုင်ငံ၏ နောက်တွင် ပဲတင်ပို့မှု ဒုတိယ အများဆုံး နိုင်ငံအဖြစ် ရပ်တည်နေသည်။
ယခုအခါ ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုးသည် စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေးထုတ်ကုန်များအနက် နိုင်ငံခြားဝင်ငွေ အများဆုံး ရရှိသည့် အမျ ိုးအစား
ဖြစ်ပြီး ပို့ကုန်စုစုပေါင်း၏ ၁၂% (အမေရိကန်ဒေါ်လာ ၁.၄ ဘီလီယံခန့်) ရှိသည်။
၂၀၁၁ ခုနှစ်တွင် ပဲစိုက်ပျ ိုးသော ဧရိယာ ဟက်တာပေါင်း ၄.၄ သန်းခန့် (စပါးစိုက်ပျ ိုးသော ဧရိယာ၏
၅၅% ခန့်) ရှိသည်ဟု ခန့်မှန်းချက်များအရ သိရသည်။ ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုးကို အလယ်ပိုင်း မိုးနည်း ရပ်ဝန်း ဒေသ
တွင်အများဆုံးစိုက်ပျ ိုးကြပြီး မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေ သ၊ တောင်ပေါ်ဒေသများနှင့် ကမ်းရိုးတန်းဒေ သများ
တွင်လည်း စိုက်ပျ ိုးကြသည်။ တစ်နိုင်ငံလုံးဆိုင်ရာ စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေး စာရင်းဇယားများအရ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံအတွင်
စိုက်ပျ ိုးထုတ်လုပ်သည့် ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုး၏ ၉၆% ကို ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသတွင် စိုက်ပျ ိုးခြင်း ဖြစ်သည်။
၂၀၁၀ ခုနှစ်တွင် မွေးမြူရေးနှင့် ရေလုပ်ငန်းကဏ္ဍသည် နိုင်ငံ့ ဂျ ီဒီပီ၏ ၇.၄% ရှိသည်။ သို့ရာတွင်
တရားဝင် ဂျ ီဒီပီ ကိန်းဂဏန်းများအပြင် မွေးမြူရေးလုပ်ငန်းသည် စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေးလုပ်ငန်းနှင့် တသားတည်း
ဆက်စပ်နေကာ - နွား (နှင့်ကျွဲ) သည် ခွန်အားဖြင့် လုပ်ဆောင်ရမည့်ကိစ္စများကို လုပ်ဆောင်ပေးခြင်းနှင့်
ကျေးလက်ဒေသများတွင် သယ်ယူပို့ဆောင်ပေးခြင်း၊ နို့နှင့် နို့ထွက်ပစ္စည်းများ ထောက်ပံ့ပေးခြင်း
စသည်တို့ဖြင့် လူသားတို့ကို အကျ ိုးပြုပေးသည်။ ထို့ပြင် အခြားမွေးမြူရေးသတ္တဝါများသည်လည်း
အစားအစာနှင့် ဝင်ငွေတိုးပွားစေခြင်းဖြင့် လူသားတို့ကို အကျ ိုးပြုသည်။
၂၀၁၂ ခုနှစ် စာရင်းအရ မွေးမြူရေးလုပ်ငန်းများတွင် နွား ၁၄ သန်း၊ ကျွဲ ၃.၁ သန်း၊ သိုးနှင့် ဆိတ် ၄.၆ သန်း၊ ဝက်
၁၀.၃ သန်း၊ ကြက် ၁၇၂ သန်း၊ ဘဲ ၁၅ သန်းနှင့် အခြားမွေးမြူရေးကြက်များ ၁.၉ သန်း ရှိကြောင်း သိရသည်။
လူတစ်ဦးသည် တစ်နှစ်လျှင် အသား ၁၁.၃ ကီလိုဂရမ် (ဂျာမနီနိုင်ငံတွင် လူတစ်ဦးလျှင် နှစ်စဉ်စားသုံးသော
အသားဂရမ် ၈၈ ကီလိုဂရမ်)၊ နို့ ၁၅.၃ ကီလို ဂရမ်နှင့် ဥအမျ ိုးမျ ိုး ၅၂ လုံးခန့် စားသုံးကြောင်း ခန့်မှန်း
ကြသည်။
နွားမွေးမြူရေးကို ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်း အလယ်ပိုင်း အပူပိုင်း
မိုးနည်းရပ်ဝန်း ဒေသများတွင် အများဆုံးလုပ်ကိုင်ကြပြီး
တစ်နိုင်ငံလုံး စုစုပေါင်း၏ ၅၀% ကျော်ဖြစ်သည်။
၂၀၁၂ ခုနှစ်တွင် မွေးမြူရေးထွက်ကုန်ပစ္စည်းများ
တင်ပို့ရာမှ အမေရိကန် ဒေါ်လာ ၄၇.၁သန်း ရရှိခဲ့သည်။
ဤပမာဏသည် ငါးပုဇွန်များ (ရေချ ိုနှင့် ပင်လယ်ငါးများ)
တင်ပို့ရာမှ ရရှိသော အမေရိကန်ဒေါ်လာ ၆၄၁.၇သန်း
နှင့် ကောက်ပဲသီးနှံများ တင်ပို့ရာမှ အမေရိကန် ဒေါ်လာ
သန်းပေါင်း၂၆၀ဝ နှင့် နှိုင်းယှဉ်လျှင် နည်းပါးသည်။
သို့ရာတွင် တရားဝင် ထုတ်ပြန်ချက်များအရ မွေးမြူရေးနှင့်
နို့နှင့် နို့ထွက်ပစ္စည်းများ ကဏ္ဍသည် ကောက်ပဲသီးနှံ
ကဏ္ဍနှင့် နှိုင်းယှဉ်လျှင် ပိုမိုလျင်မြန်စွာ ဖွံဖြိုး တိုးတက်
လာခဲ့သည်။ ဤအချက်ကို ဖော်ပြပါပုံကို ကြည့်ခြင်းဖြင့်
သိနိုင်သည်။ ပုံတွင် အသားထုတ်လုပ်မှုသည် နှစ်အလိုက်
လျင်မြန်စွာ တိုးလာကြောင်း သိနိုင်သည်။ အသား
ထုတ်လုပ်မှု ကဏ္ဍတွင် ကြက်သားသည် ထုတ်လုပ်မှု
အများဆုံး ဖြစ်ပြီး ၂၀၁၀ ခုနှစ်တွင် ၉၉၅၃၈၀ တန် (အသား
ထုတ်လုပ်မှု စုစုပေါင်း၏ ၅၁.၃%) ဖြစ်သည်။ ဒုတိယနှင့်
တတိယ အများဆုံးတို့မှာ ဝက်နှင့် အမဲသားတို့ ဖြစ်သည်။
နို့နှင့် နို့ထွက်ပစ္စည်း ထုတ်လုပ်မှု ကဏ္ဍသည်လည်း
အရေးကြီးသော အခန်းကဏ္ဍမှ ပါဝင်နေသည်။
2001
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1
2005 2008 2011 2013
တန်ပေါင်းထောင်ဂဏန်း
မြန်မာနိုင်ငံရှိ မွေးမြူရေးကဏ္ဍမှ အသားထုတ်လုပ်မှု
1716
ရေလုပ်ငန်း
မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ တိုင်းဒေသကြီးအလိုက် ရေလုပ်ငန်းမွေးမြူရေးလုပ်ငန်းများ
ဆန်စပါးကဲ့သို့ပင် ငါး သည် မြန်မာ့ စားနပ်ရိက္ခာ ကဏ္ဍတွင် အဓိကနေရာမှပါဝင်ပြီး
တိရစ္ဆာန် ပရိုတင်းဓာတ် စားသုံးမှု၏ ၆၀% ခန့်ရှိသည်။ တစ်နိုင်ငံလုံးအတိုင်းအတာဖြင့်
ကြည့်လျှင်၂၀၁၀ ခုနှစ်တွင် မွေးမြူရေးနှင့် ရေလုပ်ငန်းကဏ္ဍသည် နိုင်ငံ၏ အသားတင်
ကုန်ထုတ်လုပ်မှု၏ ၇.၄% ဖြစ်သည်။
တရားဝင်စစ်တမ်းထုတ်ပြန်ချက်များအရ ရေလုပ်ငန်းမှ လူဦးရေ ၃.၂သန်းခန့်
(ဝ.၁၅%)အတွက် အလုပ်အကိုင်အခွင့်အလမ်းများရရှိစေခဲ့ သည်။ ကောင်းမွန်သောမြစ်သည် ရေလုပ်ငန်းများ အပေါ်
များစွာအကျ ိုးပြုသည်။ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်း အခြေအနေ ဆန်းစစ်လေ့လာမှု အစီရင်ခံစာအရ မြစ်မှ ရေလုပ်ငန်း အပေါ်
အကျ ိုးပြုခြင်းသည် တန်ဖိုးအားဖြင့် ရေချ ိုငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်းတွင် အမေရိကန်ဒေါ်လာ သန်းပေါင်း ၃၅၀ မှ ၅၃၀ အတွင်းရှိပြီး
ရေလုပ်ငန်းမွေးမြူရေးများတွင် အမေရိကန်ဒေါ်လာ သန်းပေါင်း ၃၈၀မှ ၆၀ဝ အတွင်း ရှိသည်။
အသစ်ထုတ်ပြန်ထားသော တရားဝင် စစ်တမ်းထုတ်ပြန်မှုများအရ မြန်မာငါးထုတ်လုပ်မှု၏ ၃ပုံ၁ပုံသည် ကုန်းတွင်းပိုင်း
ငါးဖမ်း လုပ်ငန်းများမှ လည်းကောင်း၊ အခြား ၃ပုံ၁ပုံသည် ပင်လယ်ဘက်ငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်းများမှလည်း ကောင်း၊ ကျန် ၃ပုံ၁ပုံ
သည်ငါးမွေးမြူရေးလုပ်ငန်းများမှ လည်းကောင်း အဓိက ရရှိသည်။ ၂၀၁၅ခုနှစ်တွင် ဤသုံး မျ ိုးပေါင်းသည် ပမာဏအားဖြင့်
တန်ပေါင်း ၂.၉သန်းခန့် ရှိသည်။ ကုန်းတွင်းပိုင်း ငါးဖမ်း လုပ်ငန်းများမှ တန်ပေါင်း ၈၆၃၀ဝ၀ (ထုတ်လုပ်မှုစုစုပေါင်း၏
၃၀%)၊ ပင်လယ်ဘက်ငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်းများမှ မက်ထရစ်တန်ပေါင်း ၁၀၆၂၀ဝ၀ခန့် (ထုတ်လုပ်မှုစုစုပေါင်း၏ ၃၇%) နှင့်
ငါးမွေးမြူရေးလုပ်ငန်းများမှ မက်ထရစ်တန်ပေါင်း ၉၄၂၀ဝ၀ (ထုတ်လုပ်မှုစုစုပေါင်း၏ ၃၃%) ရရှိသည်။
မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ရေထွက်ပစ္စည်းထုတ်လုပ်မှုအခြေအနေကို ပုံတွင်ဖော်ပြထားသည်။ ပင်လယ်ငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်းသည် နှစ်အလိုက်
အနည်းငယ်သာပြောင်းလဲမှုရှိကြောင်းတွေ့ရသည်။ ငါးမွေးမြူရေး လုပ်ငန်းသည် လျင်မြန်စွာ တိုးတက်ပြောင်းလဲလာ၍
ကုန်းတွင်းပိုင်း ငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်း မှာမူ ပြီးခဲ့သောနှစ်အနည်းငယ်အတွင်း ကျဆင်း လာကြောင်း တွေ့ရသည်။
2004
0
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100
150
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2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
ပင်လယ်ငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်းများ၊ ရေချ ိုငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်းများနှင့်
ငါးပုဇွန်မွေးမြူရေးလုပ်ငန်းများ အခြေအနေ
ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသသည် ကုန်းတွင်း ငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်းများအတွက် အလွန်အရေးပါသော အရင်းအမြစ်ပင် ဖြစ်သည်။
သဘာဝမှ ဖမ်းယူသည့် ငါးလုပ်ငန်းများ အတွက်သာမက ငါးမွေးမြူရေး လုပ်ငန်းများ အတွက်ပါ အရေးပါသည်။ ဥပမာအားဖြင့်
မြန်မာတစ်နိုင်ငံလုံး ငါးမွေးမြူရေးကန်များ၏ ၇၀% သည် မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသ (ရန်ကုန်နှင့် ဧရာဝတီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး) တွင်
ရှိသည်။ နှိုင်းယှဉ်မှုအရ ဧရာဝတီ၏ အရေးပါပုံကို ပုံတွင် ဖော်ပြထားသည်။
ဧရာဝတီတွင် ငါးမွေးမြူရေး လုပ်ငန်း (တွက်ချက်မှုများအရ တစ်နှစ်လျှင် ၈% ခန့်) နှစ်စဉ် တိုးတက်လာနေမှုက မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသရှိ
ဒေသငါးမျ ိုးရင်းများအပေါ် ထိခိုက်ဆုံးရှုံးစေမှုများ ဖြစ်နေစေသည်။ အထူးအားဖြင့် ဧရာဝတီမြစ်အတွင်း သဘာဝအတိုင်း
ရှင်သန်ကျက်စား သည့် ငါးများနှင့် ပတ်သက်သော အချက်အလက်များ နည်းပါးသဖြင့် ထိုသို့ ထိခိုက်ဆုံးရှုံးစေနိုင်မှုသည်
စိုးရိမ်ဖွယ် အနေအထား ဖြစ်နေသည်။ ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင် ဒေသတွင် တွေ့ရသော ငါးမျ ိုးစိတ်ပေါင်း ၃၈၈ မျ ိုးအနက်
၃၁၁ မျ ိုးကို မြန်မာနိုင်ငံဘက်ခြမ်းတွင် တွေ့ရပြီး ကျန်မျ ိုးစိတ်များကို အိန္ဒိယနှင့် တရုတ်ဘက်အခြမ်းတွင် တွေ့ရသည်။
ထိုမျ ိုးစိတ် ၃၈၈ မျ ိုးတွင် ၁၉၃ မျ ိုး (၅၀%) ခန့်သည် ဤမြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသတွင်သာ တွေ့ရခြင်း ဖြစ်ကာ ထိုအထဲတွင် မျ ိုးစိတ်ပေါင်း
၁၀ဝ (၂၆%) ခန့်သည် မြန်မာဘက်ခြမ်းတွင်သာ တွေ့ရခြင်း ဖြစ်သည်။ ပြည်ပမှ တင်သွင်းလာသော ပြင်ပမျ ိုးစိတ် ငါးများက
သဘာဝအတိုင်း ရှင်သန်ကျက်စားနေသော ဒေသမျ ိုးရင်း ငါးမျ ိုးစိတ်များကို လွှမ်းမိုး ခြိမ်းခြောက်လာဖွယ် အနေအထားကို
တွေ့ရသည်။ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်း အခြေအနေ ဆန်းစစ်လေ့လာမှု၏ ရေလုပ်ငန်းအပေါ် ဆန်းစစ်လေ့လာမှု အစီရင်ခံစာတွင်
“သဘာဝအတိုင်း ဖြစ်နေသော အင်း၊ အိုင်၊ ရေကန်များတွင် မွေးမြူရေးငါးမျ ိုးစိတ်များ မွေးမြူခြင်း၏ ကောင်းကျ ိုး ဆိုးပြစ်များကို
လေ့လာမှု ပြုလုပ်ခြင်း နည်းပါးနေသေးကြောင်း တွေ့ရသည်။ ရေလုပ်သားများကလည်း မွေးမြူရေးငါးများနှင့် သဘာဝအတိုင်း
ရှင်သန်ကျက်စားသည့် ငါးများအကြား ရှင်သန်ရေးအတွက် ပြိုင်ဆိုင်ရမှုနှင့် သဘာဝအတိုင်း ရှင်သန်ကျက်စားသည့် ငါးမျ ိုး
ဖမ်းဆီးရမိမှု အကြိမ်ကြိမ် ကျဆင်းခဲ့မှုများကို စောဒကတက်ကြသည်။ ၂၀ဝ၇ ခုနှစ်တွင် အင်းလုပ်ငန်းများမှ ဖမ်းဆီးရမိမှု၏
၇.၄% သာ ထိုအင်းထဲတွင် နဂိုမူလကပင် ရှိနေသော ဒေသမျ ိုးရင်းများ ဖြစ်ကြောင်းသိရသည်။ ဤအချက်သည် ပိုမို အသေးစိတ်
လေ့လာရန် လိုအပ်နေကြောင်း ဖော်ပြနေသည်။” ဟုတင်ပြထားသည်။
500,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
ပင်လယ်ငါးဖမ်းမှု
ရေချ ိုငါးဖမ်းမှု
ငါးပုဇွန်မွေးမြူရေး
မွေးမြူရေးကန်အကျယ်အဝန်းဧရိယာ(*တစ်ထောင်ဧက)
စုစုပေါင်းဖမ်းယူရရှိမှု
အခြားပြည်နယ်နှင့်တိုင်း
ပဲခူး
ရန်ကုန်
ဧရာဝတီ
1918
ငါးများအပြင် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် မျ ိုးသုဉ်းရန် အထူးစိုးရိမ်ဖွယ်ရှိသည့် ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင်များသည်လည်း ခြိမ်းခြောက်မှုများနှင့် ရင်ဆိုင်နေ
ရသည်။ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ထဲတွင် အကြမ်းအားဖြင့် လင်းပိုင်ပေါင်း ၆၀ ခန့်သာ ကျန်ရှိတော့သည်။
ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင်များ ကျင်လည်ကျက်စားရာဒေသများသည် တိုးပွားလာသော လူတို့၏ လုပ်ဆောင်မှုများကြောင့် အန္တရာယ်ဖြစ်စေသော
ဒေသများနှင့် အထူးပင် တထပ်တည်းကျနေသည်။ လင်းပိုင်ကောင်ရေ လျော့ကျလာမှု၏ အဓိကအကြောင်းရင်း မှာ အသေးစား
ငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်းများ၏ ငါးဖမ်းမှုများ (အထူးသဖြင့် ပိုက်တန်းချ ငါးဖမ်းမှုများ၊ လျှပ်စစ်ရှော့ရိုက် ငါးဖမ်းမှုများ) တွင် သေဆုံးရမှုကြောင့်
ဖြစ်သည်။ ရေချ ိုဒေသများတွင် မြစ်ထဲရှိ တည်ရှိပြီးဖြစ်သော ဆည်များနှင့် တည်ဆောက်ရန် စီမံကိန်းရေးဆွဲပြီးဖြစ်သော ဆည်များကြောင့်
စားကျက်နယ်မြေများလျော့ကျလာခြင်းနှင့်ပျောက်ဆုံးခြင်းတို့သည်လင်းပိုင်များအတွက်မျ ိုးသုဉ်းစေနိုင်သောအကြောင်းအရင်းများထဲတွင်
ပါဝင်သည်။ ထို့ပြင် ကမ်းရိုးတန်းဒေသရှိ စားကျက်နယ်မြေများ ပျောက်ဆုံးရခြင်းတွင်မူ ရေချ ိုစီးဆင်းမှု လျော့နည်းလာခြင်း၊ ကုန်သွယ်ရေး
သင်္ဘောများ များပြားလာခြင်းနှင့် ရေထုညစ်ညမ်းလာမှု တို့ကြောင့် ဖြစ်သည်။
အချ ို့သော ရေလုပ်သားများက ဤကဲ့သို့ လင်းပိုင်များအပေါ် အန္တရာယ်ဖြစ်စေရခြင်းမှာ မွေးမြူရေး၊ ရေလုပ်ငန်းနှင့် ကျေးလက်ဒေသ
ဖွံ့ဖြိုးရေး ဝန်ကြီးဌာနမှ ချပေးသော ငါးဖမ်းလိုင်စင်များတွင် သန္ဓေတည်သည်ဟု ယူဆကြသည်။ ငါးဖမ်းလိုင်စင်ရရှိရန် အပြိုင်အဆိုင်
လေလံတင်ရခြင်း၊ငါးဖမ်းခွင့်ကာလတိုတောင်းခြင်းများကြောင့်တရားမဝင်ငါးဖမ်းခြင်းများပိုမိုဖြစ်စေပြီးလင်းပိုင်များနှင့် ရေနေသတ္တဝါများ
သာမက တရားဝင် နည်းလမ်းတကျ ငါးဖမ်းသော ရေလုပ်သားများ၏ စီးပွားရေးကိုလည်း ထိခိုက်စေသည်။
ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင်
အတူတကွပူးပေါင်းလုပ်ဆောင်ခြင်း
ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင်များ၏ လူတို့ကို အကျ ိုးပြုသောအချက်မှာ လူတို့၏ ငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်းများတွင် ပူးပေါင်းပါဝင်၍ ကူညီပေးခြင်းပင် ဖြစ်သည်။
ထိုသို့ ကူညီပေးခြင်းသည် လူတို့အတွက် အလွန်အကျ ိုးရှိသည်။ လူသားတို့နှင့် လင်းပိုင်တို့ ပူးပေါင်း၍ ငါးဖမ်းခြင်းက ငါး ပိုမို ဖမ်းမိ၍
ဝင်ငွေတိုးကြောင်း ၂၀ဝ၆ နှင့် ၂၀ဝ၇ ခုနှစ်တွင် ငါးလုပ်ငန်းဦးစီးဌာန(DOF) နှင့် သားဌက်ထိန်းသိမ်းရေးအဖွဲ့ (WCS) တို့ ပြုလုပ်သော
လေ့လာမှုက တွေ့ရှိခဲ့သည်။ သို့သော် ၂၀၁၁ ခုနှစ်မှ ၂၀၁၃ ခုနှစ်အတွင်း ရေလုပ်သားများ၏ ဝင်ငွေ ၁၇% ခန့် လျော့ကျလာကြောင်း
သိရသည်။ ၄၀% သော ရေလုပ်သားများသည် အခြား ဝင်ငွေရရှိနိုင်သော နည်းလမ်းမရှိဘဲ ၃၈% သော ငါးဖမ်းသမားများသည် လယ်ယာ
စိုက်ပျ ိုးခြင်းကို အပိုဝင်ငွေ ရရှိရန် မှီခိုကြောင်း သိရသည်။ သို့သော် လယ်ယာစိုက်ပျ ိုးခြင်းမှ ရရှိသော ဝင်ငွေသည် နှစ်အလိုက် ရာသီပေါ်
မူတည်၍ ပြောင်းလဲနေပြီး ဝင်ငွေအတည်တကျမရှိချေ။
ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်း
သဘာဝအခြေပြု ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းတွင် လင်းပိုင်နှင့် လူတို့ ပူးပေါင်းငါးဖမ်းမှုကို လက်တွေ့ကြည့်ရှုလေ့လာနိုင်မည့် နေရာသည်
ကမ္ဘာပေါ်တွင် ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသတွင်သာ ရှိသည်။ မျ ိုးသုဉ်းမည့် အန္တရာယ် ကျရောက်နေသော ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင်များကိုလည်း
လာရောက် ကြည့်ရှုနိုင်သည်။ ထိုသို့ကြည့်ရှုခြင်းဖြင့် ရေလုပ်သားများ၏ ဝင်ငွေကိုလည်း အနည်းငယ်တိုးစေ၍ လျှပ်စစ်ရှော့ရှိုက်
ငါးဖမ်းမှုကိုလည်း လျော့စေနိုင်မည် ဖြစ်သည်။ ထိုသို့ သဘာဝအခြေပြု ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းကို ဖွံ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်စေရန် လုပ်ဆောင်သင့်သည်မှာ
သိသာထင်ရှားလှသည်။ ၂၀၁၆ ခုနှစ်တွင် ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင်များ အများဆုံး တွေ့ရသော မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီးတွင် ခရီးသွားဧည့်သည်
၃၈၅၀၃၁ ယောက်ကျော် လာရောက်ကြောင်းသိရသည်။ ထိုသို့ လာရောက်ကြသူများတွင် အပျော်စီးသင်္ဘောများကို အသုံးပြုသူ ၁၉၈၁၀
ခန့် ရှိသည်။ ထိုသင်္ဘောများသည် ပုဂံသို့သွားသော သင်္ဘောများ ဖြစ်သော်လည်း ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင်များကို ကြည့်ရှုရန် အသုံးပြုရန်လည်း
ဖြစ်နိုင်ခြေရှိပေသည်။ ဤသို့ အသုံးပြုခဲ့မည်ဆိုပါက ၂၀၁၆ ခုနှစ်တွင် ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင် ကြည့်ရှုခြင်းမှ ရရှိခဲ့သော ဝင်ငွေသည် အမေရိကန်
ဒေါ်လာ ၁၀.၅ သန်း ဖြစ်ခဲ့ပေမည်။
လင်းပိုင်နှင့် လူတို့ ပူးပေါင်းငါးဖမ်းမှုကို လက်တွေ့
ကြည့်ရှုလေ့လာနိုင်မည့် နေရာသည် ကမ္ဘာပေါ်တွင်
ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသတွင်သာ ရှိသည်။
စိတ်မကောင်းစရာမှာ ထို နှစ်ပေါင်းများစွာ သက်တမ်းရှိ
အလေ့အထသည် ခြိမ်းခြောက်မှုနှင့် ရင်ဆိုင်နေရသည်။
ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းက ဧရာဝတီ လင်းပိုင်များကို ကယ်တင်
နိုင်ပါမည်လော။
2120
မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ သဘာဝအရင်းအမြစ်များတွင် ရေနံနှင့် သဘာဝဓါတ်ငွေ့၊ ရွှေ၊
ငွေ၊ ကြေးနီ အစရှိသော တွင်းထွက်သတ္တုများနှင့် ကျောက်စိမ်း၊ ပတ္တမြားစသော
ကျောက်မျက် ရတနာများ ပါဝင်သည်။ ၂၀၁၃ ခုနှစ်တွင် ဤကဏ္ဍသည် နိုင်ငံ၏ ဂျ ီဒီပီ၏
၆%၊ နိုင်ငံတော် ဝင်ငွေ၏ ၂၃.၆% နှင့် ပြည်ပပို့ကုန် စုစုပေါင်း၏ ၃၈.၅% ဖြစ်သည်။
သတ္တုတွင်း လုပ်ငန်းများသည် နိုင်ငံ၏ စီးပွားရေးအတွက် သာမက ပြည်သူတို့အတွက် အလုပ်အကိုင် အခွင့်အလမ်း များစွာပေး
သော အရေးကြီးသည့် ကဏ္ဍတစ်ခုဖြစ်သည်။ တစ်နိုင်တစ်ပိုင် သတ္တုတွင်းလုပ်ငန်းများသည် ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသ
တစ်ခုလုံးတွင် ပျ ံ့နှံ့တည်ရှိနေပြီး ထိုလုပ်ငန်းများသည် ဧရာဝတီမြစ် အထက်ပိုင်းဒေသများ၊ အလယ်ပိုင်းဒေသများနှင့်
ချင်းတွင်းမြစ်ဝှမ်းရှိ ဒေသခံပြည်သူများ အတွက် အရေးကြီးသော ဝင်ငွေရရှိသည့် အလုပ်အကိုင်များဖြစ်သည်။
ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသရှိ သတ္တုတွင်းလုပ်ငန်းများသည် လျင်မြန်စွာ တိုးတက်လာပြီး နိုင်ငံ၏ စီးပွားရေးတွင်လည်း
အလွန် အရေးပါသည်။ သတ္တုတွင်း အများစုသည် စစ်ကိုင်းတိုင်းဒေသကြီးနှင့် မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီးတို့တွင် တည်ရှိသည်။
ထိုတိုင်းဒေသကြီးတို့သည် ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသတွင် တည်ရှိသောကြောင့် နိုင်ငံ၏ ၈၇% သော မိုင်းလုပ်ငန်းတို့သည်
ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသတွင် တည်ရှိသည်ဟု ဆိုနိုင်သည်။
ကောင်းကင်မှ ရိုက်ယူထားသော မြေပြင်အချက်အလက်များအရ သတ္တုတွင်း လုပ်ငန်းများသည် ဧရာဝတီ
မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသအတွင်း လျင်မြန်စွာ တိုးချဲ့ နေရာယူလာပြီး ယခုအခါတွင် စတုရန်း ကီလိုမီတာပေါင်း ၇၄၀
ကျော်ခန့်ကိုတိုက်ရိုက်ထိခိုက်မှုရှိနေသည်။ထိုပမာဏသည်ချင်းတွင်းမြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်တွင်သတ္တုလုပ်ငန်း
ကဏ္ဍတစ်ခုတည်းကြောင့်ပျက်ဆီးထိခိုက်ရမှု၏၁%နီးပါးမျှနှင့်ညီမျှသည်။တိုးချဲ့လုပ်ကိုင်မှုအများစုသည်
ချင်းတွင်းမြစ်ဝှမ်း သို့မဟုတ် မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး အနီးတဝိုက်တွင် ဖြစ်သည်။
မြန်မာ့ သတ္တုတွင်းများ၏ တည်နေရာ
220
63
26 38 40
6 1
သတ္တုတွင်း လုပ်ငန်းများသည်
မြစ်ဝှမ်းအတွင်း လျင်မြန်စွာ တိုးချဲ့
နေရာယူလာပြီး ယခုအခါတွင်
စတုရန်းကီလိုမီတာပေါင်း ၇၄၀
ကျော်ခန့် ရှိသည်။ ထိုပမာဏသည်
ချင်းတွင်းမြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ရှိ
လျော့နည်းလာသော မိုင်းလုပ်ငန်း
ကဏ္ဍတစ်ခုတည်း၏ ၁% နှင့်
ညီမျှသည်။
သတ္တုတွင်းလုပ်ငန်းများနှင့်
တွင်းထွက်ပစ္စည်းများ
မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ အဝှမ်းတွင် သတ္တုတွင်း
စုစုပေါင်း ၅၈၅ ခုရှိပြီး ၅၀၉ ခုမှာ ဧရာဝတီ
မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသတွင် တည်ရှိသည်။
209
ကယားပြည်နယ် ရှမ်းပြည်နယ် ကချင်ပြည်နယ် မွန်ပြည်နယ်
စစ်ကိုင်းတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
ကရင်ပြည်နယ်
တနင်္သာရီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
ပဲခူးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
2322
“ပိုမိုကောင်းမွန်သော လောင်စာဆီ
ရရှိရေး ရေနံစိမ်းကို ကျ ိုချက်ရန်
ထင်းလိုအပ်မှုကြောင့် အသေးစား
လုပ်ငန်းများသည် မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသအတွင်း
ကြီးမားသော သစ်တောပြုန်းတီးမှုများ
အတွက် တာဝန်ရှိနေသည်။”
ရေနံနှင့် သဘာဝဓါတ်ငွေ့
အာရှတွင် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံသည် အရေးကြီးသော ရေနံနှင့် သဘာဝဓါတ်ငွေ့
ထုတ်လုပ်တင်ပို့သော နိုင်ငံ ဖြစ်သည်။ ၁၈၅၃ ခုနှစ်ကပင် ပထမဆုံး
ရေနံဆီကို တင်ပို့နိုင်ခဲ့သဖြင့် ကမ္ဘာ့ရှေးအကျဆုံး ရေနံချက် စက်ရုံများ
တည်ရှိရာ နိုင်ငံဟုလည်း ဆိုနိုင်သည်။ ယခုအခါတွင် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ သည်
ကမ္ဘာပေါ်ရှိ အဓိက သဘာဝဓါတ်ငွေ့ ထုတ်လုပ်သော နိုင်ငံများတွင်
ပါဝင်သည်။
ရင်းနှီးမြှပ်နှံမှုနှင့်ကုမ္ပဏီများညွှန်ကြားမှုဦးစီးဌာန၏ပြောကြားချက်အရ၂၀၁၇ခုနှစ်ဇန်နဝါရီတွင် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံသည်
ပြည်ပမှ ရင်းနှီးမြှပ်နှံငွေ အမေရိကန်ဒေါ်လာ (၆၉) ဘီလီယံကျော် ရရှိခဲ့သည်။ ရေနံနှင့် သဘာဝဓါတ်ငွေ့ကဏ္ဍသည်
နိုင်ငံခြားကုမ္ပဏီပေါင်း ၁၅၄ ခုထံမှ ရင်းနှီးမြပ်နှံငွေ အမေရိကန် ဒေါ်လာ (၂၂.၄) ဘီလီယံကျော် (ပြည်ပမှ
ရင်းနှီးမြှပ်နှံငွေ စုစုပေါင်း၏ ၃၂% ခန့်) ရရှိခဲ့သည်။ ဤအချက်အလက်အရ ရေနံနှင့် သဘာဝဓါတ်ငွေ့ ကဏ္ဍသည်
ပြည်ပမှ ရင်းနှီးမြှပ်နှံငွေ အများဆုံး ရရှိသော ကဏ္ဍဖြစ်၍ စွမ်းအင်ကဏ္ဍ၊ ထုတ်လုပ်ရေး ကဏ္ဍ၊ သယ်ယူပို့ဆောင်ရေး
ကဏ္ဍနှင့် ဆက်သွယ်ရေးကဏ္ဍတို့ထက် ပိုမိုရရှိကြောင်းသိနိုင်သည်။ ရေနံနှင့်သဘာဝဓါတ်ငွေ့ထုတ်လုပ်ရာနေရာ
အများစုသည် ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းအတွင်းတွင် တည်ရှိ ပြီး ကျန်နေရာများသည် ကမ်းလွန်ဒေသများတွင် တည်ရှိသည်။
ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းအတွင်းရှီ ရေနံနှင့် သဘာဝဓာတ်ငွ​ေ့လုပ်ငန်းသည် ရှေးရိုးစဉ်လာ လက်ယက်တွင်းများ အများစု
ဖြစ်ကြသည်။ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံသည် လက်ယက် ရေနံတွင်းများနှင့် ပတ်သက်၍ ရှည်လျားသည့် သမိုင်းကြောင်း
ရှိပြီး တစ်ဦးချင်းစီ သို့မဟုတ် စနစ်တကျဖွဲ့စည်းထားခြင်း မဟုတ်သည့် အသေးစား လုပ်ငန်းများက ရေပုံးနှင့်
ကြိုးကဲ့သို့သော ရိုးရှင်းလှသည့် ကိရိယာပစ္စည်းများ အသုံးပြုကာ ရေနံကို ထုတ်ယူကြသည်။ လက်ရှိအချ ိန်ထိ
ရေနံမြေအများအပြားတွင်ဒေသခံလူထုအတွက်အဓိကသို့မဟုတ်ဒုတိယအရေးကြီးဆုံးအသက်မွေးဝမ်းကျောင်းမှု
ဖြည့်စည်းပေးနေသည့် လက်ယက် ရေနံတွင်းများ ရှိနေသေးသည်။
လက်ယက်တွင်းများသည် မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး ကျောက်ပန်းတောင်းမြို့နယ်ရှိ ငရှမ်းတောင်၊ စစ်ကိုင်းတိုင်း
ဒေသကြီး ကလေးမြို့နယ်နှင့် မကွေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး မြိုင်၊ ပေါက်၊ ဂန့်ဂေါနှင့် မင်းလှ မြို့များတွင် ပျ ံ့နှံ့တည်ရှိ နေ
သည်။မင်းလှမြို့တွင်ထောင်သောင်းမကသောအသေးစားရေနံတူးဖော်ရေးလုပ်ငန်းများသည်နှစ်ဒါဇင်ကျော်သည့်
ရေနံမြေများတွင် ပျ ံ့နှံ့ တည်ရှိသည်။ အများစုသည် ၅ မှ ၇ စတုရန်းပေ အတွင်းသာ ကျယ်ဝန်းသည့် စီမံကိန်း
အကွက်များ ဖြစ်ကြသည်။ အစိုးရအနေဖြင့် အဆိုပါ လက်ယက်တွင်း လုပ်ငန်းများအတွက် ပိုမိုတင်းကြတ်သော
ဘေးကင်းရေးနှင့် သဘာဝ ပတ်ဝန်းကျင်ဆိုင်ရာ စံနှုန်းများ သတ်မှတ်ပေးရန် လိုအပ်နေပေသည်။
ပိုမိုကောင်းမွန်သော လောင်စာဆီ ရရှိရေး ရေနံစိမ်းကို ကျ ိုချက်ရန် ထင်းလိုအပ်မှုကြောင့် အဆိုပါ အသေးစား
လုပ်ငန်းများသည် မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသအတွင်း ကြီးမားသော သစ်တောပြုန်းတီးမှုများ အတွက် တာဝန်ရှိနေသည်။ ထိုသို့
သစ်တောပြုန်းတီးမှုက ရေကို ထိန်းပေးထားနိုင်မှုကို လျော့ကျစေပြီး ဧရာဝတီမြစ်အတွင်း နုန်းမြေ တိုက်စားမှု
မြင့်တက်စေကာ မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသ တစ်ခုလုံးအတွက် ဆိုးကျ ိုး ဖြစ်ပေါ်စေပါသည်။
2524
စက်မှုနှင့် ကုန်ထုတ်လုပ်မှု
စက်မှုနှင့် ကုန်ထုတ်လုပ်မှု ကဏ္ဍ၏ နိုင်ငံ့ စီးပွားရေးကို ဖြည့်ဆည်းနိုင်မှုသည် ၂၀၁၀ ခုနှစ်တွင်
၂၆.၅% မှ ၂၀၁၄ ခုနှစ်တွင် ၃၄.၄% အထိ တိုးတက်လာခဲ့ပြီး ထိုကာလအတွင်းတွင် စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေး
ကဏ္ဍ၏ ဖြည့်ဆည်းနိုင်မှုသည် ၃၆.၈% မှ ၂၇.၉% အထိ ကျဆင်းသွားခဲ့သည်။ မြန်မာ့
စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်းကဏ္ဍသည် မကြာသေးမီ ဆယ်စုနှစ်များအတွင်း လျှင်မြန်စွာ ဖွံ့ဖြိုး လာခဲ့သည်။
စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်း အများစုသည် ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသ၏ အဓိက မြို့ကြီးပြကြီးနှင့် လမ်းပန်း
ဆက်သွယ်ရေး စုံရာနေရာများ အထူးသဖြင့် မြစ်ဝှမ်းအလယ်ပိုင်း၊ မြစ်ဝှမ်းအောက်ပိုင်းနှင့်
မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသရှိ မြို့ကြီးများတွင် တည်ရှိသည်။
မြန်မာ့ စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်း ကဏ္ဍသည် အမျ ိုးမျ ိုးကွဲပြားကြပြီး အစားအစာနှင့် အဖျော်ယမကာ
လုပ်ငန်း၊ အဝတ်အစားနှင့် အထည်အလိပ်လုပ်ငန်း၊ ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးပစ္စည်းများ၊
တစ်ကိုယ်ရည်သုံး၊ အိမ်ထောင်စုသုံးနှင့် အီလက်ထရောနစ် အသုံးအဆောင်များ၊ ပုံနှိပ်လုပ်ငန်း၊ စက်မှုကုန်ကြမ်းများ၊ သတ္တုနှင့် ရေနံထွက်
ပစ္စည်းများ၊ စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေးနှင့် စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်းသုံး စက်ပစ္စည်း/ကိရိယာများ၊ ပို့ဆောင်ရေးယာဉ်များနှင့် လျှပ်စစ်ပစ္စည်းများ စသည်တို့
ထုတ်လုပ်သည့် လုပ်ငန်းများ ပါဝင်သည်။
အစားအစာနှင့် အဖျော်ယမကာလုပ်ငန်းသည် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏အဓိက စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်း ကဏ္ဍခွဲတစ်ခု ဖြစ်ပြီးတစ်နိုင်ငံလုံးရှိစက်မှုလုပ်ငန်းများ၏
၆၂% ခန့်ရှိသည်။ အဓိက အစားအစာနှင့် အဖျော်ယမာကာ စက်ရုံများသည် ရန်ကုန်နှင့် မန္တလေးမြို့များတွင် တည်ရှိပြီး အထည်ချုပ်လုပ်ငန်း
များမှာမူ ပုသိမ်နှင့် ရန်ကုန်မြို့များနှင့် သတ္တုနှင့် ရေနံထွက်ပစ္စည်း လုပ်ငန်းများသည် မုံရွာနှင့် မန္တလေးတွင် တည်ရှိကြသည်။
အသေးစားလုပ်ငန်းများသည် ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသအတွင်းရှိ စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်းကဏ္ဍ၏ ၈၀% ရှိသည်။ လူနေနည်းပါးသည့် ဒေသများတွင်
အသေးစားလုပ်ငန်းများက လွှမ်းမိုးထားသကဲ့သို့ပင် မြို့ပြဧရိယာများတွင်လည်း အရေးပါလှကာ ရန်ကုန်တိုင်းဒေသကြီး စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်းများ၏
၄၂% နှင့် မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး၏ ၅၀% ဖြစ်ကြသည်။ အသေးစားစက်မှုလုပ်ငန်းများက သန့်စင်ပေးသည့် လုပ်ငန်းစဉ်များ သင့်တင့်
စီလျော်စွာ မရှိခြင်းနှင့် ညစ်ညမ်းစေနိုင်မှုကို လျှော့ချရေးနှင့် ပတ်သက်သည့် ဗဟုသုတနည်းပါးခြင်းတို့ကြောင့် ရေထုညစ်ညမ်းမှုကို
သိသိသာသာ ဖြစ်ပေါ်စေနိုင်ပါသည်။
မြန်မာနိုင်ငံရှိ တိုင်းနှင့်ပြည်နယ်အလိုက် စာရင်းရှိ
စက်မှုနှင့် ကုန်ထုတ်လုပ်ငန်းများ
အသေးစား အလတ်စား အကြီးစား
1334 172 53
350
273
5
1306
172
68
142
25
478
2822
659
90
168
189
998
718
21
2645
502
132
180
347
1025
2057
608
152
324
164
3271
3165
761
3885
2692
2307
347
125
3167
1732
4856
773
1955
1346
“အသေးစား စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်းများသည်
ရေထုညစ်ညမ်းမှုကို သိသိသာသာ
ဖြစ်စေသည်။”
ကချင်ပြည်နယ်
ချင်းပြည်နယ်
ရခိုင်ပြည်နယ်
ပဲခူးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
ကရင်ပြည်နယ်
စစ်ကိုင်းတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
နေပြည်တော်
ရန်ကုန်တိုင်းဒေသကြီး
မွန်ပြည်နယ်
ရှမ်းပြည်နယ်
မကွေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
ကယားပြည်နယ်
ဧရာဝတီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
တနင်္သာရီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
ကချင်ပြည်နယ်
ရှမ်းပြည်နယ်
မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
နေပြည်တော်
ကယားပြည်နယ်
ပဲခူးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
ရန်ကုန်တိုင်းဒေသကြီး
ကရင်ပြည်နယ်
မွန်ပြည်နယ်
ဧရာဝတီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
ရခိုင်ပြည်နယ်
မကွေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
ချင်းပြည်နယ်
တနင်္သာရီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
စစ်ကိုင်းတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
2726
စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်း စွန့်ပစ်ပစ္စည်းများကြောင့်
ရေထုညစ်ညမ်းခြင်းနှင့်
မြစ်လက်တက်များအား ဆည်များကို
ဖြတ်၍ စီးဆင်းစေခြင်း စသော
မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသအတွင်း လုပ်ဆောင်မှု
များစွာက ရေလမ်း သွားလာရေးကို
အဟန့်အတား ဖြစ်စေသည်။
မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် ရန်ကုန်နှင့် မန္တလေးအကြား ချ ိတ်ဆက်ပေးမှု အပါအဝင်
နိုင်ငံ၏ အဓိက ပို့ဆောင်ဆက်သွယ်ရေး လမ်းကြောင်းအဖြစ် အသုံးပြုနိုင်ရန်
သင့်လျော်လှသော ရှည်လျားသည့် မြစ်ချောင်းများ ဖွဲ့စည်းပုံ ရှိသည်။ သို့ရာတွင်
ယခုအခါ ပြည်တွင်း ရေကြောင်းပို့ဆောင်ရေးသည် အရင်က မရှိခဲ့ဖူးသည့်
ဖိအားများနှင့် ရင်ဆိုင်နေရသည်။
ရေကြောင်းသွားလာရေးတွင် အဓိကအရေးပါသောမြစ်များသည်
နွေအခါတွင်ရေနည်းခြင်း၊ မြစ်လမ်းကြောင်း ပြောင်းသွားခြင်း၊ လှေဆိပ်၊ သင်္ဘောဆိပ်များတွင် လုံလောက်သော ဝန်ဆောင်မှု
မပေးနိုင်ခြင်းတို့ကြောင့် ရေလမ်း သွားလာရေးတွင် အခက်အခဲများ ကြုံတွေ့နေရသည်။ သို့သော်လည်း ဖွံ့ဖြိုးမှုနှုန်းသည်
ဆက်လက် မြင့်တက်နေပြီး ဤကဏ္ဍသည် ပြည်တွင်းနှင့် ဒေသတွင်း ကုန်စည်စီးဆင်းမှုအတွက် အဓိက အကျပ်အတည်း
ဖြစ်နေသည်ဟု သတ်မှတ်ထားကြသည်။ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသတွင် နိုင်ငံအတွင်း လှေ/သင်္ဘောများ သွားလာနိုင်သော
မြစ်များအားလုံး၏ ၇၀% တည်ရှိသည်။ ရန်ကုန်၊ မန္တလေး နှင့်ဗန်းမော် တို့အကြား ရေကြောင်းသွားလာရေးသည်
အများဆုံးဖြစ်သည်။ ခရီးသည်သယ်ယူပို့ဆောင်မှုတွင် ဧရာဝတီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး သည် အများဆုံးဖြစ်ပြီး
ကုန်စည်သယ်ယူပို့ဆောင်ရေးတွင် မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီးသည် အများဆုံးဖြစ်သည်။
AIRBM Synthesis ၏ မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသ အခြေအနေ အစီရင်ခံစာအရ “လွန်ခဲ့သော နှစ်အနည်းငယ်ခန့်အတွင်း ရေကြောင်းဖြင့်
ကုန်ပစ္စည်း သယ်ယူပို့ဆောင်မှု များလျော့ကျလာခဲ့သည်။ ထိုသို့ဖြစ်စေသော အကြောင်းများတွင် သောင်တူးလုပ်ငန်းများ
လုံလောက်အောင်မလုပ်နိုင်ခြင်း၊ ပစ္စည်းအတင်အချပြုလုပ်ချ ိန် ကြာမြင့်၍ အချ ိန်မလုံလောက်ခြင်း၊ ကုန်းတွင်း လမ်းပန်း
ဆက်သွယ်ရေး တိုးတက်လာခြင်း တို့ကြောင့်ဖြစ်သည်။
ရေလမ်းသွားလာရေးသည် မြစ်ရေ စီးဆင်းပုံ ပြောင်းလဲခြင်း၊ နုံးအနည် သယ်ဆောင်ပို့ချမှု၊ ရာသီအလိုက် မြစ်ရေ စီးဆင်းမှုနှင့်
မုတ်သုံရာသီဥတုတို့က ရေကြောင်း သွားလာမှုအပေါ် သက်ရောက်မှု ရှိသည်။ စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်း စွန့်ပစ်ပစ္စည်းများကြောင့် ရေထု
ညစ်ညမ်းခြင်းနှင့် မြစ်လက်တက်များအား ဆည်များကို ဖြတ်၍ စီးဆင်းစေခြင်း စသော မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသအတွင်း လုပ်ဆောင်မှု
များစွာက ရေလမ်း သွားလာရေးကို အဟန့်အတား ဖြစ်စေသည်။ သောင်တူးဖော်မှု ပြုလုပ်ရသည့် မြစ်ထဲမှ သဲထုတ်လုပ်ခြင်း
ကဲ့သို့သော လုပ်ငန်းများမှာမူ ရေလမ်း သွားလာရေးအတွက် အထောက်အကူဖြစ်သည်။ သို့သော်လည်း သဲနှင့် ကျောက်စရစ်ခဲ
ထုတ်လုပ်ရာ ဧရိယာများ၏ နုန်းအနည် ပို့ချမှု အနည်းအများ ကွာခြားချက်နှင့် မြစ်အောက်ပိုင်းအပေါ် သက်ရောက်မှု ရှိပုံကို
နားလည်သိရှိမှု နည်းပါးသေးသည်။
ရေကြောင်းသွားလာရေး
2928
ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးလုပ်ငန်း
ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးလုပ်ငန်းများသည် နိုင်ငံ့ ဂျီဒီပီ၏ ၅.၂% သို့မဟုတ် စက်မှုထွက်ကုန်
ပစ္စည်းများ၏ ၁၈% ဖြစ်သည်။ ထိုသို့ ရာခိုင်နှုန်းအားဖြင့် နည်းပါးသော်လည်း
ဤကဏ္ဍသည် မြစ်အပေါ် ဆိုးကျ ိုးသက်ရောက်မှု များပြားလှသည်။
သို့သော် ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးကဏ္ဍသည် အခြားစီးပွားရေး ကဏ္ဍများနှင့်လည်း
ချိတ်ဆက်လျှက် ရှိသည်။ ဥပမာအားဖြင့် ဘဏ်လုပ်ငန်းကဏ္ဍ၏ ရရန်ရှိ
ကြွေးမြီများ၏ ၃၀% သည် ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးလုပ်ငန်းများမှ ဖြစ်သည်။ ထို့ကြောင့်
ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးကဏ္ဍသည် အလုပ်အကိုင်ကဏ္ဍ တစ်ခုတည်း အတွက်သာမက ဘဏ်လုပ်ငန်းများ အတွက်ပါ သက်ရောက်မှု
ရှိသည်။ ဆောက်လုပ်ရေး လုပ်ငန်းများအတွက် စည်းမျဉ်းများကို တိုးတက် ကောင်းမွန်အောင် ဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်းဖြင့် မြို့ပြ လူ
နေမှုအဆင့်မြင့်မားလာမည့်အပြင် ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးလုပ်ငန်း အရည်အသွေးနှင့် သဘာဝပတ်ဝန်းကျင်ကို မထိခိုက်သော
ရေရှည် ဖွံ ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်မှုများ မြင့်မားလာမည့်အပြင် လူနေမှုစရိတ်များလည်း အကုန်အကျ သက်သာလာစေနိုင်သည်။
ထိုသို့ပြုလုပ်ရာတွင်လည်းပွင့်လင်းမြင်သာမှုရှိပြီးကြိုတင်ခန့်မှန်း၍ရနိုင်သောအဆင့်များဖြင့်ချဉ်းကပ်ရန်အရေးကြီးပါသည်။
သို့မှသာ ပြန်လည်နာလန်ထူရန် ခက်ခဲသော စီးပွားရေးဂယက်ရိုက်မှုများကို ရှောင်ရှားနိုင်မည် ဖြစ်သည်။
ဆောက်လုပ်ရေး လုပ်ငန်းများသည် ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ထဲရှိ သဲထုတ်ယူသော လုပ်ငန်းများအတွက် အဓိက အချက်တစ်ချက်ပင်
ဖြစ်သည်။ အများအားဖြင့် သဲနှင့် ကျောက်စရစ်များ (ဆောက်လုပ်ရေး လုပ်ငန်းများအတွက် ကုန်ကြမ်းပစ္စည်းများ) ကို
ထုတ်ယူကြသည်။ ပုံတွင်ပြထားသော နေရာများမှ ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးအတွက် တစ်နှစ်လျှင် သဲနှင့် ကျောက်စရစ် တန်ချိန် (၁၀)
သန်းခန့် ထုတ်ယူသည်။ သို့ရာတွင် ဤကိန်းဂဏန်းများသည် ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ထဲမှ သဲထုတ်ယူမှုအားလုံးကို မူရင်းတန်ဖိုးထက်
လျှော့၍ ခန့်မှန်း တွက်ချက်ယူထားခြင်းသာ ဖြစ်သည်။ အဘယ်ကြောင့်ဆိုသော် ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးလုပ်ငန်း အများစုသည်
မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသအတွင်းတွင် ဖြစ်၍ အဆောက်အအုံများ၊ လမ်းများ၊ တံတားများ ဆောက်လုပ်ရာတွင် မြစ်အတွင်းမှ ထုတ်ယူသော
သဲကို အသုံးပြုသည်ဟု ယူဆနိုင်သည်။ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်အတွင်းမှ ထုတ်ယူသော သဲနှင့် ကျောက်စရစ်များနှင့် ပတ်သက်သော
အချက်အလက်များနည်းပါးသော်လည်းမြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ဖွံ ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်မှုအပေါ်စစ်တမ်းကောက်ယူမှုများအရဆောက်လုပ်ရေး၊
လမ်းတံတား ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးများနှင့် ဆည် ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးလုပ်ငန်းများတွင် လိုအပ်သော သဲနှင့် ကျောက်စရစ် ပမာဏ
အများစုသည် မြစ်အတွင်းမှ ထုတ်ယူရရှိခြင်း ဖြစ်နိုင်ချေ များစွာရှိပြီး အနာဂတ်တွင်လည်း ပိုမို ထုတ်ယူလာနိုင်ကြောင်း
တွေ့ရသည်။ ထိုအချက်ကြောင့်ပင် ကမ်းပြိုခြင်းနှင့်မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသ နစ်မြုပ်သွားနိုင်သော အခြေအနေမှာလည်း
ပိုမိုများပြားလာသည်။
မြစ်အတွင်းမှ သဲများ
ထုတ်ယူခြင်းသည်
မြစ်အပေါ် ဆိုးရွားစွာ အကျ ိုး
သက်ရောက်လျှက် ရှိသည်။
3130
ကမ္ဘာလှည့်ခရီးသွားများကို
ဆွဲဆောင်နိုင်သော နေရာများထဲမှ အများစုမှာ
ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းအတွင်းတွင် တည်ရှိသည်။
ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်း
ကမ္ဘာ့ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းနှင့် ခရီးသွားခြင်း ကောင်စီမှ ထုတ်ပြန်ကြေငြာထားသော အစီရင်ခံစာ
အရ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံရှိ ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းများတွင် အလုပ်အကိုင် အခွင့်အလမ်းများသည် (ကဏ္ဍက
သွယ်ဝိုက်၍ ပံ့ပိုးပေးသည့် အလုပ်အကိုင် အခွင့်အလမ်းများ အပါအဝင်) ၂၀၁၄ ခုနှစ်တွင်
၆.၅% တိုးတက်လာက အလုပ်အကိုင်နေရာပေါင်း ၈၇၇၅၀ဝ ခန့် ရှိလာခဲ့သည်။
၎င်းအစီရင်ခံစာ၏ ခန့်မှန်းချက်များတွင် ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းကဏ္ဍသည် နိုင်ငံ ဂျီဒီပီ၏ ၃% ရှိပြီး
ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းများနှင့် သွယ်ဝိုက်ဆက်စပ်နေသော လုပ်ငန်းများပါ ထည့်သွင်း စဉ်းစားမည်
ဆိုပါက ၆.၆% ထိ ရှိသည်။ အလုပ်အကိုင် ကဏ္ဍတွင်မူ ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းများသည် တစ်နိုင်ငံလုံး
အတိုင်းအတာ၏ ၅.၈% ဖြစ်သည်။
ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းအနေဖြင့်ကြည့်မည်ဆိုပါက မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် ကမ္ဘာလှည့်ခရီးသည်များကို ဆွဲဆောင်သောနေရာ ၆ နေရာရှိသည်။
၎င်းတို့မှာ ရန်ကုန်၊ ပုဂံ၊ မန္တလေး၊ အင်းလေးကန်၊ ကျ ိုက်ထီးရိုးနှင့် ရခိုင်ပြည်နယ်မှ ငပလီကမ်းခြေတို့ ဖြစ်ကြသည်။ ထို့ပြင် ယခုအခါတွင်
ပူတာအိုရှိ တောင်တန်းများ၊ ချင်းပြည်နယ်ရှိ နာဂဒေသ၊ ဟားခါး၊ (ဝိတိုရိယတောင်) နတ်မတောင်၊ ကယားပြည်နယ်ရှိ လွိုင်ကော်၊
တနင်္သာရီတိုင်းရှိ မြိတ်ကျွန်းစုများ စသောနေရာများသည်လည်း ကမ္ဘာလှည့်ခရီးသည်များကို ဆွဲဆောင်နိုင်သော နေရာများဖြစ်လာကြသည်။
အထက်တွင် ဖော်ပြခဲ့သော နေရာအများစုမှာ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသအတွင်းတွင် တည်ရှိသည်။ (ဥပမာ ရန်ကုန်၊ မန္တလေး၊ ပုဂံ) ပုံတွင်
၂၀၁၆ ခုနှစ်အတွင်း ကမ္ဘာလှည့်ခရီးသည်များ လာရောက်ရာ အဓိကနေရာ ၄ နေရာကို ဖော်ပြထားသည်။ ထို ၄ နေရာအနက် ၃ နေရာသည်
ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသအတွင်းတည်ရှိသဖြင့် ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်း၌ ကောင်းမွန်သော မြစ်တစ်စင်း၏ အရေးကြီးပုံကို သိရှိနိုင်သည်။
m^ p p ml o q
385031(30%)
178787(14%)
283877(22%)
428370(34%)
ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းအတွင်း
ကမ္ဘာလှည့်ခရီးသည်များကို
ဆွဲဆောင်သောနေရာများ
ပုဂံ
ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်း
မန္တလေး
အင်းလေးကန်
ရန်ကုန်
3332
တိုင်းပြည် ဖွံ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်လာသည်နှင့်အမျှ လူဦးရေလည်း တိုးပွားလာပြီး လျှပ်စစ်လိုအပ်မှုသည် လွန်ခဲ့သည့် ၅ နှစ်နှင့် နှိုင်းယှဉ်လျှင် နှစ်စဉ်
ပျမ်းမျှ ၁၅.၇% ခန့် တိုးလာခဲ့သည်။ ထိုသို့ တိုးတက်လာသော နိုင်ငံနှင့်အတူ စွမ်းအင်လိုအပ်မှုသည်လည်း တိုးလာသည်။ ရေအားလျှပ်စစ်သည်
လျှပ်စစ်စွမ်းအင် လိုအပ်မှုအတွက် ဖြေရှင်းချက်တစ်ခု ဖြစ်လာနိုင်သည်။
မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် တည်ရှိပြီးသော ရေအားလျှပ်စစ် စီမံကိန်းပေါင်း ၂၉ ခုရှိပြီး ထုတ်လုပ်နိုင်စွမ်း ၃၂၉၈ မဂ္ဂါဝပ် ရှိသည် ။ ရေအား လျှပ်စစ်စီမံကိန်း
၆ ခုမှာ တည်ဆောက်ဆဲ အခြေအနေဖြစ်ပြီး ထုတ်လုပ်နိုင်စွမ်း ၁၅၆၄ မဂ္ဂါဝပ် ရှိသည်။ ကျန်ရှိသော ရေအားလျှပ်စစ်စီမံကိန်း ၅၁ ခုမှာ
ထုတ်လုပ်နိုင်စွမ်း ၄၂၉၆၈ မဂ္ဂါဝပ်ဖြစ်၍ အကောင်အထည်ဖော် ဆောင်ရွက်ဆဲဖြစ်သည်။
ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်း(ချင်းတွင်းမြစ်ဝှမ်းအပါအဝင်) တွင် ယခုလက်ရှိ တည်ဆောက်ဆဲနှင့် တည်ဆောက်ပြီး ရေအားလျှပ်စစ် စီမံကိန်းပေါင်း ၁၇
ခု၊ စီစဉ်ဆောင်ရွက်ဆဲ ၃၁ ခုနှင့် ဆိုင်းငံ့ထားသော စီမံကိန်း ၁ ခု ရှိသည်။ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်း၏ အမြင့်ဆုံး ထုတ်လုပ်နိုင်စွမ်းမှာ မဂ္ဂါဝပ်ပေါင်း
၂၁၀ဝ ဖြစ်သည်။ အကယ်၍ စီမံချက်ရေးဆွဲထားသော ရေအားလျှပ်စစ် စီမံကိန်းများ အားလုံး တည်ဆောက်ပြီးစီးမည်ဆိုပါက ဧရာဝတီနှင့်
သံလွင်သည်ထုတ်လုပ်နိုင်စွမ်းမဂ္ဂါဝပ်ပေါင်း၂၈၁၀ဝ(ရေအားလျှပ်စစ်အားလုံး၏၅၈%)နှင့်မဂ္ဂါဝပ်ပေါင်း၁၆၅၀ဝ(ရေအားလျှပ်စစ်အားလုံး၏
၃၄%) ရှိမည်ဖြစ်သည်။
WWF-မြန်မာ စွမ်းအင်ကဏ္ဍ မျှော်မှန်းချက်အရ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ ဖွံ့ဖြိုးရေးအတွက် ဆုံးဖြတ်ချက်ချရာတွင် မြစ်အထက်ပိုင်းရှိ ရေအားလျှပ်စစ်
စီမံကိန်းများသည် မြစ်အောက်ပိုင်း ဒေသများနှင့် မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ် ဒေသများအပေါ် မမျှော်မှန်းနိုင်သော အကျ ိုးဆက်များ သက်ရောက်
စေနိုင်ကြောင်းကို ထည့်သွင်းစဉ်းစားရန် အလွန်အရေးကြီးသည်။ အထူးသဖြင့် ရေစီးဆင်းမှု ဝိသေသပုံစံများ၊ ငါးများ နေရာပြောင်းရွှေ့
ကျင်လည် ကျက်စားခြင်းနှင့် နုံးအနည်အနှစ် ပို့ချမှု စသော ဖြစ်စဉ်များကို သိရှိနားလည်ရန် လိုအပ်သည်။ မြန်မာ့ စွမ်းအင် အထူးစီမံကိန်းသည်
သဘာဝပတ်ဝန်းကျင် ထိခိုက်မှုများနှင့် ရေရှည် ဆိုးကျ ိုးသက်ရောက်မှုများကို ဖြစ်စေသော ကျောက်မီးသွေးသုံး ဓာတ်အားပေး
စက်ရုံများ၊ ကြီးမားသော ဆည်များအပေါ် ပိုမိုအာရုံစိုက်လျှက်ရှိသည်။ သို့သော်လည်း တိုးတက်လာသော စွမ်းအင် လိုအပ်ချက်အတွက်
၁၀ဝ% ပိုမိုစိမ်းလန်းသော ပြန်လည်ပြည့်ဖြိုးမြဲစွမ်းအင် အသုံးပြုသည့် အနာဂတ်ကို အကောင်အထည်ဖော်နိုင်ကြောင်း WWF-မြန်မာက
ထောက်ပြထားခဲ့သည်။ WWF က မြန်မာနိုင်ငံသည် လွန်ခဲ့သော နှစ် ၁၃၀ ခန့်ကပင် စတင်ခဲ့သော လောင်စာအသုံးပြု စွမ်းအင် ထုတ်လုပ်မှုမှ
ယခုအခါ ပြန်ပြည့်မြဲစွမ်းအင် ကာလသို့ ကူးပြောင်းရန် အခွင့်အလမ်းရှိကြောင်း ယုံကြည်သည်။
စွမ်းအင်
၂၀၁၇ ခုနှစ်၏ ပထမ ၆ လ၌ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် စုစုပေါင်း လျှပ်စစ်ထုတ်လုပ်နိုင်စွမ်းသ
ည် ၅၃၈၉ မီဂါဝပ် ရှိခဲ့ပြီး ထိုအထဲတွင် ၃၂၅၅ မီဂါဝပ် (၆၀.၄%) သည် ရေအားလျှပ် စစ်မှ
လည်းကောင်း၊ ၁၉၂၀ မက်ဂါဝပ် (၃၅.၆%) သည် ဓါတ်ငွေ့မှ လည်းကောင်း၊ ၁၂၀ မီဂါဝပ်
(၂.၂%) သည် ကျောက်မီးသွေးမှ လည်းကောင်း၊ ၉၄.၃ မီဂါဝပ် (၁.၇၅%) သည် ဒီဇယ်ဆီမှ
လည်းကောင်း ဖြစ်သည်။ ယခုအခါတွင် လူဦးရေ စုစုပေါင်း၏ သုံးပုံတစ်ပုံ မျှသာလျှင် လျှပ်စစ်
သုံးစွဲနိုင်သေးသည်။ ပြည်နယ်နှင့် တိုင်းအလိုက် လျှပ်စစ်သုံး စွဲခွင့်ရရှိသောရာခိုင်နှုန်းများကို
ပုံတွင်ဖော်ပြထားသည်။ ရန်ကုန်၏ ၆၀% ကျော်သည်သာ လျှပ်စစ် သုံးစွဲနိုင်ကြသည်။ ကယား၊
နေပြည်တော်နှင့် မန္တလေးတို့တွင် လူဦးရေ၏ ၃၀% မှ ၄၀% အထိသည် လျှပ်စစ်ရရှိနိုင်ကြသည်။
31% 24% 27% 23% 39%69% 33% 48% 27% 15% 43% 12% 36%8%12%
လက်ရှိ ၁ စီစဉ်ဆဲ ၁၂ ရပ်ဆိုင်း ၁
လက်ရှိ ၁ စီစဉ်ဆဲ ၆
လက်ရှိ ၁၂ စီစဉ်ဆဲ ၁၁
လက်ရှိ ၃ စီစဉ်ဆဲ ၂
မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ တပ်ဆင်ပြီး
စွမ်းအင် ပမာဏ
ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းငယ်များအတွင်း စီမံချက်ချထားသော
ရေအားလျှပ်စစ်စီမံကိန်းများ
WWF အနေဖြင့် ပြန်ပြည့်မြဲနှင့် ပိုမို
စိမ်းလန်း သော စွမ်းအင် ၁၀ဝ% အသုံးပြု
ရန် နည်းပညာအရ ဖြစ်နိုင်ကြောင်း
ထောက်ပြခဲ့ပြီး ဖြစ်သည်။
ဒီဇယ်ဆီ
ရေအားလျှပ်စစ်
ကျောက်မီးသွေး
ဓါတ်ငွေ့
ကချင်ပြည်နယ်
ပဲခူးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
ရန်ကုန်တိုင်းဒေသကြီး
စစ်ကိုင်းတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
မကွေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
ရှမ်းပြည်နယ်
ဧရာဝတီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
ကယားပြည်နယ်
ကရင်ပြည်နယ်
တနင်္သာရီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
ချင်းပြည်နယ်
နေပြည်တော်
ရခိုင်ပြည်နယ်
မွန်ပြည်နယ်
မြစ်အထက်ပိုင်း
ချင်းတွင်းမြစ်ဝှမ်း
မြစ်အလယ်ပိုင်း
မြစ်အောက်ပိုင်း
3534
WWF သည် သဘာဝနှင့် လူသားတို့
အတူတကွ ယှဉ်တွဲနေထိုင်နိုင်ရန်
ဦးစားပေးပါသည် ။ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင်လည်း
ထိုသို့နေထိုင်နိုင်မည်ဟု ယုံကြည်ပါသည်။
WWF သည် မြန်မာ့ လူမှုရေးနှင့် စီးပွားရေး
ဖွံ ့ဖြိုး တိုးတက်အောင် ဆောင်ရွက်ရာ တွင်
မြစ်များကို မထိခိုက်စေဘဲ တိုးတက်ရန်
ပံ့ပိုးပေးပါသည်။
မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ လူမှုရေးနှင့် စီးပွားရေး
တို့တွင် ဧရာဝတီမြစ်၏ တန်ဖိုးကို
အကဲဖြတ်လေ့လာမှု နိဂုံးချုပ်
တိုက်တွန်းလွှာ တစ်စောင်
ဤအစီရင်ခံစာအရ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသသည် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံရှိ စီးပွားရေးလုပ်ငန်းများကို အဓိက ထောက်ပံ့ပေးနေကြောင်း ထင်ရှားသည်။
ထို့ပြင် အချ ို့သော စီးပွားရေးကဏ္ဍများသည် မြစ်မှ ထောက်ပံ့ပေးသော အရာများနှင့် ဂေဟစနစ်ဝန်ဆောင်မှုများကို လျော့ကျ
စေကြောင်းမှာလည်း ထင်ရှား သည်။ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံအတွက် လူမှုရေးနှင့် စီးပွားရေး ဖွံ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်ရေးမှာ အရေးပါသော်လည်း
၎င်းအတွက်ကြောင့် ကောင်းမွန်သောမြစ်ကို ထိခိုက်စေခြင်းသည် မဖြစ်သင့်ပေ။
WWF သည် သဘာဝနှင့် လူသားတို့ အတူတကွ ယှဉ်တွဲနေထိုင်နိုင်ရန် ဦးစားပေးပါသည်။ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် ထိုသို့ နေထိုင် နိုင်မည်ဟုလည်း
ယုံကြည်ပါသည်။ WWF သည် မြန်မာ့ လူမှုရေးနှင့် စီးပွားရေး ဖွံ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်အောင် ဆောင်ရွက်ရာတွင် မြစ်များကို မထိခိုက်စေဘဲ
တိုးတက်ရန်ပံ့ပိုးပေးပါသည်။ဧရာဝတီမြစ်သည်မြန်မာနိုင်ငံအတွင်းရှိလူမှုရေးနှင့်စီးပွားရေးလုပ်ငန်းများစွာအတွက်အထောက်အကူပြုလျှက်
ရှိပါသည်။ မြစ်မှ ထောက်ပံ့ပေးနေသော အရာများမရှိလျှင် မြန်မာ့စီးပွားရေးသည် ယခုအခြေအနေနှင့် တူညီစွာ ရှိနေမည် မဟုတ်ချေ။
ရေအားလျှပ်စစ် ဖွံ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်မှု၊ စက်မှုဇုန်များ တိုးချဲ့မှု၊ ရေလုပ်ငန်းများ တိုးချဲ့ခြင်း စသော စီးပွားရေး ဖွံ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်မှုများ အားလုံးကို
တပြိုင်တည်းတိုးတက်စေရန်မှာ မဖြစ်နိုင်ချေ။ အနာဂတ်အတွက် တူညီသော အမြင်မရှိပါက ကဏ္ဍတစ်ခုနှင့် တစ်ခု အပြိုင်အဆိုင်
ဖြစ်နေကြမည် ဖြစ်ပြီး အမှန်တကယ် အရေးကြီး အသုံးဝင်သော အခွင့်အလမ်းများကို လက်လွှတ်ရနိုင်သည်။ မတူညီသော ကဏ္ဍများ၏
ဖွံ့ဖြိုး တိုးတက်စေနိုင်မည့် အခွင့်အလမ်းများနှင့် သက်ရောက် စေနိုင်သော ဆိုးကျ ိုးများကို ကိန်းဂဏန်းများဖြင့် ဖော်ပြထားခြင်းဖြင့်
ကဏ္ဍတစ်ခုချင်းစီ၏ မျှခြေအခြေအနေများကို သိရှိပြီး စီမံကိန်းရေးဆွဲရာတွင် ပိုမိုအမြော်အမြင်ရှိသော ၊ ရေရှည်ဖွံ့ဖြိုးစေနိုင် သော ချဉ်းကပ်မှု
များ ဖြင့် လုပ်ဆောင်နိုင်မည်ဖြစ်သည်။
ကျွန်ုပ်တို့၏ ရေရှည်တည်တံ့နိုင်ပြီး လွတ်လပ်စွာ စီးဆင်းနေဆဲ ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသဖြစ်ရေး တိုက်တွန်းချက်မှာ အောက်ပါအတိုင်း
ဖြစ်သည်။
နောက်ဆုံးအချက်အနေဖြင့် တင်ပြလိုသည်မှာ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံအနေဖြင့် စီးပွားရေးအရ ဖွံ ့ဖြိုးမှုနှင့် လူမှုရေးအရ တိုးတက်မှုတို့ဆီ
သွားရာလမ်းတွင် မဟာဗျူဟာများနှင့် စီမံကိန်းများကို ညှိနှိုင်းဆောင်ရွက်ရန်မှာ အထူးပင် အရေးကြီးပါသည်။ ဤအချက်သည်
အစိုးရအတွက်သာမကနိုင်ငံတွင်းရှိဖွံ ့ဖြိုးရေးအကူအညီများအတွက်ပါမှန်ကန်ပါသည်။အထူးသဖြင့်မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသစီစဉ်ဆောင်ရွက်မှုသည်
သတ္တုတွင်းလုပ်ငန်းများမှသည် ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းများအထိနှင့် အထက်ပိုင်း ရေဝေရေလဲ ဒေသမှသည် မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသအထိ
စီးပွားရေး လုပ်ငန်းဆောင်တာများ အားလုံး ညှိနှိုင်းလုပ်ဆောင်ကြရေးအတွက် အရေးပါသောကဏ္ဍတွင် ရှိနေသည်။ မျ ိုးသုဉ်းမည့်
အန္တရာယ် ရှိနေသော ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင်များ နေထိုင်ရာ၊ ရေလုပ်ငန်းအတွက် အထွက်နှုန်းကောင်းရာ၊ မြန်မာ့ စီးပွားရေးကဏ္ဍအတွက်
အခြေခံရင်းမြစ်များ ဆက်လက်ပံ့ပိုးနိုင်သည့် စက်မှုနှင့် သတ္တုတွင်း လုပ်ငန်းများ ဖွံ ့ဖြိုးရာ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ကြီး၏ တမူထူးခြားသည့်
အခြေအနေကို ဆက်လက် ထိန်းသိမ်းနိုင်စေရန်အတွက် ဤဒေသဆိုင်ရာ စီမံဆောင်ရွက်မှုများသည် အားလုံးပါဝင် ညှိနှိုင်းဆောင်ရွက်သည့်
ပုံစံ ဖြစ်ရန် အရေးကြီးလှပါသည်။
စီးပွားရေးစီမံချက်များအတွက် ဆုံးဖြတ်ချက်ချမည့်သူများသည် မတူညီသော ဖွံ ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်မှု လမ်းကြောင်းများအကြား
အချင်းချင်း ဆက်နွယ်မှုများနှင့် အပေးအယူများ (trade-off) အကြောင်း စုံစမ်းလေ့လာရန် လိုအပ်ပါသည်။ ထို့ပြင်
၎င်းကဏ္ဍများနှင့် လူတို့ အမှီပြုနေသော သဘာဝအရင်းအမြစ်များနှင့် ဂေဟစနစ် လုပ်ဆောင်မှုများအကြား မည်ကဲ့သို့
အပြန်အလှန် ဆက်နွယ်နေသည်ကိုလည်း လေ့လာသိရှိရန် လိုအပ်ပါသည်။
ပုဂ္ဂလိကကဏ္ဍအနေဖြင့် အချ ို့သော အခြေအနေများတွင် စည်းမျဉ်းစည်းကမ်းများသည် မသေချာမရေရာလှသော်လည်း
နိုင်ငံအတွင်း ကောင်းမွန်သော ရေ စီမံခန့်ခွဲမှုကို အကောင်အထည်ဖော် လုပ်ဆောင်ကြရန် လိုအပ်ပါသည်။ ဧရာဝတီ
မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင် ဒေသကြီးတစ်ခုလုံးတွင် ရုပ်ပိုင်းဆိုင်ရာ၊ စည်းမျဉ်းစည်းကမ်းပိုင်းဆိုင်ရာနှင့် ဂုဏ်သိက္ခာပိုင်းဆိုင်ရာအရ
ရေနှင့်သက်ဆိုင်သော ဘေးဖြစ်နိုင်ချေများကို လျှော့ချရန်မှာ ၎င်းတို့၏ ရေရှည်စီးပွားရေးအတွက်ပါ လိုအပ်ပါသည်။
လူမှုအဖွဲ့အစည်းများသည်ဆုံးဖြတ်ချက်ချနိုင်သူများ၊ပုဂ္ဂလိကကဏ္ဍနှင့်လူမှုအဖွဲ့အစည်းများအကြားဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသနှင့်
ပတ်သက်၍ နှစ်ခြိုက်လိုလားဖွယ်ကောင်းသည့် ရေရှည်တည်တံ့အကျ ိုးရှိသော ဖွံ ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်မှုနှင့် ဆက်စပ်သည့်
ပွင့်လင်းမြင်သာရှိသော ဆွေးနွေးတင်ပြနိုင်ခွင့်များကို ဆက်လက် တောင်းဆိုသွားရန် လိုအပ်ပါသည်။
3736
မြစ်မှ ထောက်ပံ့ပေးနေသော ဝန်ဆောင်မှုများ
မရှိဘဲ မြန်မာ့စီးပွားရေးသည် ယနေ့အခြေအနေသို့
ရောက်ရှိလာနိုင်မည် မဟုတ်ချေ။
သို့သော် လူသားတို့၏ လုပ်ဆောင်ချက်များသည်
မြစ်အပေါ် များစွာသော ဆိုးကျ ိုးများ
သက်ရောက်စေလျှက် ရှိသည်။
3938
အစီရင်ခံစာများ
Asian Development Bank (ADB) Economics Working Paper Series
No. 470. 2015. Myanmar’s Agricultural Sector. http://www.themimu.
info/sites/themimu.info/files/documents/Ref_Doc_Myanmars_
Agricultural_Sector_ADB_Dec2015.pdf
Ayeyarwady Integrated River Basin Management Project (AIRBM), 2017.
State of the Basin (SOBA) Synthesis Report.
Ketelsen, T., Taylor, L., Mai Ky Vinh, Hunter, R., Johnston, R., Shaoyu
Liu, Kyaw Tint, Khin Ma Ma Gyi and Charles, M. 2017. State of
Knowledge: River Health in the Ayeyarwady. State of Knowledge Series
7. Vientiane, Lao PDR, CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and
Ecosystems.
MoEE, Power Development Opportunities in Myanmar, Myanmar
Investment Forum 2017, 6 - 7 June 2017.
World Bank, 2016. Myanmar Economic Monitor. Accessed: http://www.
worldbank.org/en/country/myanmar/publication/myanmar-economic-
monitor-december-2016
World Bank. 2016. Assessing Farm Production Economics: Myanmar.
Assesst_Farm-Production-Economics_WB_Feb2016.pdf
World Bank. 2017. Myanmar Economic Monitor. Accessed: http://
documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/271301485510327677/
pdf/112317-WP-MEM-Jan27-17-final-PUBLIC.pdf
WWF, 2017. Alternative vision for Myanmar’s power sector. Accessed:
https://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/alternative_vision_
for_myanmar_s_power_sector_draft.pdf
ဝက်ဘ်ဆိုက်များနှင့် သတင်းများ
IIED, 2013. “IIED shines a light on small-scale mining”
Extractives Industry Transparency Initiative (EITI), Myanmar.
Accessed: https://eiti.org/myanmar
Mekong Flows, Biodiversity. Accessed 9 April 2018: http://mekongriver.
info/biodiversity
Myanmar Times. 2016. Can eco-tourism save the Ayeyarwady’s
dolphins? https://www.mmtimes.com/lifestyle/13738-can-eco-tourism-
save-the-ayeyarwady-dolphins.html
WCS. 2017. Dolphins in Myanmar. Accessed: https://programs.wcs.org/
myanmar/Wildlife/Dolphin.aspx
WWF, 2017. Accessed 9 April 2018. http://www.wwf.org.mm/en/news_
room/publications/?uNewsID=303391
Databases
Observatory of Economic Complexity, https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/
visualize/tree_map/hs92/export/mmr/show/0713/2016/
Myanmar Information Management Unit, (MIMU) http://themimu.info/
ကျမ်းကိုးစာရင်း
Why we are here
To stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and
to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature.
http://www.wwf.org.mm/en/
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June 21, 2018
Bethia Kadoe, a Myanmar student who is studying for a Masters’ in Environmental Science
and Policy, International Development, Community and Environment (IDCE), at Clark
University, Worcester MA, USA, was attached for a month in 2017, as an intern with MCRB,
and worked in collaboration with WWF to study river sand mining in the Ayeyarwady/Yangon
area.
This is her paper from her research.
Although mining of sand and aggregates was not covered directly in MCRB’s Sector Wide Impact
Assessment of Mining, MCRB has engaged stakeholders on various cases of sand mining related
to wider social and environmental impacts including beach sand extraction in Ngapali and
Ngwesaung, and marine sand extraction in Tanintharyi.
In May 2018 WWF published a study of The Ayeyarwady River and the Economy of Myanmar:
Volume 1 Risks and opportunities from the perspective of the people living and working on the
river, in English and Burmese. This noted that:
Approximately 10 million tonnes of gravel and sand a year are reportedly extracted from
Ayeyarwady River sites for construction. This is believed to be a gross underestimate of the
total sand extraction from the Ayeyarwady River (estimated to be 20 million tonnes, or
approximately 10% of the total estimated sediment budget of 220 million tonnes). Since the
Latest News
River Sand Extraction in Myanmar
Extracting sand on Ayeyarwady River, August
2017. Photo: B Kadoe
MCRB Expresses Concern
About the Impact on
Responsible Investment of the
Amendments to the Virgin,
Vacant and Fallow Lands Law
Jan 10, 2019
About News SWIA Pwint Thit Sa Report Dialogues Submissions to Consultations eNewsletters Useful Resources Contact
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majority of construction and development is taking place in the basin, it is safe to assume the
majority of the buildings, roads and bridges being built are using sand from the river. Given the
volumes of materials recorded during the survey, the level of development in Myanmar, and
the large volumes of sand and gravel required for construction, road building and dam
building, it is highly likely that continued risks such as bank erosion and the increasing
vulnerability of a sinking delta will continue.
Read also
Experts object to firms’ plans to mine sand in Tanintharyi Region
Consultation Begins on Draft EIA Guidelines for the Mining Sector
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Sustainable
Distinguish Between the Legal Obligations and Voluntary E orts Needed for a Mine to Earn a ‘Social
Licence to Operate’
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Consultation Meetings Held on the Mining Sector Wide Impact Assessment
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MCRB has sent a letter to the
Chair of the National Land
Use Council expressing
concerns that the rapid
implementation of the amended VFV
Lands Management Law will cause
significant problems for investors seeking
to operate responsibly in Myanmar.
Strengthening Public
Understanding Of
Environmental Impact
Assessment
Jan 02, 2019
MCRB recently worked with
Vermont Law School
(supported by Heinrich Boll
Stiftung), in cooperation with
the Environmental Conservation
Department (ECD) of MONREC, and local
civil society networks, to hold workshops
in Mandalay...
‘Tone from the Top’ is Essential
in Combatting Corruption
Dec 14, 2018
On 5 December 2018, MCRB
and the Union of Myanmar
Chamber of Commerce and
Industry co-hosted the third
of MCRB’s ‘responsible business
seminars’, with a focus on combatting
corruption.
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Working with Community Groups in Shan State on
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MCRB contributes to Australia-Myanmar Chamber of Commerce’s Good Governance in Mining
Seminar in Nya Pyi Taw
MCRB Inputs into the Consultation on Rules to Implement the Mining Law
Sector-Wide Impact Assessment of Myanmar’s Mining Sector
Blended Learning Course on Business and Human Rights at MNHRC by DIHR and MCRB
Amnesty International slams abusive, poorly regulated Myanmar mining industry
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March 17, 2015
Amnesty International is calling for investigations by Canada and China into potential human
rights abuses and illegal activity relating to the Monywa copper mining operation in
Myanmar.
Article Source: Angela Kean, SNL Financial
Amnesty International is calling for investigations by Canada and China into potential human rights
abuses and illegal activity relating to the Monywa copper mining operation in Myanmar.
The human rights advocate claims large-scale forced evictions and serious pollution linked to the
operation have destroyed livelihoods and exposed thousands of people to health risks.
Amnesty International said it also found evidence of illegal activity including possible breaches of
economic sanctions.
"Myanmar o ers the perfect storm of a rich natural resource base, a weak legal system and an
economy dominated by military and special interests," Meghna Abraham, Amnesty International
corporate crimes researcher, said in February.
"The government has forcibly evicted people, crushed all attempts at peaceful protest and
displayed a complete unwillingness to hold companies to account."
Latest News
Amnesty International slams abusive, poorly regulated
Myanmar mining industry
Open-Pit Copper Mining in Myanmar. Photo:
Roger Price/Flickr
MCRB Expresses Concern
About the Impact on
Responsible Investment of the
Amendments to the Virgin,
Vacant and Fallow Lands Law
Jan 10, 2019
About News SWIA Pwint Thit Sa Report Dialogues Submissions to Consultations eNewsletters Useful Resources Contact
1/15/2019 Amnesty International slams abusive, poorly regulated Myanmar mining industry - News
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The Monywa complex comprises the Sabetaung and Kyisintaung, or S&K, and the Letpadaung
copper mines and is jointly owned by China's Wanbao Mining Ltd. and the military-backed Union
of Myanmar Economic Holdings. The Canadian miner formerly known as Ivanhoe Mines, now
Turquoise Hill Resources Ltd., and Myanmar government-owned Mining Enterprise No. 1 were the
original joint venture partners in the project from 1996 until March 2007, when Ivanhoe divested its
50% stake into the third-party Monywa Trust. In 2010, Wanbao parent China North Industries Corp.,
also known as NORINCO, and Union of Myanmar Economic Holdings entered into an agreement
over the Monywa project.
Amnesty International alleges that thousands of people in the 1990s were evicted to make way for
Ivanhoe's mining investment and that the company was aware of the situation but did nothing.
Thousands more people have allegedly been evicted since 2011 to make way for the new
Letpadaung mine that is still under construction and has been continually delayed due to ongoing
community protests. In late December 2014, a clash between Myanmar authorities and protesters
left one person dead and a dozen wounded. Protests were ignited after Wanbao announced it
would resume construction at the site after a two-year delay and villagers were ordered to vacate
their land to enable the building of a fence around the mine area.
Vicky Bowman, director of the Myanmar Centre for Responsible Business (MCRB) told SNL Metals
& Mining that mining companies in Myanmar are generally poorly regulated. "Very few have
environmental impact assessments and established environmental management plans, let alone
have made them public," she said.
However, the Letpadaung mine is a rare exception in that it has a publicly available EIA and EMP,
which were completed by Australian consulting firm Knight Piesold. The problem is that neither
have been the subject of public consultation with all stakeholders, including national-level
nongovernmental organizations, and neither the government nor Wanbao appear to have any
plans to engage with stakeholders, according to Bowman.
She said the EIA is incomplete due to the government not allowing Wanbao to engage with the
most a ected rights holders in the villages to be resettled. "It is also unclear how far the
commitments in the draft EMP are being followed as the company is not engaging face to face
with those who have the most serious concerns about its operations, and has not established any
plans for community-based monitoring that could build trust," Bowman said.
MCRB has sent a letter to the
Chair of the National Land
Use Council expressing
concerns that the rapid
implementation of the amended VFV
Lands Management Law will cause
significant problems for investors seeking
to operate responsibly in Myanmar.
Strengthening Public
Understanding Of
Environmental Impact
Assessment
Jan 02, 2019
MCRB recently worked with
Vermont Law School
(supported by Heinrich Boll
Stiftung), in cooperation with
the Environmental Conservation
Department (ECD) of MONREC, and local
civil society networks, to hold workshops
in Mandalay...
‘Tone from the Top’ is Essential
in Combatting Corruption
Dec 14, 2018
On 5 December 2018, MCRB
and the Union of Myanmar
Chamber of Commerce and
Industry co-hosted the third
of MCRB’s ‘responsible business
seminars’, with a focus on combatting
corruption.
1/15/2019 Amnesty International slams abusive, poorly regulated Myanmar mining industry - News
https://www.myanmar-responsiblebusiness.org/news/amnesty-international-myanmar-mining-industry.html 3/7
Acid factory a health risk Most of the sulfuric acid needed for the S&K mine within the Monywa
complex is supplied by a factory operated by Union of Myanmar Economic Holdings and located
about 200 meters from Kankone village. Villagers told Amnesty International that they su er
respiratory, skin and eye problems that they believe are caused by the factory. They also described
damage to crops in fields adjacent to the factory.
According to Amnesty International, Union of Myanmar Economic Holdings set up the factory in
2007 without approval from the Ministry of Industry, and operated it without permits until July 2013,
when the ministry gave permission for the continued operation of the factory. The Letpadaung
mine and the associated factory are the focus of a parliamentary commission, and the Myanmar
government has established an implementation committee to address the recommendations put
forward by the commission.
Bowman said the mine has been the subject of the most extensive intragovernment consideration
of any foreign investment project in Myanmar, with numerous discussions and visits to the mine.
However, it is still unclear as to what has changed, particularly with respect to the regulation of
pollution from the acid factory.
"Neither government nor company has engaged directly with or responded to the questions of civil
society organizations," Bowman said. "This means that the activities of the committee do not
inspire public trust. Some discussion has taken place in the margins of the Extractives Industries
Transparency Initiative, but it remains to be seen whether this will provide answers to the issues
being raised by communities and those working with them."
Miners respond to allegations Wanbao Mining, Turquoise Hill Resources-owner Rio Tinto and
Ivanhoe Mines founder Robert Friedland responded to Amnesty International's allegations in its
report, "Open for Business? Corporate Crime and Abuses at Myanmar Copper Mine." Friedland,
who founded Ivanhoe in 1994, labeled Amnesty International's claims a "fishing expedition," saying
that Ivanhoe had "severed all connection" to the Myanmar assets almost four years ago, when the
assets were sold by the Monywa Trust.
"I perceive a fishing expedition, the purpose of which, at least as it relates to me, would appear to
involve adding two parts innuendo to two parts insinuation and suggesting that the answer is five,"
he said in a Jan. 30 letter to Amnesty International. "I have no interest in contributing to an exercise
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in sensationalism." Friedland noted that he resigned as a director and CEO of Ivanhoe in 2012, the
same year Rio Tinto took control of the company and renamed it Turquoise Hill Resources.
In his letter to Amnesty International, he took the opportunity to "set the record straight" by
emphasizing that Ivanhoe was never involved in the development or mining of the Letpadaung
deposit during the time that the company was a partner in the Monywa project. Friedland also
stated that Ivanhoe was never secretive about its ownership of the project and disputed Amnesty
International's claim that the Monywa Trust was created solely as a means to obfuscate the
ownership of the Myanmar assets.
"The company retained no interest in the Myanmar assets nor had any interest in any other assets
in Myanmar," he said. "The company had no right to oversee or otherwise involve itself in the
trustee's e orts to dispose of the Myanmar assets." Meanwhile, Wanbao said in its letter to
Amnesty International that the company undertook an environmental and social impact
assessment that took two years to complete, which was based on community consultations and
followed an "exhaustive process."
"During the consultation process a number of environmental and technical issues were raised and
these issues were able to be addressed and resolved," Wanbao said. The company claims its ESIA
has undergone extensive reviews over a 12-month period by a team formed by the Ministry of
Environment Conservation and Forestry and comprising top environmental and social experts as
well as ministries, nongovernmental organizations and community representatives. Wanbao added
that since March 2014, when Amnesty International visited the mine site, its relationship with the
community has been "steadily improving," with 71% of impacted villagers consulted across 35
villages supporting the project.
The company said it had gauged community interest in receiving regular payments of between
US$70 and US$120 a month for the life of the mine, in addition to land compensation, until they get
a job with Wanbao or if they turn down a job o er. Villagers take legal action over tin mine damage
The Monywa operation is not the only project disrupting communities in Myanmar, with the Heinda
tin mine understood to also be causing serious environmental damage.
The mine is owned by Thailand's Myanmar Pongpipat Co. in partnership with the Myanmar
government. The dumping of material from the mine into a river is believed to have caused flooding
that has damaged houses, plantations and farmland, and contaminated drinking water supplies,
1/15/2019 Amnesty International slams abusive, poorly regulated Myanmar mining industry - News
https://www.myanmar-responsiblebusiness.org/news/amnesty-international-myanmar-mining-industry.html 5/7
a ecting the health of villagers. In May 2014, Myaung Pyo villagers in the Dawei district launched
legal action against Myanmar Pongpipat and state-owned Mining Enterprise No. 2, seeking
compensation for the damage caused by the Heinda mine.
"The mine has not engaged adequately with communities to address these problems and villagers
are now suing the mine for damages under tort, in the absence of other available remedies,"
Bowman said. "Since the mine had successfully been running for decades without causing such
damage, prior to it being leased to [Myanmar Pongpipat Co.], it is not clear whether one factor
leading to the damage is a short lease term and a lack of regulation and enforcement, which
combined are leading the mine to high-grade the asset without taking the time to make
appropriate HSE e orts."
Moves to encourage greater transparency Bowman said the MCRB has participated in mining-
related discussions with government and the Myanmar Federation of Mining Associations to raise
awareness of international standards such as those of the IFC and good practices such as those of
the International Council of Mining and Metals. Good practice in community engagement in mining
was also the subject of a two-day MCRB multistakeholder workshop in January which involved
government, companies and civil society.
The center has also contributed advice on operational-level grievance mechanisms in the context
of the Extractives Industries Transparency Initiative. However, Wanbao failed to attend despite
being invited, according to Bowman. "Their failure to engage with civil society groups is one
contributing factor to ensuring that the company continues to lack a social license to operate," she
said.
Read also
River Sand Extraction in Myanmar
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1/15/2019 Amnesty International slams abusive, poorly regulated Myanmar mining industry - News
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Previous
MCRB Wants Public Input into its Business
Transparency Report
Next
MCRB Submits Feedback on the draft Myanmar
Companies Law
Experts object to firms’ plans to mine sand in Tanintharyi Region
Consultation Begins on Draft EIA Guidelines for the Mining Sector
A New Mineral Resources Policy and Fresh Laws are Needed if Mining in Myanmar is ever to be
Sustainable
Distinguish Between the Legal Obligations and Voluntary E orts Needed for a Mine to Earn a ‘Social
Licence to Operate’
MCRB Discusses Beach Sand Mining in Ngwesaung with Pathein Township O icials
Findings from the Mining Sector-Wide Impact Assessment Presented in Geneva and KL
Consultation Meetings Held on the Mining Sector Wide Impact Assessment
Community Engagement with the Private Sector - How to be E ective
MCRB contributes to Australia-Myanmar Chamber of Commerce’s Good Governance in Mining
Seminar in Nya Pyi Taw
MCRB Inputs into the Consultation on Rules to Implement the Mining Law
Sector-Wide Impact Assessment of Myanmar’s Mining Sector
Blended Learning Course on Business and Human Rights at MNHRC by DIHR and MCRB
Funding from governments of UK (DFID), Norway, Switzerland, Netherlands and Ireland.

SAND MINING IS DESTROYING ASIA'S RIVERS

  • 1.
    1/15/2019 From Tibetto the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 1/14 Directory of sites Login Contact Support World Business Markets Politics TV Search... Brexit The Z Factor Imprisoned In Myanmar CES Breakingviews Future of Money World At Work ___ ESG JANUARY 14, 2019 / 7:45 AM / UPDATED 10 HOURS AGO From Tibet to the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand Mai Nguyen, James Pearson 6 MIN RE AD MO CAY, Vietnam (Reuters) - In the dead of night, the entire front half of shopkeeper Ta Thi Kim Anh’s house collapsed. Perched on the sandy banks of the Mekong River, it took just a few minutes for one half of everything she owned to plunge into its murky depths. Discover Thomson Reuters
  • 2.
    1/15/2019 From Tibetto the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 2/14 “Our kitchen, our laundry room, our two bedrooms, all gone,” said Kim Anh, speaking amongst the twisted metal and rubble of her house, from which she still sells eggs, soap and instant noodles to villagers in Ben Tre, a province in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta region. “We’d be better off living in a cave instead,” said Kim Anh, who has used coconut husks and old tires to reinforce the riverbank under her home.
  • 3.
    1/15/2019 From Tibetto the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 3/14 Upstream damming and extensive mining of the Mekong’s riverbed for sand is causing the land between the sprawling network of rivers and channels near the mouth of one of the world’s great rivers to sink at a pace of around 2 cm (0.75 inches) a year, experts and officials said. The 4,350 km (2,700-mile) river, known as the Lancang in its upper reaches, flows from China’s Tibetan Plateau along the borders of Myanmar, Laos and Thailand, through Cambodia and finally Vietnam, where it forms the delta known in Vietnam as the “Nine Dragons”. Reuters visited three provinces straddling different branches of the delta, where it has supported farming and fishing communities for millennia. Across the region, local authorities are struggling with a rapid pace of erosion that is destroying homes and threatening livelihoods in the Southeast Asian country’s largest rice-growing region. A key cause is the years of upstream damming in Cambodia, Laos and China that has removed crucial sediment, local officials and experts said.
  • 4.
    1/15/2019 From Tibetto the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 4/14 That sediment, vital for checking the mighty Mekong’s currents, has also been lost due to an insatiable demand for sand - a key ingredient in concrete and other construction materials in fast-developing Vietnam - that has created a market both at home and abroad for unregulated mining. “It’s not a problem of the lack of water, it’s the lack of sediment,” said Duong Van Ni, an expert on the Mekong River at the College of Natural Resources Management of Can Tho University, the largest city in A boat transports coconuts past a collapsed house damaged by landslide along Mekong river in Mo Cay town, Vietnam December 18, 2018. Picture taken December 18, 2018. REUTERS/Kham
  • 5.
    1/15/2019 From Tibetto the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 5/14 the Mekong Delta region. “SAND NEVER REACHES US” At this time of year the waters of the Mekong used to flow into Vietnam as a milky-brown crawl, locals and officials said. Now, the river runs clear. And without fresh sediment from upstream, the deeper riverbed creates stronger currents, which in turn eat away at the banks of the Mekong, where those who rely on the river for their livelihoods have their homes. The problems began when China built its first hydropower plants in the Upper Mekong Basin, said Ni at Can Tho University. That left Laos, Cambodia and Thailand as the main source of sediment for the Mekong in Vietnam, he said. Sand mining in Cambodia boomed over the last 10 years, fueled in part by demand from wealthy but cramped Singapore, where it is used to reclaim land along its coast, and culminating in a government ban of all Cambodian sand exports in 2017 under pressure from environmental groups. Hydroelectric projects have continued, however. Earlier this month, Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Sen opened a $816 million hydroelectric dam in Stung Treng province, near the border with Laos, built by companies from China, Cambodia and Vietnam.
  • 6.
    1/15/2019 From Tibetto the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 6/14 The new dam is the southeast Asian country’s biggest hydroelectric project to date and will have a catastrophic impact on fisheries and biodiversity in the Mekong river, environmental groups have said. Hun Sen has dismissed criticism of the project, which he says benefits Cambodia and its people. “Since China built hydropower plants, new sand almost never reaches us,” said Ni. “If we use up the sand we have here, there will be no more”. China’s Foreign Ministry said in response to Reuters’ questions that it “pays great attention to the concerns and needs of downstream countries on the Mekong”, adding that its regulation of water flows from hydro dams “has already become an important instrument in preventing floods and droughts”. Singapore’s Ministry of National Development said in a statement emailed to Reuters the city state imports sand on a commercial basis from various countries. “We have stringent controls to ensure that suppliers obtain sand in accordance with the source country’s laws and regulations,” it said. SLINGSHOTS AND SAND THIEVES Slideshow (12 Images)
  • 7.
    1/15/2019 From Tibetto the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 7/14 Regional officials in southwest China’s Yunnan province have defended the building of dams on the Mekong there as “fully legally compliant”. Downstream, however, the problem is made worse by thieves who illegally mine for sand, usually at night. “The unlicensed sand miners are very quick and devious,” Nguyen Quang Thuong, vice head of Ben Tre province’s agriculture department, told Reuters in a recent interview. “They escape very fast, so having groups of local people helping out the authorities is very helpful.” One such group in Ben Tre, some of whom are as old as 67, have been using homemade weapons such as slingshots and rudimentary catapults to drive the sand thieves away. “We patrol 24/7, and in the first few months we managed to get rid of 90 percent of the thieves,” said Nam Lai, one of the group. “Since 2018, none of them dare to go near our shore”. Still, activists and environmental groups worry that on the Mekong, which runs through six countries with competing needs to exploit the river’s hydroelectric potential, the damage has already been done. Chinese court sentences Canadian to death
  • 8.
    1/15/2019 From Tibetto the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 8/14 Pianporn Deetes, at the International Rivers campaign group, who has worked on the Mekong for two decades, said there was a lack of political will among the countries that share the river to acknowledge the cross-border impact of such projects. “Without the recognition of the existing problems, I don’t think there is any hope,” she said. Reporting by Mai Nguyen and James Pearson; Additional reporting by Kham Nguyen and Minh Nguyen in MO CAY, Vietnam; Prak Chan Thul in PHNOM PENH; Aradhana Aravindan in SINGAPORE and Ben Blanchard in BEIJING; Editing by Alex Richardson Our Standards: The Thomson Reuters Trust Principles. WORLD NEWS JANUARY 14, 2019 / 8:01 PM / UPDATED 34 MINUTES AGO China court sentences Canadian to death as diplomatic row deepens Philip Wen, Christian Shepherd, David Ljunggren 5 MIN RE AD BEIJING/OTTAWA (Reuters) - A Chinese court on Monday sentenced a Canadian man to be executed for drug smuggling, prompting Canada’s Prime Minister Justin Trudeau to accuse China of using the death penalty arbitrarily.
  • 9.
    1/15/2019 From Tibetto the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 9/14 The ruling, and Trudeau’s reaction, could aggravate already sour relations between Beijing and Ottawa following the arrest of a senior Chinese executive in Canada and China’s subsequent detention of two Canadians. The Dalian Intermediate People’s Court in China’s northeast province of Liaoning re-tried Robert Lloyd Schellenberg, who had appealed his original 15-year prison sentence, and decided on execution, the
  • 10.
    1/15/2019 From Tibetto the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 10/14 court said in a statement. Schellenberg was told in court he had the right to appeal to Liaoning High Court within 10 days upon receiving the ruling, the intermediate court said in a second statement. “It is of extreme concern to us as a government, as it should be to all our international friends and allies, that China has chosen to begin to arbitrarily apply (the) death penalty ... as in this case,” Trudeau told reporters in Ottawa. Schellenberg’s aunt, Lauri Nelson-Jones, said the family’s worst fears had been confirmed. “Our thoughts are with Robert at this time. It is rather unimaginable what he must be feeling and thinking,” she said in a statement to Reuters. “It is a horrific, unfortunate, heartbreaking situation. We anxiously anticipate any news regarding an appeal.” China-Canada ties turned icy in early December after Meng Wanzhou, chief financial officer of Chinese telecommunications giant Huawei Technologies Co Ltd [HWT.UL], was arrested in Vancouver on a U.S. extradition warrant. China warned of unspecified consequences unless Meng was released, and detained Michael Kovrig, a Canadian diplomat on unpaid leave from the embassy in Beijing, and Michael Spavor, a Canadian consultant, on suspicion of endangering state security.
  • 11.
    1/15/2019 From Tibetto the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 11/14 Beijing has not drawn a direct link between the detentions and the arrest of Meng, wanted by U.S. authorities for allegedly misleading multinational banks about Iran-linked transactions. Western diplomats in Beijing, however, say the cases are a tit-for-tat reprisal. Lu Shaye, China’s ambassador to Canada, suggested in a newspaper article last week that the arrest of Kovrig and Spavor was “China’s self-defense,” but did not give details. Earlier on Monday, China’s government dismissed Trudeau’s statement that Kovrig enjoyed some form of diplomatic immunity. A Chinese foreign ministry spokeswoman said Trudeau should “earnestly study” the Vienna Convention governing diplomatic ties so as to “not become a laughing stock.” Trudeau said Ottawa “will continue to engage strongly” with Beijing over Kovrig’s status and what he called China’s arbitrary use of justice. Rights groups condemned the Schellenberg sentence while Guy St-Jacques, who was Canada’s ambassador in Beijing when Kovrig worked there, expressed concern at how quickly the courts had acted.
  • 12.
    1/15/2019 From Tibetto the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 12/14 “The Canadian government will make representations in Beijing, but based on past experience I am not sure whether this will work,” he told the CBC. “We are in a very difficult place.” FILE PHOTO: A general view of the Intermediate People's Court of Dalian, where the trial for Robert Lloyd Schellenberg, a Canadian citizen on drug smuggling charges, will be held, in Liaoning province, China January 14, 2019. REUTERS/Stringer
  • 13.
    1/15/2019 From Tibetto the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 13/14 222 KG OF METHAMPHETAMINE St-Jacques said Canada should immediately call for a top-level meeting of foreign policy and security advisers from the two nations “to impress upon the Chinese side that they have to abide by international law”. Alex Lawrence, chief spokesman for Canadian Foreign Minister Chrystia Freeland, declined to comment. William Nee of Amnesty International noted that drug-related offences did not meet the threshold of the “most serious crimes” to which the death penalty must be restricted under international law. Drug smuggling is routinely punished severely in China. Beijing has previously executed foreign nationals convicted of drug-related crimes - a Briton was executed in 2009. The court said Schellenberg had conspired with others in an attempt to smuggle 222 kg (489.43 lb) of methamphetamine from China to Australia in late 2014. Chinese state television said in an earlier report that Schellenberg argued in court that he was a tourist visiting China and was framed by criminals. A lawyer for Schellenberg, Zhang Dongshuo, told Reuters his client would probably appeal against the death sentence.
  • 14.
    1/15/2019 From Tibetto the 'Nine Dragons', Vietnam's Mekong Delta is losing sand https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-mekong/from-tibet-to-the-nine-dragons-vietnams-mekong-delta-is-losing-sand-idUSKCN1P8018 14/14 Apps Newsletters Advertise with Us Advertising Guidelines Cookies Terms of Use Privacy All quotes delayed a minimum of 15 minutes. See here for a complete list of exchanges and delays. © 2019 Reuters. All Rights Reserved. The Liaoning High Court in late December ordered the case retried after prosecutors said the sentence was too light and improper. Beijing considers the number of people executed in China to be a state secret. International human rights organizations estimate the annual figure at around 2,000. Additional reporting by Michael Martina in BEIJING, Meg Shen and Twinnie Siu in HONG KONG, Tyler Choi in TORONTO; Writing by Se Young Lee and David Ljunggren; editing by Mark Heinrich and Marguerita Choy Our Standards: The Thomson Reuters Trust Principles.
  • 15.
    1/15/2019 As sandmining grows, Asia’s deltas are sinking, water experts warn | Reuters https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-sandmining-water/as-sand-mining-grows-asias-deltas-are-sinking-water-experts-warn-idUSKCN1M1244 1/6 Directory of sites Login Contact Support World Business Markets Politics TV Search... Brexit The Z Factor Imprisoned In Myanmar CES Breakingviews Future of Money World At Work BIG STORY 10 SEPTEMBER 21, 2018 / 10:40 PM / 4 MONTHS AGO As sand mining grows, Asia’s deltas are sinking, water experts warn Manipadma Jena 5 MIN RE AD STOCKHOLM (Thomson Reuters Foundation) - Sand mining from rivers is depriving many low-lying Asian deltas of the sediment they need to maintain themselves, raising the risk of worsening land loss to sea level rise, researchers say. Combined with losses of soil-holding mangroves and accelerating groundwater extraction, which can lead to land sinking, the mining is increasing climate-related threats for those living in low-lying coastal Discover Thomson Reuters
  • 16.
    1/15/2019 As sandmining grows, Asia’s deltas are sinking, water experts warn | Reuters https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-sandmining-water/as-sand-mining-grows-asias-deltas-are-sinking-water-experts-warn-idUSKCN1M1244 2/6 areas, they said. “We have created a recipe for climate disaster,” said Marc Goichot of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). Deltas dependent on the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna, Mekong and Yangtze rivers are now sinking and shrinking, according to research carried out by WWF – a situation worsened by climate-related warming and rising sea level. That is a problem not only because the deltas are home to millions of people but because they produce a significant share of the region’s food. The Mekong delta, for instance, home to 17 million people, is a major source of rice for the region and underpins a quarter of Vietnam’s GDP, Goichot said. “It is 40,000 square kilometers – larger than many countries - and most of it is sinking,” he said. MORE FLOODS, MORE SALT At the heart of the problem, Goichot said, is a lack of enough sediment moving down the rivers – and much of that is the result of mining of sand as a construction material and for other uses, he said. In some major rivers in Asia, such as the Mekong, Yangtze and Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna, as much as 90 percent of the sediment that once traveled down the system is now collecting in reservoirs or
  • 17.
    1/15/2019 As sandmining grows, Asia’s deltas are sinking, water experts warn | Reuters https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-sandmining-water/as-sand-mining-grows-asias-deltas-are-sinking-water-experts-warn-idUSKCN1M1244 3/6 being mined, WWF’s research showed. That means much less material is arriving in delta areas to replace soil lost to coastal erosion and other natural processes. For those living in the deltas, it can mean growing risk of floods, inundation from coastal storm surges and worsening salt contamination in drinking water. Kusum Athukorala, former chair of the Sri Lanka Water Partnership, said the loss of sand also means less water-storage capacity in rivers, and less water flowing in to restore aquifers. That is a particular problem as climate change brings longer and hotter dry season and growing water stress, he said. Worldwide, over half a billion people live in delta areas, WWF said. According to the U.N. Environment Programme, though record keeping is poor, global consumption of sand and gravel likely exceeded 40 billion tonnes in 2012, up from 9 billion tonnes in the 1970s, making it one of the world’s most extracted resources by volume. “To give a sense of its use, for every bucket of cement, five to seven buckets of sand are used in concrete. For every kilometer of road built, 30,000 tonnes of sand is used as its base,” Goichot said. But sand is just as important in the river systems it is harvested from, he said.
  • 18.
    1/15/2019 As sandmining grows, Asia’s deltas are sinking, water experts warn | Reuters https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-sandmining-water/as-sand-mining-grows-asias-deltas-are-sinking-water-experts-warn-idUSKCN1M1244 4/6 “Keeping sand in the rivers is the best adaptation to climate change. If a river delta receives enough sediment, it builds itself above sea level in a natural reaction,” Goichot, told the Thomson Reuters Foundation in an interview in Stockholm. GROWING DEMAND But sand mining also feeds Asia’s rapidly growing cities. New buildings and roads require it and urban land is often expanded by pouring sand into wetlands or rice paddies. The island state of Singapore has expanded its land area 20 percent in the last 50 years, using sand dredged from the seabed but also imported by Vietnam, Malaysia and Cambodia, said Goichot. Sand mining remains unregulated in many areas, however, and illegal sand mining operations operate in as many as 70 countries worldwide, Goichot said. “In India unregulated sand mining is really an (escalating) menace,” said Himanshu Thakkar, coordinator of the South Asia Network on Dams, Rivers and People (SANDRP). India issues sand mining licenses, he said, which limit the quantities of sand that can be taken and the locations where mining is allowed. But with limited monitoring, “the actual mining may be very different,” he said.
  • 19.
    1/15/2019 As sandmining grows, Asia’s deltas are sinking, water experts warn | Reuters https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-sandmining-water/as-sand-mining-grows-asias-deltas-are-sinking-water-experts-warn-idUSKCN1M1244 5/6 Apps Newsletters Advertise with Us Advertising Guidelines Cookies Terms of Use Privacy All quotes delayed a minimum of 15 minutes. See here for a complete list of exchanges and delays. © 2019 Reuters. All Rights Reserved. River sand is preferred for construction in many cases because desert sand is too rounded to bind concrete well, while seabed sand contains salt that can corrode metal and dredging it can be costly. But too much harvesting of river sand is now taking a toll on those living downstream, Goichot said, with the Mekong delta, for instance, losing 12 metres of land along its coast each year, the equivalent of a football field and a half of land every day. In India, insufficient effort is being put into finding alternative sources of sand, including from construction waste or de-silting of reservoirs, Thakkar said. That means “the rivers and everyone dependent on them are sufferers”. Reporting by Manipadma Jena ; editing by Laurie Goering : Please credit the Thomson Reuters Foundation, the charitable arm of Thomson Reuters, that covers humanitarian news, climate change, resilience, women's rights, trafficking and property rights. Visit news.trust.org/climate Our Standards: The Thomson Reuters Trust Principles.
  • 20.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 1/26 Search here...   English नेपाली िह ी বাংলা ‫اردو‬ Sandmining is destroying Asia’s rivers Uncontrolled and mostly illegal extraction of sand and rocks from riverbeds for construction is killing rivers across South Asia and China, and must be tightly controlled Home About Topics River Basins Countries Explore Maps & Data Share a map Subscribe
  • 21.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 2/26 Banned in 1991, sand mining from riverbeds continues illegally in Nepal [image by Nabin Baral]
  • 22.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 3/26 Categories: Articles Tags: biodiversity governance rivers Regions: Bangladesh China India Myanmar Nepal Pakistan Topics: Biodiversity Water Share this story There is no house or road or bridge or port in South Asia whose builders can claim to have built it with legally obtained sand alone. Illegal mining of sand from riverbeds is so ubiquitous in the subcontinent that on the rare occasions it is stopped temporarily by a judicial order, house prices go up and editorials criticising the judgement are written in financial newspapers. Reporting illegal sand mining is the most dangerous thing a journalist can do in India. In the last couple of years, three journalists have been killed, allegedly by the illegal sand mining mafia, one each in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar. A fourth journalist reporting on illegal mining of sand from the beaches of Tamil Nadu has been repeatedly threatened; anonymous callers – claiming to speak on behalf of a local politician from the party that rules the state – have ordered her to stay away from the area or else. The Third Pole, May 5, 2017 Tweet 0 Like Share ShareShare
  • 23.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 4/26 Post monsoon sand being extracted daily out of rivers near Mangalore [image by Ashwin Kamath] Apart from journalists, there was the death of the monk who opposed illegal sand mining around Hardwar, where the Ganga comes down from the Himalayas and enters the north Indian plains. The monk had been on hunger strike and had been taken to hospital, where he died. Mystery surrounds the cause of his death.
  • 24.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 5/26 Still, activists have continued to oppose illegal sand mining in India. The recent order by the Uttarakhand High Court declaring the Ganga and the Yamuna as living entities was in response to a petition by an activist, seeking an end to illegal sand mining around Hardwar. As part of the same order, the court banned all sand mining in the area for four months, and asked the government what it planned to do to stop illegal mining. There is no response from the authorities yet. There was a recent raid on illegal miners in the suburbs of India’s capital New Delhi a er a rash of media reports. Within hours, some morning walkers at the Okhla Bird Sanctuary along the Yamuna river were beaten up, reportedly by miners who suspected that walkers and joggers had informed the authorities about the illegal extraction. In India, perhaps the most blatant case of illegal sand mining takes place in the lowest reaches of the Ganga, between the Farakka barrage and the confluence of the river with the Bay of Bengal. Pontoons are anchored in the middle of the river, large pumps are set up on them, and the sand is pumped up and sent to the riverbank through a pipe. Asked about this, o icials in the West Bengal state government said that the riverbed is under the jurisdiction of either local municipalities or the National Waterways Authority of India (NWAI). The mayor of
  • 25.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 6/26 Chandannagar – one of the largest municipalities along this stretch of the river – said it was the responsibility of his counterpart on the other bank. There was no o icial response from NWAI. Uno icially, its o icials say they cannot do anything because local politicians are involved in illegal sand mining. One of them also said, “We keep quiet because extracting the sand and the silt keeps the navigation channel dredged and open.” The e ects are there for all to see. Riverbank erosion has increased, to the point that one of the bridges over the Ganga has become unusable – a girder collapsed because so much sand and silt were removed around its foundations. Residents now have to take a slow ferry or a 50 kilometre detour to cross the river. Illegal sand mining from the mountains to the sea in Pakistan For over 12 years Nadeem Mirbahar, an ecologist and expert at the IUCN Commission on Ecosystem Management, has been watching sand and gravel being dug illegally from the bed of the Malir river that flows through parts of Karachi and the Hub river in Pakistan’s southwestern province of Balochistan. But the government remains indi erent. “It’s an issue about which most people are not aware, not even the communities living near the riverbed
  • 26.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 7/26 create a ruckus. Therefore there no state policy or planning to control the indiscriminate excavation of the riverbeds by identifying and designating areas from where the miners can quarry the building material. That is causing a colossal ecological problem,” Mirbahar told thethirdpole.net. “The people along the Malir who rely on wells o en complain not just of a drop in the water levels with many wells running dry, but of water quality degradation,” said Mirbahar. However, the residents do not realise sand mining is one of the main reasons. The sand acts as a filter before the water percolates into the ground, and so without the sand, water will just rush down to become flash floods downstream.
  • 27.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 8/26 Mining in Poonch river using heavy machinery is destroying river habitats [image courtesy: Hagler Bailly Pakistan] The situation is similar across the the Jhelum river (in Punjab), and the Neelum and the Kunhar rivers (in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), according to Vaqar Zakaria, an environmental flow specialist and managing director of Hagler Bailly Pakistan, a consultancy firm. See Riverbed mining destroys rivers in Jhelum basin
  • 28.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 9/26 Zakaria thinks the impact of sand mining may be less downstream in the plains, as river ecology evolves with the change in slope. However, less sediment flowing down the rivers does result in erosion of the banks and loss of fertility in irrigated areas and delta regions. Trapping of sediment in the Mangla resevoir on the Jhelum, for example, has reduced fish species downstream of the dam. Clearer waters mean the predators have a field day eating the young of other fish. For over 12 years, Zakaria has been working in the Poonch river in the Mahaseer National Park. Its entire stretch from the Indian border to Mangla dam was declared a national park in 2010. The river has a high diversity of fish species, particularly the endangered Mahaseer (Tor putitora), which was on the IUCN Red List in 2013. Yet, says Zakaria, extensive sand and gravel mining and illegal fishing continues at several locations along the river, due to ine ective protection and management. Sand mining and gravel extraction picks up every winter, when the water flow is low, and it is easier to mine the sand from the exposed riverbed. Nowadays, it is no longer a matter of using manual shovels and spades. Mechanised shovels and donkeys with tractors tear apart the riverbed. Rampant illegal riverbed mining in Nepal
  • 29.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 10/26 In 1991, the government of Nepal banned riverbed sand mining citing the collapse of a bridge on the Bagmati river in Kathmandu. But illegal sand mining is still rampant in most rivers across the country. A case study done by Tribhuvan University in 2007 said that about 40% of the total demand for sand in the Kathmandu valley was met through illegal riverbed mining. As the activities are illegal, it was hard to quantify the amount of sand being extracted, the authors of the study pointed out. According to this and other studies, significant sand and gravel extraction from riverbeds started in the 1960s and has been increasing exponentially as the demand for construction materials rises due to rapid urbanisation. “Most of the riverbed extraction destroys the vegetative cover of the aquatic environment and reduce the nutrient inputs into the river so its severely a ects aquatic life,” said Subodh Sharma, professor at the department of environmental sciences and engineering in Kathmandu University. Uncontrolled riverbed mining has also put bridges in danger, as riverbeds have been lowered significantly. A study done in western Nepal’s Tinau river revealed that the riverbed has been lowered by 2.5 metres in the last 15 years. “We haven’t done enough studies of the impact yet,” said
  • 30.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 11/26 Sharma. “Whatever little we have done shows that the future of our rivers is very uncertain and they have been raped. It is not a term I want to use, but I cannot find another.” Sand mafia too strong for Bangladesh o icials In Bangladesh, illegal sand mining from rivers and wetlands is carried out with support from elected public representatives, according to local residents. Construction companies install heavy machinery in the rivers and extract sand, damaging not just the riverbed but the farms on the banks. Illegal sand extraction hastens riverbank erosion across the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna delta that makes up most of Bangladesh. The sand thus extracted is used not only for the construction industry, but also to fill in wetlands prior to laying claim over it.
  • 31.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 12/26 In Bangladesh sandmining happens in the open, here at the Dharla river in Kurigram [image by: Sheikh Rokon] Recent media reports say illegal sand mining is rampant Narayanganj, Tangail, Sirajganj, Munshiganj, Rajshahi and Manikganj districts, and almost rivers of Bangladesh – big and small – are a ected. There is hardly ever any action taken against the illegal sand mining mafia, despite complaints from green activists. Syed Rizwana Hasan, chief executive of Bangladesh Environmental Lawyers’ Association (BELA) told thethirdpole.net, “Use of heavy
  • 32.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 13/26 machinery leading to indiscriminate and unscientific mining has become a cause of concern as these are changing the riverbed characteristics and exacerbating riverbank erosion. In Bangladesh, most of the sand mining from rivers is being done with the support of elected public representatives as they are not aware of the damages.” Exporting sand To add to this, the Bangladesh government has recently decided to start exporting sand to Maldives and Singapore, a er extracting it from the bed of the Jamuna river, as the Brahmaputra is called in Bangladesh.
  • 33.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 14/26 Labourers, allegedly backed by politicians, cart away sand from Jamuneshwari River in Nilphamari [image by Sheikh Rokon] The decision was reportedly taken at a meeting of the National Sand Corridor Management Committee with land minister Shamsur Rahman Sharif in the chair on March 5. The ministry stated that the sand would be sold at 1 taka (about 1 US cent) per cubic feet. China, the biggest sand market In China, demand for sand is greater than anywhere else in the world due to rapid urbanisation. Demand for cement has increased 400% over the past two decades, according to the United Nations Environment Programme. In the past four years, China has used more cement than the US used in the entire 20th century. Cement manufacturing needs sand, and all that sand has to come from somewhere. In the region around Shanghai, it came until recently from the bed of the Yangtze River. By the late 1990s miners had pulled out so much that bridges were destabilised, shipping was hampered, and swaths of riverbank collapsed.
  • 34.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 15/26 In 2000, Chinese authorities banned the activity along the lower and middle reaches of the river.  This simply drove many sand miners to Poyang Lake, China’s largest freshwater body of water that flows into the Yangtze about 600 kilometres upstream of Shanghai. NASA’s Earth Observatory released dramatic satellite images of Poyang Lake. Comparing images from 1995 and 2013, the agency showed how miners had dramatically transformed the lake.
  • 35.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 16/26 Poyang lake in 1995 [image by: Nasa Earth Observatory]
  • 36.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 17/26 Poyang lake in 2013 [image by: Nasa Earth Observatory]
  • 37.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 18/26 A recent study estimates that 236 million cubic metres of sand are removed from the lake very year —about 9% of the total produced by China. That makes Poyang the biggest sand mine on the planet. Researchers say sand mining is the major reason why the lake’s water level has dropped dramatically in recent years. The lower water levels have led to declining water quality and supply to surrounding wetlands – Asia’s largest winter migration spot for endangered Siberian cranes and white storks. Mekong sand The Mekong river is another major source of sand for China’s construction industry. On the Yunnan stretch of the river, sand dredging is generally allowed with permission from county or provincial authorities, who have banned sand dredging in certain places, usually in ecological hotspots. But there hasn’t yet been a clear assessment of how exactly sand dredging operations in Yunnan have a ected the biodiversity and fish populations of the Mekong. However, the overall loss of sediment, from dredging and also held back by large dams, has visibly transformed river landscapes in countries like Vietnam, where the rich Mekong delta constitutes the region’s rice bowl.
  • 38.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 19/26 Dredging has taken place for years along the Mekong, but the industrial scale is relatively new. On the Lower Mekong between Laos and Vietnam, 50 million tonnes of sand were extracted in 2011 alone, WWF estimates – much more than the river produces in a year. See Why silt is so important for the Mekong This led the riverbed to drop by more than a metre in the delta between 1998 and 2008, allowing salt water to seep further into rice paddy fields and the entire delta to subside. The solution A complete ban on sand mining would have the same e ect as a prohibition on alcohol or prostitution – it would only drive the industry further underground and raise house prices, as happens every time the authorities try to clamp down on the practice. Across the countries, all experts agree that the one practical solution is to designate stretches of rivers from which sand can be extracted – and this designation must be done on ecological principles. Contracts for mining along these stretches can be given in a transparent manner. It will enable
  • 39.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 20/26 Harnessing South Asia’s riversAugust 15, 2012 Will waterways succeed where motorways have not?October 31, 2017 Top 2017 stories: Sandmining is destroying South Asia’s abused wetlands surviving – just the authorities to control the amount of sand and gravel extracted. It will also earn them royalty – they get nothing now. Various state governments in India and national governments in other South Asian countries have such stretches where extraction of sand and gravel from the riverbed is permitted and licensed. But this system has not kept pace with the demand for construction material, and that needs to be sorted out immediately. Sri Lanka has just passed a law to regulate and have a proper mechanism to mine sand, gravel, and rocks, a law that can serve as a model for other countries in the region. Share this story Related Posts Tweet0 Like Share ShareShare
  • 40.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 21/26 Asia’s riversDecember 27, aboutFebruary 02, 2016 Reply 5 comments Waldo Terry | Friday May 5th, 2017 at 06:32 PM I do not agree with the “solution” you propose, that is not a solution: River mining must be absolutely prohibited because it is an activity incompatible with its sustainability. The solution: Look for other sources of construction material supply; to make more e icient its use; to reuse the rubbish and waste of construction material and of the roads. Krishna Roka | Monday May 8th, 2017 at 07:43 AM I think Waldo Terry’s comment is better than the one suggested by the author of the article.
  • 41.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 22/26 Reply Reply Arturs Pupausis | Wednesday November 15th, 2017 at 01:55 AM So this means that concrete is not “renewable” or sustainable, period. I would like to hear from anyone to prove me wrong. The problem with Chinese construction is that it is o en poor quality and does for possibly even takes twice as much concrete than in US when comparing average lifespan of a building. It means the solution is to make longer lasting buildings, at end of their lifespan reuse as much material as possible. As well make more e icient use of indoor space. But ultimately economics are geared towards resources over consumption ;-( Maybe tax on construction may help if that money would not be wasted for running tax o ice, but going to research and use of construction material reuse. Waldo Terry | Friday May 5th, 2017 at 08:28 PM
  • 42.
    1/15/2019 Sandmining isdestroying Asia’s rivers | The Third PoleThe Third Pole https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/05/05/sandmining-is-destroying-asias-rivers/ 23/26 Reply Reply I do not agree with the “solution” you propose, that is not a solution. River mining must be absolutely prohibited because it is an activity incompatible with its sustainability. The solution: Look for other sources of construction material supply; to make more e icient its use; to reuse the rubbish and waste of construction material and of the roads. Dr Satendra K Jain | Tuesday May 9th, 2017 at 10:38 AM The one of the best alternative is Bottom Ash produced at Coal Fired Thermal Power Plant. If anyone using it and wish to use may please inform at skj108@gmail.com Leave a Reply
  • 43.
    1/15/2019 Sand mining:the global environmental crisis you’ve never heard of | Cities | The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/feb/27/sand-mining-global-environmental-crisis-never-heard 1/13
  • 44.
    1/15/2019 Sand mining:the global environmental crisis you’ve never heard of | Cities | The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/feb/27/sand-mining-global-environmental-crisis-never-heard 2/13 Sand mining: the global environmental crisis you’ve probably never heard of Vince Beiser Cities is supported by About this content From Cambodia to California, industrial scale sand mining is causing wildlife to die, local trade to wither and bridges to collapse. And booming urbanisation means the demand for this increasingly valuable resource is unlikely to let up Mon 27 Feb 2017 07.15 GMT T imes are good for Fey Wei Dong. A genial, middle-aged businessman based near Shanghai, China, Fey says he is raking in the equivalent of £180,000 a year from trading in the humblest of commodities: sand. Fey often works in a fishing village on Poyang Lake, China’s biggest freshwater lake and a haven for millions of migratory birds and several endangered species. The village is little more than a tiny collection of ramshackle houses and battered wooden docks. It is dwarfed by a flotilla anchored just offshore, of colossal dredges and barges, hulking metal flatboats with cranes jutting from their decks. Fey comes here regularly to buy boatloads of raw sand dredged from Poyang’s bottom. He ships it 300 miles down the Yangtze River and resells it to builders in booming Shanghai who need it to make concrete. The demand is voracious. The global urbanisation boom is devouring colossal amounts of sand – the key ingredient of concrete and asphalt. Shanghai, China’s financial centre, has exploded in the last 20 years. The city has added 7 million new residents since 2000, raising its population to more than 23 million. In the last decade, Shanghai has built more high-rises than there are in all of New York City, as
  • 45.
    1/15/2019 Sand mining:the global environmental crisis you’ve never heard of | Cities | The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/feb/27/sand-mining-global-environmental-crisis-never-heard 3/13 well as countless miles of roads and other infrastructure. “My sand helped build Shanghai Pudong airport,” Fey brags. Hundreds of dredgers may be on the lake on any given day, some the size of tipped-over apartment buildings. The biggest can haul in as much as 10,000 tonnes of sand an hour. A recent study estimates that 236m cubic metres of sand are taken out of the lake annually. That makes Poyang the biggest sand mine on the planet, far bigger than the three largest sand mines in the US combined. “I couldn’t believe it when we did the calculations,” says David Shankman, a University of Alabama geographer and one of the study’s authors. All that dredging, researchers believe, is a key reason why the lake’s water level has dropped dramatically in recent years. So much sand has been scooped out, says Shankman – 30 times more than the amount that flows in from tributary rivers – that the lake’s outflow channel has been drastically deepened and widened, nearly doubling the amount of water that flows into the Yangtze. The lower water levels are translating into declines in water quality and supply to surrounding wetlands. It could be ruinous for the area’s inhabitants, both animal and human.
  • 46.
    1/15/2019 Sand mining:the global environmental crisis you’ve never heard of | Cities | The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/feb/27/sand-mining-global-environmental-crisis-never-heard 4/13 A building problem Poyang Lake, which sits in a verdant rural area best known for a waterfall in the nearby hills, is Asia’s largest winter destination for migratory birds. It hosts millions of cranes, geese and storks during the cold months – as well as several endangered and rare species. It is also one of the few remaining habitats for the endangered freshwater porpoise. Studies have found that the sediment stirred up and the noise generated by sand boats interfere with the porpoise’s vision and sonar so drastically they cannot find fish and shrimp to feed on. And there are fewer fish to be found in the first place, say locals. “The boats are destroying our fishing areas,” says one wrinkled fisherwoman selling plastic bags of crayfish. The dredging destroys fish breeding grounds, muddies the water and tears up her nets. These days, she says, she’s lucky to make £1,200 a year. “I’ve been fishing here for 30 years, and there are fewer and fewer fish,” says Tan Jung Hwa, another local fisherman. He’s taken to working part-time on the sand boats because he can’t earn enough otherwise. The intersection of Poyang Lake and the Yangtze River. Photograph: Xinhua/Rex/Shutterstock
  • 47.
    1/15/2019 Sand mining:the global environmental crisis you’ve never heard of | Cities | The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/feb/27/sand-mining-global-environmental-crisis-never-heard 5/13 Lake Poyang may be a unique place, but the damage being done there is not. All around the world, riverbeds and beaches are being stripped bare, and farmlands and forests torn up to get at the precious sand grains. It’s a worldwide crisis that nobody has heard about. The main driver of this crisis is our era’s unprecedented urban growth. Cities are expanding at a pace and on a scale far greater than at any time in human history. The number of people living in urban areas has more than quadrupled since 1950, to about 4 billion today. More than half of the world’s people now live in cities – with another 2.5 billion to come in the next three decades, according to the UN. All these new cities require mind-boggling amounts of sand. Just about every apartment block, skyscraper, office tower and shopping mall that gets built anywhere from Beijing to Lagos is made with concrete, which is essentially just sand and gravel glued together with cement. Every yard of asphalt road that connects those buildings is also made with sand. So is every window in every one of those buildings. In India, the amount of construction sand used annually has more than tripled since 2000, and is still rising fast. There is so much demand for certain types of construction sand that Dubai, which sits on the edge of an enormous desert, imports sand from Australia. Sand dredgers in Poyang Lake by Hamashu village. Sand mined here is sold to builders in Shanghai. Photograph: Vince Beiser
  • 48.
    1/15/2019 Sand mining:the global environmental crisis you’ve never heard of | Cities | The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/feb/27/sand-mining-global-environmental-crisis-never-heard 6/13 China in particular is on a city-building spree that beggars anything the world has ever seen. Over half a billion Chinese now live in urban areas, triple the total of 60 years ago. That’s roughly equal to the populations of the US, Canada and Mexico combined. China is also home to the world’s biggest urban agglomeration: the Pearl River Delta, across from Hong Kong, bursting with somewhere between 42 and 60 million inhabitants. Even Nanchang, the unglamorous provincial city that is the nearest major urban area to Lake Poyang, is fringed with fast-growing forests of high-rise apartment blocks. In the past few years, China has used more cement than the US used in the entire 20th century. Last year alone, the nation used enough construction sand to cover the entire state of New York an inch deep. All that sand has to come from somewhere. In the region around Shanghai, it came until recently from the bed of the Yangtze River. That turned out to be a bad idea. By the late 1990s miners had pulled out so much that bridges were undermined, shipping was snarled, and 1,000ft swaths of riverbank collapsed. Unnerved by the damage to a waterway that provides water to 400 million people, Chinese authorities banned sand mining on the Yangtze in 2000. That sent the miners swarming to Poyang Lake.
  • 49.
    1/15/2019 Sand mining:the global environmental crisis you’ve never heard of | Cities | The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/feb/27/sand-mining-global-environmental-crisis-never-heard 7/13 The boats used to dig up the sand are essentially gigantic floating platforms, fitted with two huge conveyor belts studded with buckets that haul up sand from the bottom of the lake. The sand is then transferred to transport ships. In one narrow part of the lake, dozens of dredgers extend from the shore in a line, leaving only a narrow passageway for a tugboat hauling a barge piled up with yellow sand. “We used to make more money, but now there is too much competition,” complains a crew member aboard one of the dredgers. “There are too many people doing this job.” Catastrophic damage Sand mining is causing environmental damage worldwide. In some places locals dig out riverbanks with shovels and haul it away with pickup trucks or donkeys; in others multinational companies dredge it up with machinery. Everywhere, the process impacts its surroundings in ways that range from cosmetic to catastrophic. Fishers on Lake Poyang look out at industrial sand dredging boats. Photograph: Vince Beiser
  • 50.
    1/15/2019 Sand mining:the global environmental crisis you’ve never heard of | Cities | The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/feb/27/sand-mining-global-environmental-crisis-never-heard 8/13 In mid-January, just north of Monterey, California, several dozen cheering activists made an odd political statement: they dumped 200 pounds of bagged, store-bought sand onto a beach. They were returning the grains to where they had come from. The sand had originally been mined from that beach – a beach which, according to researchers, is gradually disappearing as a result. “This is the fastest eroding shoreline in California,” says professor Ed Thornton, a retired coastal engineer with the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey who has been studying the impact of the mine for years and who spoke at the demonstration. “We’re losing eight acres a year of pristine shore, some of the most beautiful in the world. It’s because of sand mining.” (A spokesperson for Cemex, the company that operates the mine, says via email that Thornton’s conclusions “are based on what we believe to be erroneous, speculative data and unsound theory”.) The beach is the only one in the US that is still being mined for construction sand. Cemex, a global construction firm based in Mexico, operates a dredger that sucks up an estimated 270,000 cubic metres of sand every year. For most of the 20th century there were many such sand mines along the California coast, but in the late 1980s the federal government shut them down due to the erosion being suffered by the Golden State’s famous beaches. The Cemex plant is still operating thanks to a legal loophole – it appears to sit above the mean high-tide line, putting it out of federal jurisdiction. But protesters want state authorities to step in.
  • 51.
    1/15/2019 Sand mining:the global environmental crisis you’ve never heard of | Cities | The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/feb/27/sand-mining-global-environmental-crisis-never-heard 9/13 Environmentalists in many places are similarly calling on their governments to rein in sand mining. In Northern Ireland, activists are trying to stop dredging in Lough Neagh, an important bird sanctuary. In southern England, developers want to dredge sand to expand the port of Dover from a stretch of offshore sandbars and shoals, prompting an outcry from conservationists who fear that would endanger the seals, birds and other marine life for whom the sandbars provide habitat and food. Different types of sand mining inflict different types of damage. Dredging from river beds destroys the habitat of bottom-dwelling creatures and organisms. The churned-up sediment clouds the water, suffocating fish and blocking the sunlight that sustains underwater vegetation. Kenyan officials shut down all river sand mines in one part of the country a few years ago because of the environmental damage it was causing. India’s supreme court recently warned that “the alarming rate of unrestricted sand mining” is disrupting riparian ecosystems all over the country, with fatal consequences for fish and other aquatic organisms and “disaster” for many bird species. Demonstrators protest against sand mining operations in Marina, California, in January 2017. Photograph: Adara Shilling
  • 52.
    1/15/2019 Sand mining:the global environmental crisis you’ve never heard of | Cities | The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/feb/27/sand-mining-global-environmental-crisis-never-heard 10/13 Sand extraction from rivers has also caused millions of dollars in damage to infrastructure. When stirred, sediment clogs up water supply equipment, and all the earth removed from river banks leaves the foundations of bridges exposed and unsupported. A 1998 study found that each tonne of aggregate mined from a California river caused $3 in infrastructure damage – costs that are borne by taxpayers. In Ghana, sand miners have dug up so much ground that they have exposed the foundations of hillside buildings, putting them at risk of collapse. It’s not just a theoretical risk. Sand mining caused a bridge to collapse in Taiwan in 2000, and another the following year in Portugal, as a bus was passing over it; 70 people were killed. Another bridge collapse in India in 2016 that killed 26 may have been caused by sand mining, though the local government denies it. Mining sand from the floodplains near rivers is less damaging but it can alter the water’s course, creating dead-end diversions and pits that have proven fatal to salmon in Washington state. In Australia, flood plains that are home to the world’s biggest collection of rare carnivorous plants are Cattle graze on the dried up bed of Poyang Lake. Photograph: Xinhua/Barcroft Images
  • 53.
    1/15/2019 Sand mining:the global environmental crisis you’ve never heard of | Cities | The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/feb/27/sand-mining-global-environmental-crisis-never-heard 11/13 being wiped out by sand mining. In Wisconsin and Minnesota, farmers fear that a recent boom in sand mining is polluting their water and air. In Vietnam, miners have torn up hundreds of acres of forest and farmers’ fields to get at underground sand deposits. As land quarries and riverbeds become exhausted, sand miners are turning to the seas. The UK, for instance, gets about one fifth of the nation’s sand from the ocean floor. Worldwide, thousands of ships vacuum up millions of tonnes from the seabed each year, tearing up habitats and muddying waters with sand plumes that can affect aquatic life far from the original site. Closer to shore, in places such as coastal Cambodia, dredging threatens important mangrove forests, seagrass beds and endangered species like Irrawaddy and spinner dolphins, and the royal turtle. On land, sand miners have devoured whole swaths of beach, from Jamaica to Russia. The most dramatic impact of ocean sand mining is surely felt in Indonesia, where sand miners have completely erased at least two dozen islands since 2005. The stuff of those islands mostly ended up in Singapore, which needs titanic amounts to continue its programme of artificially adding territory by reclaiming land from the sea. The city-state has created an extra 20 square miles in the past 40 years and is still adding more, making it by far the world’s largest sand importer. The demand has denuded beaches and river beds in neighbouring countries to such an extent that Indonesia, Malaysia and Vietnam have all restricted or banned the export of sand to Singapore. “It’s the same story as over-fishing and over-foresting,” says Pascal Peduzzi, a researcher with the United Nations environment programme who authored a study on sand mining. “It’s another way to look at unsustainable development.” The problem is that the supply of sand that can be mined sustainably is finite – but as the great urbanisation boom is proving, the demand for it is anything but. Reporting for this article was supported by the Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting. Follow Guardian Cities on Twitter and Facebook to join the discussion, and explore our archive here As 2019 begins…
  • 54.
    1/15/2019 Sand minesboom in Asia — at a cost to nature - World news - World environment | NBC News http://www.nbcnews.com/id/44230562/ns/world_news-world_environment/t/sand-mines-boom-asia-cost-nature/#.XD0Q-FwzbIU 1/4 In this Aug. 2, 2011 photo, a Vietnamese vessel hauling sand plies the Tatai River in southwestern Cambodia. By DENIS D. GRAY updated 8/22/2011 1:47:05 PM ET KOH KONG, Cambodia — Round a bend in Cambodia's Tatai River and the virtual silence of a tropical idyll turns suddenly into an industrial nightmare. Lush jungle hills give way to a flotilla of dredgers operating 24 hours a day, scooping up sand and piling it onto ocean-bound barges. The churned-up waters and fuel discharges, villagers say, have decimated the fish so vital to their livelihoods. Riverbanks are beginning to collapse, and the din and pollution are killing a promising ecotourism industry. What is bad news for the poor, remote Tatai community is great tidings for Singapore, the wealthy city-state that is expanding its territory by reclaiming land from the sea. Sand from nearby countries is the prime landfill and also essential building material for Singapore's spectacular skyline. As more countries ban its export to curb environmental damage — entire Indonesian islands have been all but wiped off the map — suppliers to Singapore scour the region for what still can be obtained, legally or not. Cambodia, a poor country where corruption is rife and laws are often flouted, is now the No. 1 source. Singapore is by no means the only nation taking part in what is a global harvest of sand from beaches, rivers and seabeds. Officials and environmentalists from China to Morocco have voiced concern and urged curbs. As construction booms in emerging economies and more sources dry up, however, exploitation of the remaining ones is likely to intensify. Sand mining began anew in May on southwestern Tatai River, which empties into the ocean almost directly north of Singapore, across 1,300 kilometers (800 miles) of open water. Despite denials by the main owner of sand mining rights in Koh Kong province, two Cambodian officials told The Associated Press that the sand is destined for the island nation. Singapore will not say where its sand comes from; the Construction and Building Authority said it is not public information. The National Development Ministry said the state's infrastructure development company buys it from "a diverse range of approved sources." The mining visible on the Tatai River clearly violates some of Cambodia's own legal restrictions, not to mention a recent government order to suspend it temporarily. Sand mines boom in Asia — at a cost to natureBelow: Discuss Related Jump to discuss comments below xxx Share 6 Tweet Recommend 0
  • 55.
    1/15/2019 Sand minesboom in Asia — at a cost to nature - World news - World environment | NBC News http://www.nbcnews.com/id/44230562/ns/world_news-world_environment/t/sand-mines-boom-asia-cost-nature/#.XD0Q-FwzbIU 2/4 Vessels of a Vietnamese company were tracked by boat from about 10 kilometers (6 miles) upriver to the Gulf of Thailand, where nearly a dozen seagoing barges, tugs hovering around them, took on the sand. The AZ Kunming Singapore, a 5,793-ton (5,255-metric ton) barge pulled by the AZ Orchid, was seen arriving empty from the open ocean, its tug flying a Singaporean flag. Both are registered with the Singapore government, which would not comment on the barge's cargo or destination. Ships from several countries, including China, were spotted in sand-mining operations in Koh Kong province, where residents joked about going to Singapore and planting a Cambodian flag there. The vessels included one from Winton Enterprises, a Hong Kong-registered group that was subcontracted to export sand to Singapore, according to Global Witness, a London-based environmental group that published a detailed account of the trade last year. The report said that miners had penetrated protected mangrove, estuary and sea grass areas, breeding grounds for marine life along a coastline and hinterland harboring some of the country's last wilderness areas. Cambodia's cabinet spokesman, Siphan Phay, who was investigating the issue in Koh Kong, appeared angry that the temporary halt order was being ignored. He described the activity as illegal mining destined for Singapore, a surprising statement given that government ministers awarded the concession. A police officer in the economic crime division, who demanded anonymity given the issue's sensitivity, also said the sand is going to Singapore. Ly Yong Phat, who holds the major concession in Koh Kong, has at times openly acknowledged the Singapore connection. But in a recent AP interview, amid tightening restrictions and mounting criticism, he said his company had not shipped sand to Singapore for more than a year because "our sand did not meet their standards." The dredging, he added, was for local sale and to deepen river channels. However, a Malaysian company, Benalec Holdings, said it was ready to tap up to 530,000 tons for a reclamation project in Singapore from several sources in Cambodia, including Ly Yong Phat's LYP Group. Known as the "King of Koh Kong," Ly Yong Phat is one of Cambodia's biggest tycoons and a senator with close ties to Prime Minister Hun Sen. His holdings include hotels, a casino and agricultural plantations. Land reclamation has enlarged Singapore by more than a fifth, and up to 100 square kilometers (nearly 40 square miles) more are slated for reclamation by 2030. What was once seabed is now Changi, among the world's finest airports, and more recently the Marina Bay complex, which includes a 2,560-room hotel and casino developed by Las Vegas Sands Corp. Mountains of sand are needed for such fills. U.N. statistics show Singapore imported 14.6 million tons last year, ranking it among the world's top customers. Global Witness estimated that nearly 800,000 tons a year, worth some $248 million, were streaming to Singapore from Koh Kong alone. The U.N. figures show that Cambodia supplied 25 percent of Singapore's imports in 2010, followed by Vietnam, Malaysia, Myanmar and the Philippines. With its secrecy and lax enforcement of environmental regulations, Myanmar could emerge as a major supplier. The damage caused by sand extraction has spurred clampdowns on exports. Malaysia imposed a ban in 1997, though the media there frequently report on massive smuggling into neighboring Singapore. Former Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad complains that sand pirates are "digging Malaysia and giving her to other people."
  • 56.
    1/15/2019 Sand minesboom in Asia — at a cost to nature - World news - World environment | NBC News http://www.nbcnews.com/id/44230562/ns/world_news-world_environment/t/sand-mines-boom-asia-cost-nature/#.XD0Q-FwzbIU 3/4 An Indonesian ban came in 2007, following years of strained relations with Singapore over the sand on islands lying between the two countries. When miners finished with Nipah Island, reportedly all that was left was three or four palm trees protruding above the waterline. Environmental groups say smuggling is believed to be continuing. Vietnam banned exports late last year. Cambodia outlawed the export of sand from rivers in 2009 but allows it from some seabeds. Recently, some government officials said that rivers where seawater flowed into fresh water, replenishing sand naturally, were exempt. Global Witness spokesman Oliver Courtney said the trade in Cambodia revealed a "mismatch between Singapore's reliance on questionably sourced sand and its position as a leader for sustainable development." The city-state prides itself on environmentally sound urban planning. The dredging of the Tatai River began on May 17 "with a fury," creating a veritable traffic jam on the water, said Janet Newman, owner of the riverside Rainbow Lodge. "Before you could see crab pots bobbing in the river everywhere and fishermen going out. Now there is nothing and nobody," the British woman said. Chea Manith of the Nature Tourism Community of Tatai said 270 families along the river have seen an estimated 85 percent drop in catch of fish, crab and lobsters and were being forced to eke out a living from small garden plots. Tourists have all but vanished. Armed with a petition, village leaders, tourism operators and a wildlife group met with Ly Yong Phat in early July. He appeared sympathetic, Newman said. He substantially reduced the dredging and has promised to stop altogether in October. A subsequent letter from the Minister of Water Resources and Meteorology ordered the LYP group to halt operations temporarily on the Tatai, citing a breach of regulations. The letter was obtained by Cambodia's Phnom Penh Post newspaper, which made it available to the AP. Hun Sen himself expressed concern over the mining in the river. "We hoped that the prime minister's recent promise to review the impacts of the sand trade would lead to proper regulation of dredging operations," said Courtney of Global Witness. "Unfortunately, the pledge does not appear to have been followed up with meaningful action." The mining has continued on the Tatai, and violations, such as dredging closer than 150 meters (165 yards) from riverbanks, were clearly evident. The Post also obtained a Ministry of Industry, Mining and Energy letter extending LYP Group's concession in Koh Kong until Sept. 2012. "We are just little people. We cannot do anything," Chea Manith said. Newman sounded a more optimistic note. "It's my hope that the LYP Group will become sympathetic through this experience of having seen the reaction from people passionate about protecting their environment," she said. "It would be sad if they just went somewhere else to dump the same on others." ___ Associated Press writers Sean Yoong in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Alex Kennedy in Singapore; Jim Gomez in Manila, Philippines; Aye Aye Win in Yangon, Myanmar; and Sopheng Cheang in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, contributed to this report. Copyright 2011 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed. Share 6
  • 57.
    1/15/2019 Sand mining- Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand_mining 1/5 Sand mining Sand mining is the extraction of sand, mainly through an open pit but sometimes mined from beaches and inland dunes or dredged from ocean and river beds. Sand is often used in manufacturing, for example as an abrasive or in concrete. It is also used on icy and snowy roads, usually mixed with salt, to lower the melting point temperature on the road surface. Sand can replace eroded coastline.[1] Some uses require higher purity than others; for example sand used in concrete must be free of seashell fragments. Sand mining presents opportunity to extract rutile, ilmenite and zircon, which contain the industrially useful elements titanium and zirconium. These minerals typically occur combined with ordinary sand, then are separated in water by virtue of their different densities, before the sand is redeposited. Sand mining is a direct cause of erosion, and impacts the local wildlife.[2] Various animals depend on sandy beaches for nesting clutches, and mining has led to the near extinction of gharials (a species of crocodile) in India. Disturbance of underwater and coastal sand causes turbidity in the water, which is harmful for organisms like coral that need sunlight. It can also destroy fisheries, financially harming their operators. Removal of physical coastal barriers, such as dunes, sometimes leads to flooding of beachside communities, and the destruction of picturesque beaches causes tourism to dissipate. Sand mining is regulated by law in many places, but is often done illegally.[3] Globally, it is a $70 billion industry, with sand selling at up to $90 per cubic yard.[4] By country Australia India Sierra Leone United States Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa and Florida China See also References Contents
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    1/15/2019 Sand mining- Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand_mining 2/5 External links In the 1940 mining operations began on the Kurnell Peninsula (Captain Cook's landing place in Australia) to supply the expanding Sydney building market. It continued until 1990 with an estimate of over 70 million tonnes of sand having been removed. The sand has been valued for many decades by the building industry, mainly because of its high crushed shell content and lack of organic matter, it has provided a cheap source of sand for most of Sydney since sand mining operations began. The site has now been reduced to a few remnant dunes and deep water-filled pits which are now being filled with demolition waste from Sydney's building sites. Removal of the sand has significantly weakened the peninsula's capacity to resist storms. Ocean waves pounding against the reduced Kurnell dune system have threatened to break through to Botany Bay, especially during the storms of May and June back in 1974 and of August 1998.[5] Sand Mining also takes place in the Stockton sand dunes north of Newcastle and in the Broken Hill region in the far west of the state. A large and long-running sand mine in Queensland, Australia (on North Stradbroke Island) provides a case study in the (disastrous) environmental consequences on a fragile sandy-soil based ecosystem, justified by the provision of low wage casual labor on an island with few other work options.[6] The Labor state government pledged to end sand mining by 2025, but this decision was overturned by the LNP government which succeeded it. This decision has been subject to an allegation of corrupt conduct.[7] Sand mining contributes to the construction of buildings and development. However, the negative effects of sand mining include the permanent loss of sand in areas, as well as major habitat destruction. Sand mining is a practice that is becoming an environmental issue in India. Environmentalists have raised public awareness of illegal sand mining in the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh[8] and Goa of India.[9][10][11][12][13] Conservation and environmental NGO Awaaz Foundation filed a public interest litigation in the Bombay High Court seeking a ban on mining activities along the Konkan coast.[13] Awaaz Foundation, in partnership with the Bombay Natural History Society also presented the issue of sand mining as a major international threat to coastal biodiversity at the Conference of Parties 11, Convention on Biological Diversity, Hyderabad in October 2012.[14] [15] D. K. Ravi, an Indian Administrative Service officer of the Karnataka state, who was well known for his tough crackdown on the rampant illegal sand mining in the Kolar district, was found dead at his residence in Bengaluru, on March 16, 2015. It is widely alleged that the death is not due to suicide but the handiwork of the mafia involved in land grabbing and sand mining.[16][17] By country Sand mine in the Czech Republic. Australia India
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    1/15/2019 Sand mining- Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand_mining 3/5 Recently, activists and local villagers have protested against sand mining on Sierra Leone's Western Area Peninsular. The activity is contributing to Sierra Leone's coastal erosion, which is proceeding at up to 6 meters a year.[18] The current size of the sand mining market in the United States is slightly over a billion dollars per year. The industry has been growing by nearly 10% annually since 2005 because of its use in hydrocarbon extraction. The majority of the market size for mining is held by Texas and Illinois.[19] Silica sand mining business has more than doubled since 2009 because of the need for this particular type of sand, which is used in a process known as hydraulic fracturing. Wisconsin is one of the five states that produce nearly 2/3 of the nation’s silica. As of 2009, Wisconsin, along with other northern states, is facing an industrial mining boom, being dubbed the "sand rush" because of the new demand from large oil companies for silica sand. According to Minnesota Public Radio, "One of the industry's major players, U.S. Silica, says its sand sales tied to hydraulic fracturing nearly doubled to $70 million from 2009 to 2010 and brought in nearly $70 million in just the first nine months of 2011."[20] According to the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (WDNR), there are currently 34 active mines and 25 mines in development in Wisconsin. In 2012, the WDNR released a final report on the silica sand mining in Wisconsin titled Silica Sand Mining in Wisconsin. The recent boom in silica sand mining has caused concern from residents in Wisconsin that include quality of life issues and the threat of silicosis. However, these are issues that the state has no authority to regulate. According to the WDNR (2012) these issues include noise, lights, hours of operation, damage and excessive wear to roads from trucking traffic, public safety concerns from the volume of truck traffic, possible damage and annoyance resulting from blasting, and concerns regarding aesthetics and land use changes. As of 2013, industrial frac sand mining has become a cause for activism, especially in the Driftless Area of southeast Minnesota, northeast Iowa and southwest Wisconsin. Much sand is extracted by dredges from the bottom of rivers such as the Red River in Yunnan, or quarried in dry river beds. Due to the large demand for sand for construction, illicit sand mining is not uncommon.[21] Heavy mineral sands ore deposits Beach theft Resource depletion Sierra Leone United States Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa and Florida China See also
  • 60.
    1/15/2019 Sand mining- Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand_mining 4/5 Sand mining in Tamil Nadu Sand mining in Kerala Environmental issues with mining 1. "Battle lines in the sand" (http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/battle-lines-in-the-sand/2005/11/01/11308232 10734.html). The Sydney Morning Herald. 2 November 2005. 2. Green Left - Opposition to sand mining on Stradbroke (http://www.greenleft.org.au/1997/269/17263) Archived (https://archive.is/20120903184252/http://www.greenleft.org.au/1997/269/17263) 3 September 2012 at Archive.today 3. Land and Environment: Sand Mining (http://localhistory.kingston.vic.gov.au/htm/article/294.htm) 4. Mills, Ryan; Staats, Eric (17 November 2016). "Shrinking Shores: Florida sand shortage leaves beaches in lurch" (http://www.naplesnews.com/story/news/special-reports/2016/11/17/shrinking-shores-florida-sand-shortage-lea ves-beaches-lurch/92052152/). Naples Daily News. Retrieved 3 November 2017. 5. Kurnell - A Pictorial History (http://www.ssec.org.au/our_environment/our_bioregion/kurnell/history/industries/sa ndmining.htm) 6. Victorian sand mining moves closer to full production:: ABC Western Victoria (http://www.abc.net.au/westernvic/ stories/s1630536.htm) 7. [1] (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/24/queensland-sandmining-corruption-watchdog-asked-to-inv estigate-donation) 8. Illegal Mining In Madhya Pradesh (http://www.ndtv.com/topic/illegal-mining-in-madhya-pradesh), NDTV. 9. Rajadhyaksha, Radha (10 Jan 2010). "No attacker brought to book so far" (http://articles.timesofindia.indiatime s.com/2010-01-10/mumbai/28118792_1_activists-anandini-thakoor-sand-mining-mafia). Times Of India. Retrieved 22 April 2013. 10. B, Viju (24 March 2011). "Creeks and rivers up for sale" (http://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Second-Natur e/entry/creeks-and-rivers-up-for). Times Of India. Retrieved 22 April 2013. 11. Singh, Vijay (3 April 2012). "NCP leader waves gun at tehsildar" (http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012 -04-03/mumbai/31280601_1_sand-mining-tehsildar-sand-mafia). Times Of India. Retrieved 22 April 2013. 12. B, Viju (Oct 27, 2009). "Sand mining issue haunts Naik" (http://mobiletoi.timesofindia.com/mobile.aspx?article=y es&pageid=9&sectid=edid=&edlabel=TOIM&mydateHid=24-10-2009&pubname=Times%20of%20India%20-%2 0Mumbai&edname=&articleid=Ar00901&publabel=TOI). Times Of India. Retrieved 22 April 2013. 13. B, Viju (25 Sep 2010). "HC bans sand mining across Maharashtra" (http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/20 10-09-25/mumbai/28251944_1_sand-mining-sand-extraction-crz-areas). Times of India. Retrieved 22 April 2013. A sand mining operation in the Red River, in Jinping County, Yunnan References
  • 61.
    1/15/2019 Sand mining- Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand_mining 5/5 Kiwis Against Seabed Mining (http://www.blacksands.org.nz/) Exposes Cops-sand mafia nexus in India (http://www.newskarnataka.com/features/newskarnatakas-undercover-operation-exposes-cops-sand-mafia-nexus/) Jakob Villioth (2014-08-05). "Building an economy on quicksand" (http://www.ejolt.org/2014/08/building-an-economy-on-quicksand/). ejolt. "Sand has by now become the most widely consumed natural resource on the planet after fresh water" Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sand_mining&oldid=872693748" This page was last edited on 8 December 2018, at 16:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. 14. "Effects of Sand mining in coastal bio diversity" (http://www.cbd.int/kb/record/sideEvent/2682?RecordType=side Event&Event=COP-11). Convention on Biological Diversity. 15. Resources on sand mining (http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/thesaurus/sand-mining) 16. Mondal, Sudipto (17 March 2015). "IAS officer who took on sand mafia found dead in Bengaluru residence" (htt p://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/ias-officer-who-took-on-sand-mafia-found-dead-in-bengaluru/article1-1 327089.aspx). Hindustan Times. Retrieved 17 March 2015. 17. "IAS Officer, Who Took On The Sand Mafia, Found Dead in Bengaluru" (http://www.ndtv.com/bangalore-news/ia s-officer-who-allegedly-received-threat-calls-from-sand-mafia-found-dead-in-bengaluru-747123). NDTV. 16 March 2015. Retrieved 16 March 2015. 18. "Unsustainable Sand Mining in Sierra Leone" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120801210608/http://www.enviro- news.com/news/unsustainable-sand-mining-in-sierra-leone.html). Enviro-News.com. 30 July 2012. Archived from the original (http://www.enviro-news.com/news/unsustainable-sand-mining-in-sierra-leone.html) on 1 August 2012. 19. Industrial Sand Mining Industry Trends and Market Size Research (http://www.pellresearch.com/Industrial-Sand- Mining.htm) 20. MPR News Primer: Frac Sand Mining (http://minnesota.publicradio.org/display/web/2012/03/08/frac-sand-mining -mpr-news-primer/) 21. Xu Jingxi, Crackdown planned on illegal river sand mining (http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2012-08/08/conte nt_15651006.htm), China Daily, 2012-08-08 External links
  • 62.
    Exploring Sand-Mining inYangon, Myanmar: Status, Regulations and Impacts By: Bethia Kadoe May 2018 A Practitioner Report Submitted to the faculty of Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Environmental Science and Policy in the Department of International Development, Community, and Environment And accepted on the recommendation of Timothy J. Downs, D.Env., Chief Instructor
  • 63.
    ABSTRACT Exploring Sand-Mining inYangon, Myanmar: Status, Regulations and Impacts Bethia Kadoe Sand is one of the most exploited commodities in the world and yet the issue of sand- mining is often overlooked amidst today’s environmental challenges. Climate change, coupled with exponential population growth, contributes to the need for more sand and to meet this need through sustainable means. The government of Myanmar, a developing country in Southeast Asia, is beginning discussions on how to manage this important resource as it is drafting its National Environmental Policy. Myanmar’s political and economic progress in the last decade has propelled the country to consume more raw materials than ever before. This report seeks to provide an overview of sand market in Myanmar by a) establishing a baseline understanding of sand-mining activities by focusing on the sand consumption rate of the capital, Yangon Division and b) the current regulatory framework and c) outline the main environmental and social impacts associated with sand mining.
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    © 2018 Bethia Kadoe ALLRIGHTS RESERVED
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    ACADEMIC HISTORY Name (inFull): Date: Bethia Kadoe May 9, 2015 Baccalaureate Degree: Bachelor of Arts Source: Westminster College Date: May 9, 2015 Other degrees, with dates and sources: Occupation and Academic Connection since date of baccalaureate degree: iv
  • 66.
    ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This report wouldnot have been possible without the support and expertise of Vicky Bowman, Director of Myanmar Center for Responsible Business (MCRB) for her unwavering support to help me secure the funds and contacts necessary for travel to mining sites. Her passion in helping businesses and communities inspire me to produce this report. Sincere thanks and appreciation go to Hannah Baleta and Sami Tornikoski at World Wildlife Fund, Myanmar for letting me go along with the survey team to conduct the sand mining questionnaire and giving me project support. I am thankful for Swe Hlaing Win and Salai Thura Zaw, my survey teammates for making my research experience enjoyable whether we walk or ride a boat from one location to the next in all weather. I am also thankful to the staff at both MCRB and WWF Myanmar for their administrative assistance and generosity during my office visits. I would like to thank Professor Timothy Downs for encouraging me to pursue my research interests and reading through my drafts to make this practitioner project as informative as it can be. Lastly, I am thankful for the support of my family, grandparents, aunts and uncles who always believe in me and pray for me. I could not have done this without their encouragement and patience. Thank you to all the friends at IDCE for taking an interest and for giving advice on my project. This work would not have been possible without the International Development, Community, and Environment Travel Award which allowed me to travel to Yangon and the financial support from MCRB for a daily stipend for necessities during site visits. v
  • 67.
    TABLE OF CONTENTS Glossaryvii 1.0 Introduction 1 2.0 Background 3 2.1. Existing environmental laws and regulations 5 3.0 Methods 7 4.0 Findings and Discussion 7 5.0 Limitations 19 6.0. Conclusion and Recommendations 20 Appendix A 22 References 30 vi
  • 68.
    Glossary DWIR - Directorateof Water Resources and Improvement of Rivers GA – General Administrative Department Sud - Unit of measure for a volume of sand having 10 feet length, 10 feet width and 1-foot height Kyat - Currency of Myanmar. Officially known as Myanmar Kyat (MMK) EIA – Environmental Impact Assessment SIA – Social Impact Assessment EMP – Environmental Management Plan vii.
  • 69.
    1.0. Introduction The issueof sand mining has only recently emerged to the forefront of environmental concerns which weigh many developing and developed countries today. A report by United Nations Environment Programme (Peduzzi, 2014) detailed that globally between 47 and 59 billion tonnes of materials, 68% to 85% of which are sand, and gravel are mined every year and that the amount being mined is increasing exponentially, mainly because of economic growth in Asia. Sand, a key ingredient for making concrete and asphalt, has been exploited in the last two decades particularly, as the world’s cities need to develop housing units and commercial towers for the world’s growing population. Cities are expanding at unprecedented rates than at any other time in history. According to United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs’ Report on World Urbanization Prospects, the largest urban growth would take place in India, China and Nigeria, which accounts for 37 percent of the projected growth of the world’s urban population between 2014 and 2050. (UNDESA, 2014) Sand mining is ultimately, a global problem. To accommodate the needs of urban population growth, and industrialization, construction has to keep up building livable spaces. Shanghai, for example, has added 7 million new residents since 2000, which came up to more than 23 million. (Beiser, 2017) The sand used
  • 70.
    for the newhigh-rise buildings in Shanghai came mainly from China’s biggest freshwater lake, Poyang Lake. Hundreds of dredgers could be seen on the lake on any given day. A study by Lai et al. (2014) estimated that 236 million cubic meters of sand are extracted from the lake annually. This had negative consequences such as lower water levels, increased drought risk, and a wider and deeper outflow channel of the lake. Rising population aside, sourcing the sand is also a difficult task for the procurers as there are only limited sources. Desert sand cannot be used as a source because it has been eroded by the wind and therefore too smooth and rounded to be combined with other construction materials. As a result, sand miners turn to riverbeds, floodplains and beaches to meet the demands by a growing urban population. Due to its limited sources, sand is mined and delivered to the buyer, sometimes at great social and economic costs. Illegal mining in India has been a problem, largely ignored by its own government as it is trying to pursue its own Agenda, affordable “housing for all” program. (Gopalan and Venkataraman, 2015) The resulting consequences are that the states of Gujarat and Maharashra are hotspots for illegal mining within Vasai creek. Workers earn 1,000 rupees (approximately, US$15) for a day of diving into the creek to dig sand and each diver brings 2000 to 4000 kg of sand every day. (Srivastava, 2017) Violence has
  • 71.
    erupted, and bloodhas been spilled to curb the efforts of the villagers, local and state officials by the sand mafia, a collection of business men who profit from daily operations of sand mining activities (Sugden, 2013). Illegal sand mining is also reported in Singapore, the top importer in the world with 517 million tonnes of sand in the last 20 years (UN Comtrade, 2014). Singapore imports most of its sand from neighboring countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Cambodia although Indonesia banned its sand export after the disappearance of 24 Indonesian sand islands (Peduzzi, 2014). Singapore uses most of its sand for land reclamation purposes as it needs ever increasing amounts of land for development purposes. Therefore, there is a real need for knowledge to tackle the complexities of sand trade as it is a common problem facing all the countries of the world. The country of Myanmar, where this research was carried out, has its own local sand supply sources, mainly the Irrawaddy River and Ngapali Beach. (Hulst, 2015) This report seeks to answer questions such as: 1. How much sand is being extracted from the river annually? 2. What are current regulatory framework on the sand-mining industry? 3. What recommendations can be made to lessen the negative impacts of sand mining based on existing literature?
  • 72.
    2.0. Background Myanmar isa participating country in the global sand trade. In recent years, similar to the path of its neighboring countries, Myanmar’s sand and gravel mining sectors have been rising rapidly due to population growth and migration of people from rural to urban areas. Yangon Division, which includes the Yangon, the previous capital of Myanmar, has the highest consumption rate out of all the 7 States and 7 Divisions to accommodate rising standards of living for a population of more than 7.3 million in 2014. (Yangon, Myanmar Population and Housing Census, 2014) Roughly 69% of Myanmar’s population live in rural areas and 31% live in urban regions although this gap is projected to close in 2040. (UNDESA, 2018) In addition to national consumption, Myanmar exports a substantial amount of sand to its neighboring countries. 4 million cubic meters of sand was exported to Singapore for a value of US$12 million between 2011 and 2014 according to Eleven Weekly media which interviewed local representatives. (Myanmar Business Network, 2014) Almost all the exported sand came from Myanmar’s southern coastal region such as Myeik and Kawthaung Areas. Not all exported sand, however, is not accounted for. Frontier Myanmar (Hulst, 2015) reported that beach sand was being mined illegally in Ngapali Beach on the Bay of Bengal in Rakhine State.
  • 73.
    While estimates varyon how much construction sector contribute to the national economy, according to Asian Development Bank, the construction sector comprised 5.3% of the GDP in 2013 and 5.8% of GDP in 2015, which came up to roughly US$3.4 billion and US$3.67 billion respectively. Construction industry is growing rapidly over the last 10 years as can be seen by the growth of cement industry in Fig. 1. Figure 1. Total Trade of Myanmar from 2007 to 2016. Lack of available data in 2012. Source: Chart made by the author based on data from U.S.Geological Survey Minerals Yearbooks (2007 - 2015) and the Observatory of Economic Complexity (2016)
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    Fig. 2. StudyArea Townships 2.1. Existing laws and regulations The newly democratic government, brought about by the political revolution that began in the 1980s, made significant changes to the laws and regulations regarding sand mining. Sand, considered as a natural resource, is owned by the state. As such, under Article 37 of Myanmar’s 2008 Constitution, the Union is the ultimate owner of all lands and all-natural resources above and below the ground, above and beneath the water and in the atmosphere in the Union. Therefore, it
  • 75.
    can enact necessarylaw to supervise extraction and utilization of these State- owned natural resources. The Directorate of Water Resources and Improvement of Rivers, under the Ministry of Transport, oversees the operations of sand mining as one of its duties for river training and navigation. Together with the General Administrative Department, the DWIR gives mining licenses and renewals. Myanmar drafted the Environmental Conservation Law which was enacted in March 2012. The objectives of this law are to provide interim management guidelines for different industries while the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation drafts a detailed National Environmental Policy with the help of United Nations Development Programme. It is expected to be published in 2018. (Myanmar Ministry of Information Announcement, 2017) According to the Conservation of Water Resources and Rivers Law implemented in 2006, Chapter V, Article 13, “no person shall carry out sand suction, sand dredging, sand excavating, river shingle suction, panning for gold, gold mineral dredging or resource production for commercial purpose in the river- creek boundary, bank boundary, and waterfront boundary, without the recommendation of the Directorate.” Similarly, Article 14 dictates that “no person shall carry out sand suction, sand dredging, sand excavating, river shingle suction, panning for gold, gold mineral dredging or resource production from the sandbank
  • 76.
    maintained for prescribedriver training work, prohibited place in the river and creek or the watercourse.” 3.0. Methodology This project aims to provide an overview of sand market in Yangon by 1. Determining the locations and amounts of sand distribution. 2. Identification of the main environmental and social impacts associated with sand mining based on existing literature. To seek answers to components of Part 1, an aggregate mining survey (Appendix A) is used as a guide to ask the sand mining businesses, categorized into extraction and distribution sites. Maps depicting the locations of sand mining in Irrawaddy was provided by World Wildlife Fund-Myanmar survey team who has been tracking the sand mining boats and barges from satellite. For Part 2, existing literature and data were reviewed concerning environmental and social impacts that result from sand mining. 4. Findings and Discussion 4.1 Survey Results – Status of Mining by Town/Ward
  • 77.
    The results ofthe survey are shown in Table 1. 113 sand and gravel mining businesses were surveyed to determine the length of operation years, and the amount of coarse sand, small gravel, large gravel distribution centers and volume of sand and gravel sold. According to the survey results, Hlaing Thar Yar and Shwe-Pyi-Thar townships have the most number of businesses. The average length of operation range from 1.5 years in Thilawa to 20.5 years in Thingangyun. Coarse sand distribution centers are greater in number than small gravel distribution although there are many businesses that sell both as they are both complementary goods for making cement. The total volume of sand sold is more than 3.5 million cubic meters and total volume of gravel sold is 473,191 cubic meters estimated for the year 2016-2017. Region or District Township or Ward No. surveys complete d Av. Length of operation (yrs) No. Coarse sand distributi on No. Small gravel distribution No. Large Gravel Distrib ution Vol of construction sand sold (m3) Vol. Gravel sold (m3) Yangon Hlaing Thar Yar 30 7.4 27 18 4 864,000 86,685 Insein Ywar Ma 8 12.6 7 6 5 180,768 36,904 Kamar- yut 8 10.5 5 3 3 165,272 25,470 North Dagon 7 10 4 2 2 304,721 10,188 Pazun- daung 4 8.5 4 4 0 77,471 43,355
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    Shwe- pyi-thar 36 8.8 3018 16 1,479,693 157,205 Than Lyin 12 5.6 9 9 9 299,557 76,693 Tharkayta 4 5.3 3 2 0 46,483 15,494 Thilawa 2 1.5 2 0 0 56,671 0 Thingang yun 2 20.5 2 2 2 92,965 21,197 Total 113 9.07 93 64 41 3,567,601 473,191 Table 1. Results of the aggregate mining survey in Yangon Fig. 3. Volumes of Sand distributed in Yangon According to Fig. 3, 41% of the sand is distributed in Shwepyithar Township, 1323.328 acres of which is officially designated as industrial zones.
  • 79.
    (Myanmar Industries Association,2018) Hlaing Thar Yar township, which houses the Shwe Lin Ban Industrial Zone, occupies the next highest distribution rate, 24%. The rest of the townships visited do not house any industrial zone and therefore consumes relatively small amounts of sand compared to Shwepyithar and Hlaing Thar Yar. 4.2 Technology and Practice Most sand mining businesses have all kinds of machinery such as boats, small tractors, wheel loaders, large trucks to transport and distribute sand and employ local workers both on the boat which extracts sand from the river and in the distribution site for customer service. Image 1 and 2 were taken in near Pyay, right above Yangon Region in the Irrawaddy River. Sand is mined in the river with boats. Images 1 and 2: Sand being mined by boats in Pyay
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    Image 3: Extractedsand from the boat is again mixed with water to be spread onto dry land. Images 4 and 5: Two distribution sites showing sand being collected on land through connecting pipes
  • 81.
    Images 6 and7: Examples of sand collection sites Image 8: Sand is distributed around town to the customers The sand mined from the river is mixed with water and the boats tend to carry as much as they can of this mixture on the boat. The water from this mixture
  • 82.
    is expelled backinto the river. This process is done in the river, on the journey back to the distribution site until the water is gone. When the boats reach to their respective distribution sites, often located next to their local home shops, the sand is mixed with water again as shown in Image 3. Images 4 and 5 show sand being collected in two distribution sites. Images 6 and 7 are included to show the size of the collection sites, which can collect up to thousands of suds. The collected sand is sold and delivered to customers over the next few days or weeks. Some sand mining businesses have contractual agreements with construction companies and will not hesitate to buy and resell from other distributors to fulfill their contractual obligations. In addition to uses by the construction industry, the sand is bagged and used locally by villagers to prevent flooding of the houses, on the streets and in the neighborhood in the rainy season and to combat fire in the fire-prone hot and dry season. There are two types of sand sold in the businesses: fine sand and construction sand. Locals use fine sand for non-construction purposes. Some distributors combine the two types and sell them as construction sand as both can potentially be used for construction. Yangon division does not receive any gravel deposits in the Irrawaddy River. Therefore, it does not grant any gravel mining permits. According to the Department of Waterways and in Yangon Division, there was no limit to suds (1
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    sud = 10ft length x 10 ft width x 1 ft height) per plot before 2015. Those who applied were usually granted a license. After 2015, when a business applies for a license, they are considered for two factors. 1) Is the location suitable for sand-mining? This is determined by the survey teams of DWIR. 2) What is the size of the boat? Only boats which have a carrying capacity of less than 30 suds is granted. There are several plots in Yangon division ranging from 40-50 in a given year. The guidelines that come along with a sand-mining permit are that a company is allowed only 2 boats, each boat carrying less than 30 suds of sand at a time. Businesses are also only allowed to dredge sand for only up to 1 meter under the existing bed level although this guideline is not adhered to in practice. 4.3 Monitoring/Compliance Monitoring is performed by a survey team either employed or contracted out by the DWIR each year when the licenses need to be renewed. In the past, because the licenses are applied and granted throughout the year, the survey teams also work throughout the year. In the future, the DWIR hopes to create a timeline during which there is a call for application, a period of consideration, surveying and granting of licenses.
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    Regarding the surveyprocedure, the team is sent out to the plot which holds the interest of the business in the application. Usually, it is a plot they held in the previous year or a new plot they are interested in. Then, the team conducts the survey and reports the results to the DWIR. 4.4 Licensing and Operations The requirements for a license include the application for the license and a map showing the plot/s of interest and a survey fee of 30,000 Kyats for the Directorate of Water Resources and Improvements of Rivers and a fee of 500 Kyats per sud allowance to the General Administrative Department. The procedure to obtaining a license is as follows: 1. The business submits the application, the map and the application fee to the GA 2. The GA corresponds with the DWIR to conduct a survey 3. Depending on the survey’s results, the DWIR either supports or discourages the GA to give the license. 4. The business is either granted or denied the license. 4.5 Business Operations
  • 85.
    The license isrenewed yearly. The businesses have to pay taxes to the Municipals for collecting sand on their own properties/sites and a “profit tax” to the Business Association for conducting business. The sales of a typical sand-mining business varies throughout the year. The end of the rainy season (end of September or beginning of October) signals the beginning of an intensive construction period for the Building Sector. Free from the encumbrance of rain and the high heat which is inevitable in the hot season, the construction businesses consume a large flow and volume of sand and gravel for making cement in their daily operations. The price of sand increases to 7,000- 8,000 Kyats or doubles depending on the location of the business. The price of construction sand is often higher than that of fine sand. Sand businesses normally operate yearlong with the exception of the Thingyan Festival, which marks the Burmese New Year during the month of April. 4.6 Sand Mining Locations Sand consumed by industries in Yangon is mined mostly in Hlaing River, near Ba-Yint-Naung and Warr-Ta-Yar and also near the convergence of the three waterways, namely the Yangon River, Bago River, and Pa-zun-taung Chaung (creek). Although sand mining in the creek was allowed in the past, the GA banned this practice and as a result, land mass has filled the creek and some gravel
  • 86.
    businesses are operatingon top of this newly filled land. There are no sand-mining in the Pan Hlaing River due to the lack of usable sand. The type of sand preferred by construction companies is coarse sand which has good binding properties with other construction materials. 4.7 Sand Mining and Environmental Impacts Sand is mined by dredging boats in the Irrawaddy River. When the aggregate particles are too fine to be used, they are rejected by dredging boats, releasing vast dust plumes and changing water turbidity. This can in turn result in major changes to aquatic and riparian habitats over large areas. Reported incidents of landslides and river erosion due to dredging up the Dawei River basin for sand is an example. (Myanmar Business Network, 2014) For the purpose of this practitioner report, only the main environmental impacts are shown in Table 2. Medium Main Impact Consequences Air Increase levels of air pollutants concentration Human health risks Flora and Habitat loss Alteration of fish population,
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    Fauna Increasing levelof weed infestation Physical disturbance of the habitat Degradation of aquatic biota, Alter number of animal species Vegetation is destroyed Reduction of farmlands and grazing lands Water Increase water turbidity Reduced light penetration, and oxygen levels that affect aquatic populations, changes in nutrients parameters, increase infections and death risks for aquatic animals. Increase soil and coastal erosion Seawater intrusion Affect infrastructure projects Water quality deterioration Increase water salinity, alternation of water sources, increased water treatment costs Deformation of riverbeds and banks Drying up wells around the river, lateral channels erosion and
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    instability, negative effecton groundwater, waterways siltation, influence the uncertainty of slopes and levees Soil Decreased soil quality Increase infertility on otherwise fertile soils due to lowering groundwater levels, changes in soil geochemistry (increase concentration of lead, arsenic, mercury, etc.) Soil erosion Watercourses, wetlands and lakes pollution Table 2. Main environmental impacts of sand mining (Source: Marius Dan Gavriletea, 2017) In addition to producing negative environmental consequences on air, flora and fauna, water, soil and land, there are also other social costs associated with sand mining. Mohapatra et al. conducted a study on hazards and health risks encountered by using manual sand dredgers in Udupi, India. They found that most of the workers were unaware of health problems such as hypertension or diabetes mellitus. Majority of their participants (73%) showed bilateral sensory deficit of
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    hands and variedlevels of diminished sensation and trench feet due to prolonged exposure to non-freezing cold water. (Mohapatra et al. 2017) 5.0. Limitations Due to the short period of the survey conducted over 3 weeks in August 2017, the findings do not capture the entirety of the sand mining sector in Yangon, Myanmar. Some businesses were temporarily closed due to the seasonality effects (construction slows during the rainy months) and some were closed because their production sources were halted by the sudden ban upstream for gravel mining by the DWIR Ayarwaddy Division. Additionally, efforts to seek official documents from the DWIR Yangon division were not successful. 6.0 Conclusion and Recommendations According to the findings, 8.5 million metric tonnes of sand were distributed in Yangon between 2016 and 2017 as reported by 113 sand mining businesses. Therefore, we can conclude that at least 8.5 million metric tonnes were extracted from the river. Recognizing the implementation of the impending National Environmental Policy to be released in 2018, this report makes several recommendations for three
  • 90.
    stakeholders: DWIR YangonDivision, sand mining businesses, and the locals who live in sand-mining locations. For DWIR Yangon Division: • State/Regional Governments should undertake a regional or strategic environment assessment of sand and aggregates mining throughout their State/Region, to determine where and how it may be undertaken sustainably without causing environmental harm, and ensure that arrangements are in place for obtaining revenue from the practice. • There should be a special unit for monitoring and surveillance and this unit should patrol the sand mining locations either on a weekly or bi-weekly basis and can be called upon as necessary when incidents arise. • Create an online database where legally registered boats are tracked. • Have a merit-based system that rewards law-abiding businesses, and/or certification of “sustainable mining”. • On the basis of this assessment, licenses for sand and aggregates extraction should be issued on the basis of a transparent tender process, with clear rules to prevent environmental damage, and effective monitoring and enforcement. For sand mining businesses: • Ensure licenses are obtained legally, and have penalties for illegal activity. • Report accurate information to the DWIR and GA.
  • 91.
    • Ensure thatthe contractor hired for writing an EIA or SIA has a good reputation as some contractors have been reported to provide these documents without careful assessment of the site in place. According to Annex 1 of the EIA Procedure, No.132, the Criteria for Extraction of Rock, Gravel or Sand from a River or Marine Waters should be ≥1,000 m3 /a but <50,000 m3 /a (for IEE type economic activities) and ≥50,000 m3 /a (for EIA type activities). • Adhere to the regulations provided by the DWIR and GA: have incentives to comply and penalties for non-compliance. • Report any incidents of riverbed deterioration or water level oddities to the officials. For Locals: • Understand the laws and regulations surrounding sand mining and learn about the environmental and social impacts of the practice. • Participate in workshops given by government officials or organization such as MCRB to promote “sustainable mining” practices. • Avoid letting children play in sand collection sites without clothes, shoes or supervision: these sites are hazardous. Educate children about hazards. I believe that future studies of sand mining in this region will benefit greatly from extensive interviews with state or local government officials at the beginning of the research. By learning more through collaborations among the stakeholders –
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    sand miners, regulators,locals and researchers – we can create best practices and promote sustainable mining in Myanmar. This can be a model for other nations in Asia and elsewhere. References cited Beiser, Vince. “Sand Mining: The Global Environmental Crisis You’ve Never Heard of.” The Guardian, 27 Feb. 2017. <http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/feb/27/sand-mining-global- environmental-crisis-never-heard>. Accessed 1 Mar. 2018. Byrnes, Mark R.; Hammer, Richard M.; Tibaut, Tim D.; and Snyder, David B. Effects of Sand Mining on Physical Processes and Biological Communities Offshore New Jersey, U.S.A. In Journal of Coastal Research, Vol.20, No. 1, 2004. Available online: <www.appliedcoastal.com/pdf/Byrnes_etal_New_Jersey.pdf> Accessed 20 Feb. 2018 Constitution of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. Ministry of Information. Sept, 2008. <http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs5/Myanmar_Constitution-2008- en.pdf> Accessed 25 Jan. 2018 Country Profiles: Myanmar. United Nations. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2014): World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision. <https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Country-Profiles/Myanmar>. Accessed 2 Feb. 2018. Gavriletea, Marius Dan. “Environmental Impacts of Sand Exploitation. Analysis of Sand Market.” Sustainability, vol. 9, no. 7, June 2017, p. 1118. <http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/9/7/1118> Accessed 19 Dec. 2018. Gopalan, Kalpana, and Madalasa Venkataraman. “Affordable Housing: Policy and Practice in India.” IIMB Management Review, vol. 27, no. 2, June 2015, pp. 129– 40, doi:10.1016/j.iimb.2015.03.003.
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    Hulst, Hans. “ParadiseLost at Ngapali Beach?” Frontier Myanmar, <https://frontiermyanmar.net/en/features/paradise-lost-ngapali-beach> 11 Dec. 2015. Accessed 22 Jan. 2018. Industrial Zones (Yangon). <myanmarindustries.org/index.php/home-2/38- myanmar-industries/industrial-zones/239-industrial-zones-yangon> Accessed 19 Mar. 2018. Lai, Xijun, David Shankman, Claire Huber, Herve Yesou, Qun Huang, and Jiahu Jiang. "Sand mining and increasing Poyang Lake’s discharge ability: A reassessment of causes for lake decline in China." Journal of Hydrology 519 (2014): 1698-1706. May Thet Hnin. Ministry of Information. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar. 31 Dec. 2017. Available online: <http://www.moi.gov.mm/moi:eng/?q=news/31/12/2017/id-12447> Accessed 3 Feb. 2018 Myanmar Business News. “4 Million Cubic Meters of Sand Exported to Singapore.” <http://www.myanmar-business.org/2014/04/4-million-cubic-meters-of-sand- exported.html> 3 April. 2014. Accessed 30 Dec. 2017. Myanmar Population and Housing Census 2014. Yangon Region. Census Report Volume 3 - L. <http://myanmar.unfpa.org/publications/union-report-volume-3l- yangon-region-report> Observatory of Economic Complexity (OEC). Available online: <https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/country/mmr/#Trade_Balance> Accessed 23 Jan. 2018 Peduzzi, Pascal. “Sand, Rarer than One Thinks.” Environmental Development, vol. 11, 2014, pp. 208–218. Srivastava, Roli. DROWNING FOR SAND. Thomsan Reuters Foundation. 18 July. 2017. <http://news.trust.org/shorthand/drowning-for-sand> Accessed 2 March. 2018.
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    Sugden, Joanna. “WhyIndia Has a ‘Sand Mafia.’” Wall Street Journal, 6 Aug. 2013, <https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2013/08/06/why-india-has-a-sand-mafia/> Accessed 2 March. 2017. UN Comtrade, 2014. Import of Natural sand except sand for mineral extraction as reported. United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database. <http://comtrade.un.org> Accessed 22 Dec 2017. Nations, United. "World urbanization prospects: The 2014 revision, highlights. Department of economic and social affairs." Population Division, United Nations (2014) U.S. Geological Survey. Minerals Information. Available online: <https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/asia.html> Accessed on Jan 23, 2018) The Union of Myanmar. The State Peace and Development Council. The Conservation of Water Resources and Rivers Law. Available online: <www.dwir.gov.mm/images/dwir-data/laws_english.pdf> Accessed 30 Dec. 2017
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    Appendix A –Surveys Used A1: Aggregate Mining Survey DISTRIBUTION SITE QUESTIONS 1. Distribution site information: General information about the site State or Region: Township: Nearest town or village: Company name (if there is one): Name of person interviewed (not required) GPS point & photos 2. What is being extracted? Stored? Transported? Category of sediment Present price per Sud (Gyin)? Fine sand Yes □ No □ Construction sand Yes □ No □ Gravel Yes □ No □ Pebbles Yes □ No □ 3. If transported, means of transport (barge, large truck, small truck, rail) 4. Where is the material from? Material River Location / State / Township
  • 96.
    Fine sand Construction sand Gravel Pebble 5.Approximate size of storage or extraction site. 6. Number of people working on site? Number of full time staff In mining A distribution center Less than 3 people 4 to 10 people / More than 11 people 7. Equipment vehicles operating on site. Take photos if possible Type of equipment Extraction method (if known) & number Distribution sites & number Comments Small tractor /light truck Large truck
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    Mechanical shovel/wheel loader Conveyor belt Dredger Bargest 8.Number of years of distribution operation This is the first year □ More than 1 but less than 5 □ More than 5 but less than 10 □ More than 10 □ Don’t know □ 9. Has the distributor always received material from the same locations? 10. How is material transported from extraction site to distribution site? If barges, what is size of barge, take photo if possible 11. Calendar of operations a. When can you obtain each category of material (G = Gravel, S = Sand) b. When is demand greatest and lowest? Type Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec No operati on
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    Limite d oper. Intensi ve oper. 12. Is therea difference in price between months or seasons? 13. What is the most sought after grain size? 14 Is there ever a problem obtaining supply? 15. Estimation of quantities distributed annually from site Approximate quantity sold / year Fine sand Construction sand Gravel Pebbles Quantity can be in tons, cubic metres or truck loads (if trucks, get a photo of the standard vehicle 16. How many other distributors are there in this area? 17. What is the demand trend for each produced category? Category Trend
  • 99.
    fine sand Sameevery year □ Increasing □ Decreasing □ Don’t know □ coarse sand Same every year □ Increasing □ Decreasing □ Don’t know □ gravel Same every year □ Increasing □ Decreasing □ Don’t know □ Pebbles Same every year □ Increasing □ Decreasing □ Don’t know □ 18. What is the availability trend for each material? Category Trend in Availability Trend in Availability Trend in Price Fine sand Coarse sand Gravel Pebble 19. Changes to supply. Do you receive material from more than 1 extraction site? Has this changed over time? Increase in supply sites because of growing demand? □ Decrease supply sites because of replenishment rates? □ Change in supply sites but no increase or decrease
  • 100.
    20. Have youobserved an increase in different sizes in gravels or pebbles being supplied? A.2: Extraction Site Survey Nature of the extraction: General information about the site State or Region: Township: Nearest town or village: Company name (if there is one): Name of person interviewed (not required) GPS point & photos 1. What size material is targeted for extraction? 2. Is this led by market demand or availability on site? 3. Are the different categories of materials found at different locations in the site? (emerged islands, beaches, river banks, thresholds, rapids, different depths under water, different places in the river bed) Category Location fine sand coarse sand gravel pebbles 4. If different categories are available on site: do you specialise in one (or two) grain size(s) only , or will you extract whatever is available?
  • 101.
    5. Estimation ofquantities produces annually per category 6. Where are the best extraction sites in this area? 7. Is there a competition for the concessions on the best sites? 8. How are concessions distributed? 9. To your knowledge, are there any other active in-stream dredging operations within ten km of this operation? Yes □ No □ List any other operations on a separate page 10. How do you identify the sites that will be good for extraction? Ex: Downstream areas with lateral erosion? Empirically? 11. What is the availability trend for each produced category? Category Trend fine sand Same every year □ Increasing □ Decreasing □ Don’t know □ coarse sand Same every year □ Increasing □ Decreasing □ Don’t know □ gravel Same every year □ Increasing □ Decreasing □ Don’t know □ Pebbles Same every year □ Increasing □ Decreasing □ Don’t know □ 12. Are changes to the river occurring? If so where in the river bed are those changes occurring? (emerged islands, beaches, river banks, thresholds, rapids, different depths under water, different places in the river bed) 13. Changes in quantities extracted over time? a. Increase in extraction/sales because of growing demand? □ b. Decrease because of reduced replenishment rates? □ c. Other □ If other, please describe: 14. Has there been a change in the depth for extraction (need to dredge deeper) and/or islands disappearing or changing shape? Yes □ No □
  • 102.
    If yes, pleasedescribe: Can you estimate the increase or decrease in depth (50 cm, 1 m, 1,5 m, 2m) 15. Have you observed changes to the size of gravels or pebbles being extracted? 16. Did you observe silt at extraction sites of other categories (fine sand; coarse sand, gravel) 17. Are taxes paid on quantities extracted?
  • 103.
    THE AYEYARWADY RIVER ANDTHE ECONOMY OF MYANMAR REPORT MM 2018 VOLUME1:RISKSANDOPPORTUNITIESFROMTHE PERSPECTIVEOFPEOPLELIVING ANDWORKINGINTHE BASIN
  • 104.
    Published inMay 2018by WWF-World Wide Fund For Nature (Formerly World Wildlife Fund). Any reproduction in full or in part must mention the title and credit the above-mentioned publisher as the copyright owner. © Text 2018 WWF All rights reserved ISBN 978-2-940443-06-2 WWF is one of the world’s largest and most experienced independent conservation organizations, with over 5 million supporters and a global Network active in more than 100 countries. WWF’s mission is to stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature, by: conserving the world’s biological diversity, ensuring that the use of renewable natural resources is sustainable, and promoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful consumption. CONTENTS SUMMARY Introduction 4 What makes the Ayeyarwady Unique? 6 A connected Ayeyarwady 8 Risks facing the Ayeyarwady sub basins 9 How do different sectors depend on the Ayeyarwady? 10 Agriculture 12 Fisheries 16 The Irrawaddy Dolphin 18 Mining & Extractives 20 Oil & Gas 23 Industry & Manufacturing 24 Navigation 27 Construction 28 Tourism 31 Energy 32 CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS 35 BIBLIOGRAPHY 39
  • 105.
    54 INTRODUCTION Myanmar’s AyeyarwadyRiver is both unique and special. It is one of the largest free-flowing rivers in Southeast Asia. There is just one other river with this title, the Thanlwin or Salween River, which also traverses Myanmar’s undulating landscapes. Although the river is “free-flowing”, it is not pristine. The Ayeyarwady is the engine of the Myanmar economy. It feeds the country’s population with fish and rice, and enables goods to be transported to people up and down the river. Its waters are used to power turbines for electricity, while sand from its basin is a key component for infrastructure like houses, offices and roads. This document attempts to identify different ways that the Ayeyarwady River is important to both Myanmar’s economy and society. It also aims to highlight the importance of balanced development that will ensure the naturally functioning systems within the river continue to support growth and development, as they have for hundreds of years. It is a culmination of perspectives and inputs from stakeholders along the river regarding their perceived risks and opportunities.
  • 106.
    76 THEAYEYARWADYRIVER WHATMAKES UNIQUE? WHAT MAKES THE AYEYARWADYRIVER UNIQUE? Length2170 km Area 413,710km2 91% lies in Myanmar, 5% in China, 4% in India ABIGRIVER THEBASIN The ARB (Ayeyarwady River Basin) is the largest and most economically significant river in Myanmar It covers 61% of the country’s landmass. 5 of Myanmar’s largest cities are in the basin Yangon 5 million Mandalay 1.2 million NayPyiDaw 0.9 million Pathein 237,000 Monywa 182,000 PEOPLE The basin is home to 66% of Myanmar’s population (34 million people) On average, there is 79 people per km2 living in the basin The majority of these people live in the Ayeyarwady’s agricultural heartlands, the dry zone and the delta - particularly in Yangon and Mandalay BIODIVERSITY One of the most biologically diverse regions in the world around 1,400 mammal, bird and reptile species More than 100 of these species are globally threatened 388 identified species of fish 50% of these fish endemic to the Ayeyarwady River Each time the river is surveyed, new species are discovered MAGWAY MANDALAY SAGAING PYAY BAGO NAYPYIDAW UNIQUENATURALDYNAMICS The natural dynamics of the Ayeyarwady, particularly its sediment dynamics, are of particular interest. The Ayeyarwady is the 22nd largest river in the worldin terms of water THESEDIMENTLIFELINE Between 261 and 354 million tons per year of suspended sediment coarse through the Ayeyarwady’s waters every year. This sand, stone and rock are a lifeline and the main enabler of the Ayeyarwady’s nutrient rich delta, which is home to the largest concentration of people, fish and fields of rice paddies in the country. INVALUABLESERVICES The river has many other natural dynamics or ecosystem services including provisioning, regulating and supporting cultural services that take place in the Ayeyarwady Basin, supporting irrigation, inland water transport, fisheries, aquaculture, potable water supply, biodiversity, and ecotourism. These were recently quantified in the State of the Basin Report (2018) to be worth 2-7 billion USD a year. These ecosystem services equate to between 6% and 16% of GDP per capita in Myanmar. Additional significant values not calculated include the value of hydropower as well as positive and negative impacts of floods on the river system and ecosystem services. This document attempts to further identify what values these ecosystem services provide towards the economy and society of Myanmar. THISHUGERIVER COVERSANAREA 10% LARGER THANGERMANY 34MILLION PEOPLELIVEIN THERIVER’SBASIN MYANMAR’SLARGEST CITIESAREINTHE AYEYARWADYBASIN NEW SPECIES AREDISCOVERED EVERYTIME THERIVERISSURVEYED SERVICESPROVIDED BYTHERIVERCONTRIBUTE 2-6BILLIONUSD TOMYANMAR’SECONOMY EVERYYEARCHINWINRIVER AYEYARWADYRIVER
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    98 The Ayeyarwady isat the heart of many activities in Myanmar. In each of its sub basins, a unique set of needs and risks is associated with the river. As part of the WWF-funded Ayeyarwady River in the Economy Project, a series of workshops were held in each of these sub basins (upper, Chindwin, middle, lower and delta) to identify the goods and services provided by the river, but also to identify how these demands are putting the river at risk, and ultimately the sectors themselves, which depend on a healthy Ayeyarwady. 30 participants attended each workshop. They represented a diversity of backgrounds; academia, government, private sector and civil society. They identified the goods and services provided to their sub basins that depend on their stretch of river. These include provisioning services such as water for irrIgation, regulating services such as flood recession ponds for fish spawning, supporting services such as safe habitats for biodiversity, and cultural services for tourism, as well as spiritual sites along the basin. They were also asked to identify how these sectors providing goods and services are impacting upon the river system, creating risks for the stretch of river in their region. The top risks identified in each sub-basin are shown in the following figure. These include flooding, mining, bank erosion, pollution, sedimentation, navigation challenges, river morphology changes, and fish species degradation. In addition to the individual risks identified within each localized sub-basin, there are also interlinked risks from up to downstream. For instance, increased mining or deforestation in the upper catchment may shift the sediment dynamics downstream, causing bank erosion or sedimentation. As the Ayeyarwady flows through the country, hydropower dams trap sediment and may reduce the valuable ecosystem services provided to flood recession agriculture in its lower stretches. Because of this sedimentation the river widens and becomes more shallow, causing significant challenges for boats navigating the waters. The use of pesticides and fertilizers upstream also causes pollution for those using the river downstream. These are just a few of the ways that risks are transported geographically throughout the entire river basin. It is of paramount importance that economic development plans taking place, especially in the upper reaches of the Ayeyarwady and its tributaries, take into account their impacts on the users downstream. This includes not only water availability and quality, but also the timing of flows and sediment dynamics. For instance, the flooding risks identified by stakeholders in the lower basin may be due to a sediment deficit in the upper reaches. This in turn limits the flow of sediment to the delta, contributing to its sinking. The lack of sediment may be due to a number of factors including regulation of flows from dams, the trapping of actual sediment from dams or perhaps the extraction of sediment for the construction sector. Individually these impacts may be small, but cumulatively they may result in a vulnerable delta, the home of the majority of Myanmar’s population, infrastructure, and fish and rice production. A CONNECTED AYEYARWADY Interdependencyofsectorsandsub-basinswiththeAyeyarwadyRiver DELTA LOWER CHINDWIN MIDDLE UPPER BANKEROSION FLOODING RIVERMORPHOLOGYCHANGES POLLUTION NAVIGATIONPROBLEMS MINING SEDIMENTATION BIODIVERSITYDEGRADATION FISHSPECIESDEGRADATION 14% 17% 16% 31% 22% 43% 17%12% 12% 16% 23% 19% 19% 31% 8% RISKSFACINGTHE SUBBASINS AYEYARWADY 20% 18% 21% 23% 18%
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    1110 SUPPORT DIFFERENT SECTORS OFTHE ECONOMY? CULTURAL TOURISM NAVIGATION PROVIDING REGULATING SUPPORTING SPIRITUAL EXPERIENCES & SENSE OF PLACE WATER RAW MATERIALS MINING HYDROPOWER AGRICULTUREFISH, FOOD & OTHER AQUATIC PRODUCTS URE HABITAT FLOOD MODERATION DREDGING ENGINE OVERFISHING INDUSTRY USE OF PESTICIDES AND FERTILIZERS FISHERIES THE AYEYARWADY RIVER HOW DO DIFFERENT SECTORS DEPEND ON THE AYEYARWADY? AND WHAT ARE THE IMPACTS? POLLUTION SEDIMENTATION EROSION FLOODING ECOSYSTEM FRAGMENTATION BIODIVERSITY DEFORESTATION FISHREDUCTION LOSS
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    1312 AGRICULTURE AgricultureisoneofthemostsignificantcontributorstotheMyanmareconomy. Agriculturerepresents:32%oftheGDPand17.5%ofthetotalexportearnings Agricultureemploys:61.2%ofthelabourforce(FAO2009-2010). The huge valuethat Myanmar receives from the agricultural sector is largely due to the ecosystem services provided by a healthy Ayeyarwady River. For instance, according to the State of the Basin Report, the estimated annual economic values attributable to irrigation water supplies (provisioning services) is 62 to 121 million USD in the dry season and is 29 to 50 million USD due to yield gains in the monsoon season. This means that the clean water provided from the Ayeyarwady alone contributes 6% to the value of agricultural exports from Myanmar. This is without considering the value of other ecosystem services including sediment nutrients for example. Rice is the most cultivated crop in Myanmar (8 million hectares) but mainly during the monsoon season (with other crops grown during the dry season). Beans and pulses are the second most grown crop in the country (4 million hectares), most of which are produced during the cool and dry season. Other important crops include maize, groundnuts, sesame, sunflower, and culinary crops (2.5 million hectares). The ARB is home to the majority of crops grown in the country RICEPADDY OILSEEDS CEREALS PULSES TOBACCO &BETEL TEA COFFEE SUGARCANE FRUIT FIBRE Restofthecountry AyeyarwadyBasin WHERE ARE MYANMAR’S CROPS GROWN? AGRICULTURE AT RISK Myanmar’smostproductiveagriculturalzones(theAyeyarwadyBasin)areintheareasmostvulnerabletoclimatechange.Inthefaceof potentialcyclones,flooding,intenserainfall,extremedaytemperatures,droughtorsealevelrise,thecountry’sfuturefoodsupplyisatrisk. For example, the main paddy producing region is the coastal and delta zone, particularly the Ayeyarwady basin, while the intensive mixed upland crop area is in the central dry zone. Under climate change projections, the coastal zone will experience increased rainfall during a shorter and more intense wet season, leading to flooding . At the same time, sea level rise will increase inundation and lead to greater salinity intrusion in coastal areas. Cyclones will exacerbate these effects through associations with flooding, as well as wind damage. In the dry zone, drought risk will rise, particularly as the length of the monsoon shortens. This will be complemented by increased heat stress, as maximum temperatures may rise up to 4°C by 2051. CYCLONE FLOOD INTENSE RAINFALL LOWHIGH NONEMEDIUM WHAT AND WHERE ARE THE CLIMATE CHANGE RISKS FACING MYANMAR? EXTREME DAY TEMPERATURES DROUGHT SEA LEVEL RISE 2852870ha 11602493.65ha 234341ha 5330936.8ha 535176ha 842735ha 343989ha 8517506.1ha 224954.9ha 80024.1ha 1534ha 93535.2ha 11812ha 10069ha 308493ha 889859.9ha 796590.1ha 738267.5ha 17283.95ha
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    1514 RICE PULSES LIVESTOCK Riceaccountsfor43%ofallagriculturalproductionvalue,nearly5timesashighasthesecondhighestvalue commodity,poultry.ThisistobeexpectedgiventhewaterresourceadvantagesofMyanmarandthefertile delta. When summed acrossall regions and states, it is evident that the Ayeyarwady Basin is a key region for agricultural production and is therefore rightfully referred to as the ‘rice bowl’ of Myanmar, with 71% of the country’s rice production coming from the Ayeyarwady Basin even though it represents only 69% of sown area of paddy in the basin. This means that rice grown in the delta is more productive per hectare than elsewhere in the basin. ThesecondmostcultivatedcropinMyanmararepulses,agroupthatcomprisesblackgram,greengram, chickpeas,pigeonpeas,andothergrams. India (58% importers of all legume exports) and China (18% importers of all legume exports) are the largest buyers of Myanmar beans and pulses, resulting in Myanmar being the second largest global exporter of beans and pulses, after Canada. Pulses are now the top foreign exchange earner among agriculture commodities, representing 12% of total export value from the country (1.4 billion USD) . In FY2011, the area planted to pulses was estimated at 4.4 million hectares (about 55% of the area planted to paddy). They are sown mainly in the central dry zone, followed by delta, hilly, and coastal zones. According to the national agricultural statistics, 96% of all pulses produced within Myanmar are grown within the Ayeyarwady Basin. Thelivestockandfisheriessectorcontributed7.4%ofGDPinFY2010.However,outsideofofficialGDP numbers,livestockisanintegralpartoftheagriculturaleconomy:cattle(andbuffalo)providedraftpower andruraltransport,dairycattleprovidemilk,andotherlivestockandpoultryprovidefoodandincome. In 2012, the livestock population comprised 14 million cattle, 3.1 million buffaloes, 4.6 million sheep and goats, 10.3 million pigs, 172 million chickens, 15 million ducks, and 1.9 million other poultry. Estimated per capita consumption of meat is 11.3 kilograms (compared to 88 kg per person annually in Germany), milk (15.3 kilograms), and eggs (52) per year. Cattle are densely populated in the central dry zone (Middle Ayeyarwady), making up about 50% of the country’s total. The value of animal products exports was $47.1 million in FY2012, a large proportion from hides. This is small compared to the $641.7 million of fish exports (marine and freshwater) and $2600 million of crop exports. However, official statistics suggest that the growth in livestock and dairy production has been much faster than for crops. This is indicated by the figure below, showing the dramatic increase of meat production. Within the meat sector, chicken has grown fastest (accounting for 995,380 MT, or 51.3% of total meat produced in FY2010), followed by pork and beef. Milk production has also made large gains. 2001 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2005 2008 2011 2013 THOUSANDTONS MEATPRODUCTIONINMYANMAR
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    1716 FISHERIES MYANMAR INLAND FISHPONDAREA ACCORDING TO REGIONS Likerice,fishisamajorcontributortoMyanmar’snationaldiet,estimatedtoaccountfor approximately60%ofanimalproteinintake.Nationally,thelivestockandfisheriessector contributed7.4%ofGDPinFY2010. According to national statistics, fisheries provide jobs for approximately 3.2 million people (0.15% of total employment). The significant value attributed to fisheries, is especially dependent on a healthy Ayeyarwady River. According to the State of the Basin Assessment, the ecosystem services provided by the River range between 350 to 530 million USD in freshwater capture and 380 to 600 million USD in aquaculture to Ayeyarwady basin. According to updated statistics, Myanmar fish production is composed of three tiers: one third inland capture fish, one third marine capture fish and one third aquaculture fish, for a total of 2.9 million metric tons in 2015. According to these statistics, Myanmar fish production is composed of about 863,000 metric tons or 30% of inland capture fish, 1,062,000 metric tons or 37% of marine capture fish, and 942,000 metric tons or 33% of aquaculture fish. The trends in fisheries production in Myanmar are shown below, where marine fisheries have remained relatively stable, aquaculture has grown at a rapid pace, while capture freshwater fish is believed to have dropped somewhat in the last few years. 2004 0 50 100 150 200 250 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 AYEYARWADY YANGON BAGO OTHERS PONDAREA(’000ACRES) TRENDS IN MARINE CAPTURE FISHERIES, FRESHWATER FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE The Ayeyarwady Basin is the most important source of inland fisheries for the country. Both for wild caught fish but also increasingly for aquaculture as the for example, the Ayeyarwady Delta now represents 70% (Ayeyarwady and Yangon regions) of all ponds in the country. The relative importance of the Ayeyarwady is show in the figure below . The growth of aquaculture (8% a year estimated) in the Ayeyarwady is a risk to the indigenous species in the basin. This risk is especially acute since there is so little known about the wild fish in the Ayeyarwady. For instance, the overall number of fish species recorded in the Ayeyarwady Basin is 388, of which 311 are present in the Myanmar part. The others being found in India and China. Among the 388 fish species, 193 (50 %) are endemic to the basin, and 100 (26 %) of the endemics are presently known only from Myanmar. Imported exotic fish species tend to outcompete the natural, indigenous fish species within a river. According to the SOBA report on fisheries, “there is very little research around the benefits or negative impacts of stocking natural water bodies with cultured fish. Fishers complain about competition between stocked fish and native fish, with a frequent reduction of the wild stock. In 2007, only 7.4% of the leasable fisheries yield consisted of species originally existing in the area. This point requires further investigation.” TOTALCATCH(t) 500,000 1,000,000 1,500,000 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 capturefreshwaterfish capturemarinefish aquaculturefish
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    1918 In addition tothe fish, the Irrawaddy Dolphin is also at risk, and is currently critically endangered in Myanmar. There are roughly 60 dolphins left in the Ayeyarwady River. The Irrawaddy Dolphin habitat overlaps strongly with severe threats from growing human activities. The primary factor responsible for population declines is incidental mortality in small-scale fisheries, especially gillnets and electro-fishing. Habitat loss and degradation is also a major contributing threat in many freshwater areas, especially from existing and planned dams in the Ayeyarwady River, and in coastal estuarine habitats from declining freshwater flows, increasing commercial vessel traffic and pollution. “Some fishermen feel that a significant part of this stems from the fishing licenses offered by the Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Rural Development. The competitive bidding process and the short-term length of the fishing contracts encourages over-fishing, to the detriment of both dolphins and the cooperative fisherman.” THE IRRAWADDY RIVER WORKINGTOGETHER One of the potential lifelines for the Irrawaddy Dolphin is cooperative fishing, whereby fisherman and dolphins work together to catch their fish. Cooperative fishing is also more effective. In 2006 and 2007, DOF and WCS conducted a study, which found that dolphin- assisted fishing resulted in fewer empty nets and higher weight and value of the catch. However, from 2011 to 2013, cooperative fisherman experienced a 17% drop in income. Over 40% of the fishermen say they have no other source of income, while about 38% rely on additional income from farming. Agricultural income is susceptible to seasonal shocks, which make it inconsistent from year to year. THETOURISMLIFELINE Ecotourism, in the form of tourists going to view the cooperative fishing, one of the only places in the world where this is practiced, in addition to seeing the endangered Irrawaddy Dolphin, is hoped will relieve some of the financial pressures on the fishermen, reducing the need to practice electrofishing. The potential for ecotourism for the dolphins is significant. The Mandalay Region, where most of the Irrawaddy Dolphin can be found, hosted more than 38 5031 tourists in 2016. Among them, 19 810 tourists used river cruises. Although these cruises were likely to go to Bagan, there is a potential for dolphin watching to be an additional activity. If this is the case, the same number of boat tours for dolphin watching could amount to an income of about 10.5million US$ in 2016. 60IRRAWADDY DOLPHINS REMAININTHE AYEYARWADY RIVER DOLPHIN The Ayeyarwady River is one of the only places in the world where dolphins work together with man to catch fish. Sadly, this age-old alliance is under threat. Could tourism save the Irrawaddy Dolphins?
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    2120 MINING & EXTRACTIVES Myanmar’snaturalresourcesincludeoilandgas,mineralsincludinggold,silverandcopperand gemssuchasrubiesandjade.Theextractivesectoraccountedfor6%ofGDP,23.6%ofState revenueand38.5%ofexportsin2013. Themining sector is an important driver of economic growth and a source of employment. Artisanal mining is widespread throughout the Ayeyarwady Basin but is a particularly important income source for many people in the Upper Ayeyarwady, Middle Ayeyarwady, and the Chindwin Basin. Mining in the Ayeyarwady Basin is a growing and important part of the Myanmar economy. Sagaing Region and Mandalay Region are the two areas of the country home to the majority of the mines. Both of these areas are in the Ayeyarwady Basin, hence the high proportion (87%) of mines that are found within the Ayeyarwady Basin. AnalysisofremotesensingdatasuggeststhatmininghasexpandedrapidlywithintheAyeyarwadyBasinandnowdirectlyaffectsmore than740km2.Thisequatestoalmost1%ofdegradationintheChindwinBasinfromminingactivitiesalone.Muchofthisexpansionisinthe ChindwinRiverBasinoraroundMandalay. WHERE ARE MYANMAR’S MINES? AcrossMyanmar,thereare585mines. 509ofthoseareintheAyeyarwadyRiverBasin. 220 63 26 38 40 6 1 209 KAYAHSTATE SHANSTATE KACHINSTATE MONSTATE KAYINSTATE MANDALAY REGION SAGAING REGION TANINTHARYI REGION BAGOREGION “Mininghasexpandedrapidly withintheAyeyarwadyBasinand nowdirectlyaffectsmorethan740 km2.Thisequatestoalmost1%of degradationintheChindwinBasin fromminingactivitiesalone.”
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    2322 “Eventhesesmall-scaleindustriesare responsibleforsignificantdeforestation withinthebasin,duetotheirneedto burnthecrudeoilforrefiningintomore appropriatefuels.” OIL & GAS MyanmarisanimportantnaturalgasandpetroleumproducerinAsia.Itis hometooneoftheworld’soldestpetroleumindustries,withitsfirstcrudeoil exportsdatingbackto1853.Today,thecountryisoneofthemajornaturalgas producersintheAsiancontinent. Accordingto DICA, Myanmar has received more than US$69 billion in cumulative foreign direct investment (FDI) as of January 2017. The oil and gas sector attracted over US$22.4 billion in FDI which is approximately 32% of the total FDI from 154 permitted foreign enterprises. This makes the country’s oil and gas sector one of the top sectors for FDI in the country, followed by power, manufacturing, transport and communication. Most of the oil & gas blocks exist within the Ayeyarwady river basin, with the majority of the remaining wells situated offshore. The oil and gas within the Ayeyarwady basin is home to a large artisanal sector. Myanmar has a long history of artisanal oil extraction, with individuals or small informal enterprises extracting oil with equipment sometimes as simple as a bucket and rope. There is existing artisanal extraction in several oil field areas that provides important primary or secondary livelihoods for communities. Hand-gouged wells are widespread in Ngashan Taung in Kyaukpadaung Township, Mandalay Region; Kalay township in Sagaing Region; and Myaing, Pauk, Gangaw and Minhla Townships in Magwe Region. In Minhla, there are tens of thousands of small-scale operations scattered over a couple of dozen or more sites. Most operations occupy plots as small as 5 to 10 square feet. The government needed to introduce tighter safety and environmental standards to the hand-gouged oil business. These small-scale industries are responsible for significant deforestation within the basin, due to their need to burn the crude oil for refining into more appropriate fuels. This creates negative impacts on the river basin as a whole, including reduced water retention and increased erosion of sediments into the Ayeyarwady River.
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    2524 INDUSTRY & MANUFACTURING Theeconomiccontributionoftheindustrysectortotheeconomyrosesubstantiallyfrom26.5% in2010to34.4%in2014,whiletheshareofagricultureshrankfrom36.8%to27.9%inthe sameperiod.Myanmar’sindustrialsectorhasgrownrapidlyinrecentdecades. Most of the industrial activity is located close to the major urban and transport centres in the Ayeyarwady Basin, especially the large cities of the Middle Ayeyarwady, the Lower Ayeyarwady, and the Ayeyarwady Delta. Myanmar’s industrial sector is diverse and includes activities, such as food and beverages; clothing and apparel; construction materials; personal, electrical, and household goods; printing and publishing; industrial raw materials; minerals and petroleum products; agricultural and industrial machinery/equipment; transport vehicles; and electrical goods. Food and beverages are the major industrial sub-sector in Myanmar, accounting for approximately 62% of the national industrial operation. Major food and beverage developments are located in Yangon and Mandalay, garment manufacturing in Pathein and Yangon, and mineral and petroleum product manufacturing in Monywa and Mandalay. Small-scale enterprises make up 80% of the industrial sector within the Ayeyarwady Basin. While small-scale industry dominates smaller population centres, it is also prominent in urban centres, making up 42% of the total industry in Yangon and 50% in Mandalay. Small-scale industries can cause significant water pollution risk due to inadequate treatment processes and lack of knowledge to mitigate pollution risks. MANDALAY SHAN NAYPYITAW KAYAH BAGO YANGON KAYIN MON TANINTHARYI AYEYARWADY MAGWAY RAKHINE CHIN SAGAING KACHIN KACHIN REGISTEREDINDUSTRYINSTATESANDREGIONSACROSS MYANMAR SAGAING SHAN CHIN MANDALAY MAGWAY RAKHINE NAYPYITAW KAYAH BAGO YANGON KAYIN AYEYARWADY MON TANINTHARYI SMALL-SCALE MEDIUM-SCALE LARGE-SCALE 1334 172 53 350 273 5 1306 172 68 142 25 478 2822 659 90 168 189 998 718 21 2645 502 132 180 347 1025 2057 608 152 324 164 3271 3165 761 3885 2692 2307 347 125 3167 1732 4856 773 1955 1346 “Small-scaleindustriescan causesignificantwater pollution.”
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    2726 “Manyoftheactivitiestaking placewithinthebasinhinder navigation,includingindustrial pollutionortheregulation oftributariesthroughdam infrastructure.” NAVIGATION Myanmarhasanextensiverivernetworkthatiswellpositionedtoservethe country’smaintransportcorridors,includingthelinkbetweenYangonand Mandalay.However,inlandwatertransportisfacingunprecedentedpressuresat themoment. Main rivers aredifficult to navigate because of shallow waters during the dry season, shifting navigation channels, and lack of terminal facilities. However, growth projections remain high, and the sector has been identified as a major bottleneck for increased trade both within the country and within the region. The Ayeyarwady Basin is home to 70% of all navigable rivers in Myanmar. The majority of navigation is represented by transport between Yangon, Mandalay and Bawmaw. Passenger transportation is the highest in Ayeyarwady Region and cargo transportation is the highest in Mandalay Region. According to the AIRBM Synthesis State of the Basin Report, “in the last few years there has been a significant reduction in waterborne freight transport. A number of factors are perceived to have contributed to this including a backlog of dredging works, slow loading and unloading times, and the growth of land-based transport.” Navigation is impacted by changes in river flows, sediment transport, the seasonality of flow and the onset of the monsoon season. Many of the activities taking place within the basin hinder navigation including industrial pollution or the regulation of tributaries through dam infrastructure. Other activities such as sand mining in areas that require dredging are seen as supporting navigation. However, the sediment dynamics of areas where sand or gravel is being extracted, and the impact downstream is less understood.
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    2928 CONSTRUCTION Constructionaccountsforaround5.2%ofGDPoraround18%ofindustrialoutput. Evenwiththissmalleconomiccontribution(directly),thesectorhasdevastating impactsontheriver. However, the constructionsector has important linkages with other sectors of the economy. For instance, approximately 30% of outstanding credit from the banking sector is for construction and real estate. Therefore, not only is employment affected with a slowing or uncertain construction sector, but the banking sector sees risks too. “Improving regulations in the construction sector, and ensuring that these are enforced, is critical though needs to be managed carefully. Better regulations could improve urban planning, the quality of construction, environmental sustainability, and the welfare of urban dwellers. Ensuring a phased approach that is predictable and transparent is critical to avoid big shocks, which may be difficult for the economy to recover from given the importance of the construction sector.” (World Bank, 2016) More importantly for the Ayeyarwady River, the construction sector is a driver for the extraction of sand. Typically, coarse sand and gravel is targeted for extraction, as these are the most desirable construction materials. Approximately 10 million tonnes of gravel and sand a year are reportedly extracted from these sites for construction. This is believed to be a gross underestimate of the total sand extraction from the Ayeyarwady River (estimated to be 20 million tonnes, or approximately 10% of the total estimated sediment budget of 220 million tonnes). Since the majority of construction and development is taking place in the basin, it is safe to assume the majority of the buildings, roads and bridges being built are using sand from the river. Given the volumes of materials recorded during the survey, the level of development in Myanmar, and the large volumes of sand and gravel required for construction, road building and dam building, it is highly likely that continued risks such as bank erosion and the increasing vulnerability of a sinking delta will continue. Sandmininghasdevastating impactsontheriver.
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    3130 ManyofMyanmar’sflagshiptourist destinationsaresituatedwithinthe AyeyarwadyBasin. TOURISM TOURIST ATTRACTIONS IN THE AYEYARWADY BASIN AreportbytheWorldTourismandTravelCouncilclaimsthatemploymentinthetraveland tourismsectorwithinMyanmar,includingjobsindirectlysupportedbytheindustry,hasgrownby 6.5%reaching877,500jobsin2014. Their estimatesinclude the direct contribution of travel and tourism to GDP at 3%, while together with the indirect contribution; the total contribution of tourism to GDP is 6.6%. In terms of employment, the total contribution is 5.8%. From a tourism perspective, there are six flagship destinations in the country. These are Yangon, Bagan, Mandalay, Inle Lake, Kyaikhtiyo (Golden Rock) and Ngapali Beach in Rakhine State. Emerging areas include the mountains of Putao, Nagaland, Hakha and Natmataung (Mt. Victoria) in Chin State, and Loikaw in Kayah State and the Myeik Archipelago in Tanintharyi Division in Southeastern Myanmar. Many of the above locations are situated within the Ayeyarwady River Basin (Yangon, Bagan, Mandalay). The following figure shows the tourist arrival to four main sites in 2016, highlighting the importance of a healthy Ayeyarwady River Basin for tourism. m^ p p ml o q YANGON INLELAKE BAGAN MANDALAY RiverBasin 385031(30%) 178787(14%) 283877(22%) 428370(34%)
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    3332 As a resultof the increasing wealth of people in Myanmar as the country develops, electricity consumption has increased significantly in the last five years at an annual average growth rate of 15.7%. Therefore, increasing energy production is at the forefront of the development pathway for the country. Hydropower is a potential solution to the energy deficit. There are 29 existing hydropower plants in Myanmar with a total installed capacity of 3,298 MW, and six power plants under construction with a total installed capacity of 1,564 MW. The remaining 51 projects with total installed capacity of 42,968 MW are in various stages of pre- construction development. The Ayeyarwady Basin (including Chindwin) currently has 17 hydropower plants in existing and under construction, 31 planned and 1 suspended. The Ayeyarwady has the highest installed capacity in operation (2,100 MW). If all proposed hydropower projects are built, the Ayeyarwady and Thanlwin would have around 28,100 MW (58% of all hydropower) and 16,500 MW (34%) respectively. According to the WWF Alternative Power Sector Vision for Myanmar, it is critically important that decision makers within Myanmar take into consideration the potential unintended consequences of hydropower development in the upper catchments of Myanmar on the lower and delta catchments of the country. In particular, regulation of flow, connectivity of species including fish for migration and the flows of sediment need to be understood. The “Business as Usual,” Myanmar Energy Master Plan places great emphasis on deriving energy from coal-fired power plants and big dams, despite the long-term risks and environmental damage associated with these methods. However, to meet this increasing demand, WWF have indicated that technically a 100% renewable, greener future is possible. WWF believes that Myanmar has the chance to leapfrog the fossil fuel-based electricity era that started over 130 years ago and embrace the renewable energy era. ENERGY InMyanmar,thetotalinstalledcapacityinthefirsthalfof2017was5389MW,ofwhich3255 MW(60.4%)fromhydropower,1920MW(35.6%)fromgas,120MW(2.2%)fromcoal,94.3 MW(1.75%)formdiesel. Currently,justone-thirdofthepopulationhasaccesstotheelectricity.Electricityaccessibilityofstatesandregionsisshownbelow. Yangon hasaccesstoelectricitywithover60%.Kayah,NayPyiTawandMandalayhaveabout30-40%accesstoelectricity. SHAN AYEYARWADY KAYAH KACHIN KAYIN TANINTHARYI NAYPYITAW CHIN RAKHINE MON SAGAING BAGO MAGWAY MANDALAY 31% 24% 27% 23% 39%69% 33% 48% 27% 15% 43% 12% 36%8%12% YANGON UPPER AYEYARWADY CHINDWIN BASIN MIDDLE AYEYARWADY LOWER AYEYARWADY EXISTING1 PLANNED12 SUSPENDED1 EXISTING1 PLANNED6 EXISTING12 PLANNED11 EXISTING3 PLANNED2 HYDRPOWERPROJECTSINTHE AYEYARWADYSUBCATCHMENTS INSTALLEDENERGYCAPACITYIN MYANMAR WWFhaveindicatedthat technicallya100%renewable, greenerfutureispossible. DIESEL HYDROPOWER COAL GAS
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    3534 “WWFcareaboutpeopleandnature beingabletothrivealongsideeach other.Thisiswhatwebelievein Myanmartoo.Wewouldliketo supporteconomicandsocialgrowth inMyanmarwithoutjeopardizingthe integrityoftherivers.” CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS ONTHE VALUE OF THE AYEYARWADY RIVER TO THE ECONOMY AND SOCIETY OF MYANMAR A CALL TO ACTION Through this document it is evident that the Ayeyarwady Basin provides the majority of economic value to the country. It is also evident that some of these sectors are contributing to degradation of ecosystem goods and services provided by the river. Although economic growth and social development are needed in Myanmar, this does not have to be at the cost of the river health. WWF care about people and nature being able to thrive alongside each other. This is what we believe in Myanmar too. We would like to support economic and social growth in Myanmar without jeopardizing the integrity of the rivers. The Ayeyarwady River provides goods and services to enable a majority of economic and social activities that take place within Myanmar. Without these services of the river, the economy of Myanmar would not be the same. With looming decisions around hydropower development, industrial expansion, fisheries and in general, economic growth in the country, decision-makers cannot afford to operate in isolation. Without a common vision for the future, all sectors will compete with one another and miss opportunities for holistic efficient development. Highlighting major risks and opportunities for different sectors through a series of short narratives and numbers, shows what is at stake when taking a narrow view of planning – and all that can be gained through a more thoughtful, long-term and integrated approach. Our call to action for a sustainable, free-flowing Ayeyarwady Basin is as follows: Finally, the coordination of strategies and plans is of critical importance as Myanmar continues on its economic growth and social development trajectory. This is true not only for the Government of Myanmar, but also for development assistance in the country. River basin planning in particular has an important role to play in supporting the coordination of an entire spectrum of economic activities – from mining to tourism and from the upper catchment to the delta. It is important that this planning takes place in a coordinated manner to ensure that the unique position of the Ayeyarwady River, home to the endemic Irrawaddy Dolphin, productive fisheries, industry and mining is able to continue providing the basis of the Myanmar economy. Economicplanningdecisionmakersneedtoinvestigatetheconnectionsandtrade-offsbetweendifferent developmentpathwaysandhowtheyinteractwiththenaturalcapitalandecosystemservicesthatthepeopleof Myanmardependon. Privatesectorneedtoensurethattheyactasgoodwaterstewardsinthecountry,eventhoughinsomecases thereisuncertaintyintermsofregulations.Reducingwater-relatedrisks,whetherphysical,regulatoryor reputationalinthebroaderAyeyarwadyBasiniscriticalfortheirlong-termbusinessambitions. Civilsocietyneedtocontinuetheirdemandfortransparentdialoguebetweendecision-makers,privatesector andcivilsocietyregardingpreferableoptionsforsustainabledevelopmentintheAyeyarwadyBasin.
  • 121.
    3736 “WITHOUT THE SERVICES PROVIDEDBY THE RIVER, MYANMMAR’S ECONOMY WOULD CEASE TO EXIST AS IT DOES TODAY. BUT ACTIVITIES ON THE RIVER HAVE MANY NEGATIVE IMPACTS.”
  • 122.
    3938 Reports Asian Development Bank(ADB) Economics Working Paper Series No. 470. 2015. Myanmar’s Agricultural Sector. http://www.themimu. info/sites/themimu.info/files/documents/Ref_Doc_Myanmars_ Agricultural_Sector_ADB_Dec2015.pdf Ayeyarwady Integrated River Basin Management Project (AIRBM), 2017. State of the Basin (SOBA) Synthesis Report. Ketelsen, T., Taylor, L., Mai Ky Vinh, Hunter, R., Johnston, R., Shaoyu Liu, Kyaw Tint, Khin Ma Ma Gyi and Charles, M. 2017. State of Knowledge: River Health in the Ayeyarwady. State of Knowledge Series 7. Vientiane, Lao PDR, CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems. MoEE, Power Development Opportunities in Myanmar, Myanmar Investment Forum 2017, 6 - 7 June 2017. World Bank, 2016. Myanmar Economic Monitor. Accessed: http://www. worldbank.org/en/country/myanmar/publication/myanmar-economic- monitor-december-2016 World Bank. 2016. Assessing Farm Production Economics: Myanmar. Assesst_Farm-Production-Economics_WB_Feb2016.pdf World Bank. 2017. Myanmar Economic Monitor. Accessed: http:// documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/271301485510327677/ pdf/112317-WP-MEM-Jan27-17-final-PUBLIC.pdf WWF, 2017. Alternative vision for Myanmar’s power sector. Accessed: https://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/alternative_vision_ for_myanmar_s_power_sector_draft.pdf Websites and news reports IIED, 2013. “IIED shines a light on small-scale mining” Extractives Industry Transparency Initiative (EITI), Myanmar. Accessed: https://eiti.org/myanmar Mekong Flows, Biodiversity. Accessed 9 April 2018: http://mekongriver. info/biodiversity Myanmar Times. 2016. Can eco-tourism save the Ayeyarwady’s dolphins? https://www.mmtimes.com/lifestyle/13738-can-eco-tourism- save-the-ayeyarwady-dolphins.html WCS. 2017. Dolphins in Myanmar. Accessed: https://programs.wcs.org/ myanmar/Wildlife/Dolphin.aspx WWF, 2017. Accessed 9 April 2018. http://www.wwf.org.mm/en/news_ room/publications/?uNewsID=303391 Databases Observatory of Economic Complexity, https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/ visualize/tree_map/hs92/export/mmr/show/0713/2016/ Myanmar Information Management Unit, (MIMU) http://themimu.info/ BIBLIOGRAPHY
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    40 Why we arehere To stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature. http://www.wwf.org.mm/en/
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    ဧရာဝတီမြစ်နှင့် မြန်မာ့စီးပွားရေး REPORT MM 2018 အခန်း (၁) -မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသတွင် နေထိုင် လုပ်ကိုင်နေသူများ၏ ရှုထောင့်မှ အန္တရာယ်နှင့် အခွင့်အလမ်းများ
  • 125.
    မာတိကာ အကျဉ်းချုပ် နိဒါန်း ၄ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ကို တမူထူးခြားစေသည့်အချက်များ ၆ ဆက်နွယ်ချ ိတ်ဆက်နေသော မြစ်ဧရာ ၈ ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းငယ်များ ကြုံတွေ့နေရသည့် ဘေးအန္တရာယ်များ ၉ ကဏ္ဍအမျ ိုးမျ ိုးက ဧရာဝတီကို မှီတည်နေပုံ ၁၀ စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေး ၁၂ ရေလုပ်ငန်းများ ၁၆ ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင် ၁၈ သတ္တုတွင်းနှင့် တူးဖော်ရေးလုပ်ငန်းများ ၂၀ ရေနံနှင့် သဘာဝဓာတ်ငွေ့ ၂၃ စက်မှုနှင့် ထုတ်လုပ်မှုလုပ်ငန်းများ ၂၄ ရေကြောင်းပို့ဆောင်ရေး ၂၇ ဆောက်လုပ်ရေး ၂၈ ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်း ၃၁ စွမ်းအင် ၃၂ နိဂုံးချုပ် လေ့လာတွေ့ရှိမှုများ ၃၅ ကျမ်းကိုးစာရင်း ၃၉ Published inMay 2018 by WWF-World Wide Fund For Nature (Formerly World Wildlife Fund). Any reproduction in full or in part must mention the title and credit the above-mentioned publisher as the copyright owner. © Text 2018 WWF All rights reserved ISBN 978-2-940443-06-2 WWF is one of the world’s largest and most experienced independent conservation organizations, with over 5 million supporters and a global Network active in more than 100 countries. WWF’s mission is to stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature, by: conserving the world’s biological diversity, ensuring that the use of renewable natural resources is sustainable, and promoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful consumption.
  • 126.
    54 နိဒါန်း မြန်မာနိုင်ငံရှိ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်သည် အလွန်ထူးခြားသောမြစ် တစ်စင်း ဖြစ်ပါသည်။ ၎င်းသည် အရှေ့တောင်အာရှရှိ လွတ်လပ်စွာ စီးဆင်းနေဆဲ အကြီးဆုံး မြစ်များထဲမှ တစ်စင်း ဖြစ်သည်။ လွတ်လပ်စွာ စီးဆင်းနေဆဲ မြစ်ဟူသော ခေါင်းစဉ်အောက်တွင် ရှိသည့် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံကို ဖြတ်၍ စီးဆင်းနေသော အခြား တစ်ခု တည်းသော မြစ်မှာ သံလွင်မြစ်ပင် ဖြစ်သည်။ လွတ်လပ်စွာ စီးဆင်းနေဆဲ မြစ်ဆိုသော်လည်း သဘာဝအတိုင်း မပြောင်းလဲဘဲ စီးဆင်းနေသော မြစ်တော့ မဟုတ်ချေ။ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်သည် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ စီးပွားရေးအတွက် အင်ဂျင်တစ်လုံးလိုပင် ဖြစ်သည်။ ၎င်းသည် မြန်မာ ပြည်သူများအတွက် ဆန်စပါးနှင့် ငါးကို ပေးသည့်အပြင် မြစ်ကြောင်းတလျှောက် မြစ်အထက်ပိုင်းနှင့် အောက်ပိုင်းဒေသ ကုန်စည်ကူးသန်း ရောင်းဝယ်ရေးအတွက် သယ်ယူပို့ဆောင်ရေးကိုလည်း အထောက်အကူ ပြုသည်။ ထို့အပြင် ရေအားလျှပ်စစ် ထုတ်လုပ်သော တာဘိုင်များအတွက်လည်း ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ရေကို အသုံးပြုကြသည်။ ထို့အတူ အိမ်၊ ရုံး၊ လမ်းများ ဆောက်လုပ်ရာတွင်လည်း မြစ်ထဲမှ သဲကို လိုအပ်သည်။ ဤစာတမ်းတွင် ဧရာဝတီမြစ်သည် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ လူမှုရေးနှင့် စီးပွားရေးတွင် မတူညီသော နည်းလမ်းများဖြင့် အရေးပါနေကြောင်း ဖော်ပြသွားမည် ဖြစ်သည်။ ထို့ပြင် မြစ်အတွင်း နှစ်ပေါင်းထောင်ချ ီရှိခဲ့သော သဘာဝအတိုင်း လည်ပတ်နေသည့် စနစ်များကို မထိခိုက်စေဘဲ ဖွံ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်မှုကို ထောက်ပံ့ပေးနိုင်သည့် ဘက်မျှသော ဖွံ့ဖြိုး တိုးတက်မှု၏ အရေးပါပုံကို မီးမောင်းထိုးပြလိုသော ရည်ရွယ်ချက်လည်း ပါဝင်သည်။ ယင်းသည် မြစ်ကြောင်း တလျှောက်ရှိ ဆက်စပ်ပတ်သက်သူများ တွေ့ကြုံလေ့လာခဲ့ရသော ဘေးဖြစ်နိုင်ချေများနှင့် အခွင့်အလမ်းများဆိုင်ရာ ရှုမြင်သုံးသပ်မှု ပေါင်းစုံကို စုစည်းထားခြင်းလည်း ဖြစ်သည်။
  • 127.
  • 128.
    98 ဧရာဝတီမြစ်သည် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံရှိ အမျိုးမျ ိုးသောလုပ်ငန်းများ၏ နှလုံး​သွေးကြော ဖြစ်သည်။ ၎င်း၏ မြစ်ဝှမ်းငယ်တစ်ခုချင်းစီ တွင်လည်း မတူထူးခြားသော လိုအပ်ချက်များနှင့် ဘေးဖြစ်နိုင်ချေများ ရှိနေသည်။ WWF က ရန်ပုံငွေချထား ဆောင်ရွက်သည့် စီးပွားရေးအတွက် ဧရာဝတီမြစ်၏ အခန်းကဏ္ဍ စီမံကိန်း၏ တစ်စိတ်တစ်ပိုင်းအဖြစ် မြစ်ကြီး၏ မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသငယ်များ (အထက်ပိုင်း၊ ချင်းတွင်း၊ အလယ်ပိုင်း၊ မြစ်အောက်ပိုင်းနှင့် မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသများ) တွင် မြစ်က ထောက်ပံ့ပေးနေသော ကုန်ပစ္စည်းနှင့် ဝန်ဆောင်မှုများကို ဖော်ထုတ် သတ်မှတ်ရန်နှင့် ယင်းတို့ကို လိုလားမှုကြောင့် မြစ်နှင့် ယင်း၏အပေါ် မှီခိုနေရသော ကဏ္ဍများအပေါ် သက်ရောက်စေနိုင်မှုတို့ကို ဖော်ထုတ်သိရှိရန် ဆွေးနွေးပွဲများ ပြုလုပ်ခဲ့ပါသည်။ ဆွေးနွေးပွဲတစ်ခုချင်းတွင် အစိုးရဘက်မှအရာရှိများ ၊ ပညာရေးနယ်ပယ်၊ ပုဂ္ဂလိကအဖွဲ့အစည်းများ၊ လူမှုစီးပွားရေးဆိုင်ရာ အဖွဲ့အစည်းများမှ လူအယောက် ၃၀ ခန့် ပါဝင်ခဲ့ကြသည်။ ဆွေးနွေးပွဲတွင် တက်ရောက်လာသူများကို ၎င်းတို့နေထိုင်ရာ ဒေသရှိ စီးပွားရေးကဏ္ဍများက မြစ်မှ ထောက်ပံ့ပေးသော အရာဝတ္ထုနှင့် ဝန်ဆောင်မှုများအပေါ် မည်ကဲ့သို့ မှီတည်နေသည်ကို ဖော်ထုတ် ဆွေးနွေးစေခဲ့သည်။ ယင်းတွင် ရေပေးဝေရေး အတွက် မြစ်ရေကဲ့သို့သော ထောက်ပံ့ပေးသည့် ဝန်ဆောင်မှု၊ ငါးများ ပေါက်ပွားရန် ရေလွှမ်းလွင်ပြင်များ ကဲ့သို့သော ထိန်းညှိပေးသည့် ဝန်ဆောင်မှုများ၊ ဇီဝမျ ိုးစုံမျ ိုးကွဲများ အတွက် ဖူလုံသော စားကျက်မြေများ ကဲ့သို့သော ပံ့ပိုးပေးသည့် ဝန်ဆောင်မှုများ၊ ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းများနှင့် မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသတလျှောက် ကိုးကွယ် ယုံကြည်မှုဆိုင်ရာ ဌာနများအတွက် ယဉ်ကျေးမှု အမွေအနှစ်ဆိုင်ရာ ဝန်ဆောင်မှုများ စသည်တို့ပါဝင်သည်။ တက်ရောက်လာသူများကို ၎င်းတို့နေထိုင်ရာဒေသရှိ မြစ်ကြောင်းတလျှောက် ဘေးဖြစ်နိုင်ချေများ ဖန်တီးမှုနှင့် အရာဝတ္ထုများနှင့် ဝန်ဆောင်မှုများ ထောက်ပံ့ပေးနေသည့် အထက်ပါ ကဏ္ဍများက မြစ်စီးဆင်းမှု စနစ်အပေါ် မည်သို့ သက်ရောက်မှု ရှိသည်တို့ကို ဖော်ထုတ်ဆွေးနွေးစေခဲ့သည်။ မြစ်ဝှမ်းငယ် တစ်ခုချင်းစီတွင် ဖော်ထုတ်ရရှိမှု အများဆုံးဖြစ်သော ပြဿနာများကို ပုံတွင် ဖော်ပြထားသည်။ ထိုပြဿနာများ တွင် ရေကြီးရေလျှ ံခြင်း၊ ကမ်းပါးပြိုခြင်း၊ ညစ်ညမ်းခြင်း၊ နုန်းအနည် ပို့ချခြင်း၊ ရေကြောင်းသွားလာရေး ခက်ခဲလာခြင်း၊ မြစ်ကြောင်းပြောင်းလဲခြင်းနှင့် ငါးမျ ိုးစိတ်များ လျော့နည်းလာခြင်းတို့ ပါဝင်သည်။ မြစ်ဝှမ်းငယ်တစ်ခုချင်းစီအတွင်းရှိ ကဏ္ဍများမှ သက်ရောက်သော ဆိုးကျ ိုးများသာမက မြစ်ညာမှသည် မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ထိ အပြန်အလှန် ဆက်စပ်နေမှုများလည်း ရှိသည်။ ဥပမာအားဖြင့် မြစ်အထက်ပိုင်းတွင် သစ်တောပြုန်းတီးမှုသည် မြစ်အောက်ပိုင်းတွင် နုန်းအနည်ပို့ချမှု သို့မဟုတ် ကမ်းပြိုမှုများကို ဖြစ်ပေါ်စေသည်။ ထိုသို့သော နုံး အနည်အနှစ်များ ပို့ချမှုက မြစ်ပြင်ကို ကျယ်၍ တိမ်လာစေကာ ရေပြင်တွင် လှေများ သွားလာရန် ခက်ခဲစေသည်။ မြစ်ညာပိုင်းတွင် ဓာတုမြေဩဇာများနှင့် ပိုးသတ်ဆေးများ အသုံးပြုမှုက မြစ်အောက်ပိုင်းနေသူများအတွက် ရေထုညစ်ညမ်းမှုကို ဖြစ်စေသည်။ စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေးအတွက် ကောင်းကျ ိုး ဖြစ်စေနိုင်သော ရေလွှမ်းလွင်ပြင်များဖြစ်ပေါ်မှုကိုလျော့နည်း စေသည်။ ဤအချက်များသည် မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသကြီး တလျှောက် ပထဝီအနေအထားအရ သယ်ဆောင်လာပေးသည့် ဘေးဖြစ်နိုင်ချေ နည်းလမ်းများထအနက် အနည်းငယ်သာ ရှိသေးသည်။ စီးပွားရေးဖွံ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်မှုစီမံကိန်းများသည်အထူးသဖြင့်ဧရာဝတီမြစ်နှင့်မြစ်လက်တက်များရှိရာအထက်ပိုင်းတွင်တည်ရှိပါက ပိုမို၍ အလွန်အရေးကြီးပြီး မြစ်အောက်ပိုင်းတွင် နေထိုင်သူများအပေါ် သက်ရောက်နိုင်မှုများကို ထည့်သွင်းစဉ်းစားရပါမည်။ ထိုသို့ သက်ရောက်စေမှုများတွင် ရေရရှိနိုင်မှုနှင့် ရေအရည်အသွေးတို့အပေါ်သာ သက်ရောက်သည်မဟုတ်ဘဲ ရေစီးဆင်းမှု နှုန်းများ၊ နုံးအနည်အနှစ်ပို့ချမှု ဖြစ်စဉ်များအပေါ်တွင်ပါ သက်ရောက်စေသည်။ လတ်တလောတွင် မြစ်အောက်ပိုင်းရှိ ဆက်စပ်ပတ်သက်သူများက ဖော်ထုတ်ပြောပြခဲ့သော ရေကြီးရေလျှ ံမှု ဆိုးကျ ိုးများမှာ မြစ်အထက်ပိုင်းရှိ နုံးအနည်အနှစ် ပို့ချမှုများကြောင့် ဖြစ်နိုင်သည်။ ထိုသို့မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသသို့ နုံးပို့ချမှုနည်းသွားသောကြောင့်ဒေသသည် ပင်လယ်ထဲသို့ နိမ့်ဆင်းလာ၍ နစ်မြုပ်လာနိုင်သည်။ နုံးပို့ချမှုနည်းလာရခြင်းမှာ ဆည်များကြောင့် ရေစီးဆင်းမှုနည်းလာခြင်း၊ နုံးများသယ် ယူပို့ချမှုကိုဆည်များ မှဟန့်တားထားသကဲ့သို့ဖြစ်ခြင်း၊ ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးလုပ်ငန်းများအ တွက်သဲ များထုတ်ယူခြင်း စသော အကြောင်းများစွာပါဝင်သည်။ ထိုအချက်တစ်ခုချင်းစီသည် သိသာစွာ သက်ရောက်မှု မရှိသော်လည်း အချက်အားလုံး တပြိုင်တည်းဖြစ်နေသောကြောင့် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ လူဦးရေအများစုနေထိုင်ရာ၊ အခြေခံအဆောက်အအုံများ၊ ဆန်စပါး နှင့်ငါးများ ထုတ်လုပ်ရာ မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသသည် ထိခိုက်ဆုံးရှုံးမှုဖြစ်နိုင်သော ဒေသဖြစ်လာသည်။ ဆက်နွယ်ချိတ်ဆက်နေသော မြစ်ဧရာ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်အတွင်းရှိ ကဏ္ဍများနှင့်မြစ်ဝှမ်းငယ်များ အပြန်အလှန်မှီတည်နေပုံ UPPER 14% 17% 16% 31% 22% 43% 17%12% 12% 16% 23% 19% 19% 31% 8% 20% 18% 21% 23% 18% ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းထဲတွင် ကြုံတွေ့နေရသော ထိခိုက်ဆုံးရှုံးစေနိုင်သော ဆိုးကျ ိုး အခြေအနေများ ကမ်းပြိုခြင်း ရေကြီး၊ ရေလျှံခြင်း မြစ်ကြောင်းပြောင်းလဲခြင်း ရေထုညစ်ညမ်းခြင်း ရေလမ်းသွားလာရေးပြဿနာများ သတ္တုတွင်း လုပ်ငန်းများ မိုင်းလုပ်ငန်းများ ဇီဝမျ ိုးစုံမျ ိုးကွဲများ လျော့နည်းလာခြင်း ငါးမျ ိုးစိတ်များ လျော့နည်းလာခြင်း မြစ်အလယ်ပိုင်း ချင်းတွင်းမြစ်ဝှမ်း မြစ်အောက်ပိုင်း မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်
  • 129.
    1110 SUPPORT DIFFERENT SECTORS OFTHE ECONOMY? URE ကဏ္ဍအမျ ိုးမျ ိုးက ဧရာဝတီမြစ်အပေါ် မှီတည်နေပုံ ၎င်းတို့ထံမှ သက်ရောက်မှုများ ရေထုညစ်ညမ်းခြင်း နုံးအနည်အနှစ် ပြဿနာများ ကမ်းပြိုခြင်း ရေကြီးရေလျှံခြင်း ဂေဟစနစ်ပျက်စီးလာခြင်း ဇီဝမျ ိုးစုံမျ ိုးကွဲများ ဆုံးရှုံးခြင်း တောပြုန်းခြင်း ငါးများ နည်းပါးလာခြင်း ယဉ်ကျေးမှု ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်း ယုံကြည်ကိုးကွယ်မှုဆိုင်ရာ တွေ့ကြုံခံစားမှုများ ထောက်ပံ့ပေးခြင်း စည်းမျဉ်းဥပဒေများ ပံ့ပိုးပေးခြင်း ရေ ရေကြောင်းသွားလာရေး ရေအားလျှပ်စစ် သောင်တူး၍ ရေကြောင်းရှင်းခြင်း ဓါတ်မြေသြဇာနှင့် ပိုးသတ်ဆေးများ အသုံးပြုခြင်း အင်ဂျင် အလွန်အကျွံ ငါးဖမ်းခြင်း သတ္တုတွင်းလုပ်ငန်း စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေး စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်း ရေလုပ်ငန်းများ ကုန်ကြမ်းပစ္စည်းများ ငါး၊ အစားအစာနှင့် အခြားရေထွက်ပစ္စည်းများ ရေကြီးရေလျှံမှု ထိန်းပေးခြင်း ကျက်စားရာနယ်မြေများ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်
  • 130.
    1312 စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေး စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေးသည်မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ အဓိကစီးပွားရေးကဏ္ဍများအနက် တစ်ခုဖြစ်ပြီး ပြည်တွင်း အသားတင် ထုတ်ကုန် တန်ဖိုး၏ ၃၂%၊ ပို့ကုန်များမှ ရရှိသော ဝင်ငွေ စုစုပေါင်း၏ ၁၇.၅% နှင့် အလုပ်အကိုင် အခွင့်အလမ်း ၆၁.၂% ထောက်ပံ့ပေးနိုင်သည်။ (FAO ၂၀ဝ၉-၂၀၁၀) စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေးကဏ္ဍ ဤသို့ တန်ဖိုးမြင့်တက်နေရခြင်းမှာ ကောင်းမွန်သော ဧရာဝတီမြစ်မှ ထောက်ပံ့ပေးသော ဂေဟစနစ် ဝန်ဆောင်မှုများကြောင့် ဖြစ်သည်။ ဥပမာအားဖြင့် ဧရာဝတီမြစ်မှဆည်မြောင်းရေပေးဝေရေးလုပ်ငန်းများသို့ ထောက်ပံ့ပေးသောရေသည် တန်ဖိုးအားဖြင့် နွေရာသီတွင် ခန့်မှန်းခြေ အမေရိကန်ဒေါ်လာ ၆၂ မှ ၁၂၁သန်းအတွင်း ဖြစ်ပြီး မိုးရာသီတွင် အမေရိကန်ဒေါ်လာ ၂၉ မှ ၅၀ သန်းခန့်အတွင်း ရှိသည်ဟု ခန့်မှန်းထားသည်။ ဤတန်ဖိုးကိုကြည့်ခြင်းဖြင့် မြစ်မှပံ့ပိုးပေးသောသန့်ရှင်းသောရေတစ်မျ ိုးတည်းသည်ပင် စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေး ထွက်ကုန်တန်ဖိုး၏၆%ခန့်ထောက်ပံ့ပေးနေကြောင်းသိနိုင်သည်။ဤသည်မှာမြစ်မှထောက်ပံ့ပေးသောရေတစ်ခုတည်းကိုသာ တွက်ချက် ထားခြင်းဖြစ်ပြီး အခြားထောက်ပံ့ပေးသော အရာများ (ဥပမာအားဖြင့် သဲ) ကို ထည့်သွင်းတွက်ချက်ထားခြင်းမဟု တ်သေးချေ။ ဆန်စပါးသည် အဓိကစိုက်ပျ ိုးသီးနှံဖြစ်ပြီး ဧရိယာအားဖြင့်ဟက်တာပေါင်း ၈ သန်းခန့်တွင် စိုက်ပျ ိုးကြသည်။ အထူးသဖြင့် မိုးရာသီတွင် အများဆုံးစိုက်ပျ ိုးသည်။ အခြားကောက်ပဲသီးနှံများကိုမူ နွေနှင့်ဆောင်းရာသီတွင် စိုက်ပျ ိုးသည်။ ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုးကို ဒုတိယအများဆုံး (ဧရိယာဟက်တာပေါင်း ၄သန်းခန့်) စိုက်ပျ ိုးကြပြီး နွေနှင့်ဆောင်းရာသီတွင်အများဆုံးစိုက်ပျ ိုးသည်။ အခြား ပြောင်းဆန်၊ မြေပဲ၊ နေကြာ၊ နှမ်းနှင့် အခြားသီးနှံများကိုလည်း စိုက်ပျ ိုးကြ၍ ဧရိယာပေါင်း ဟက်တာ ၂.၅သန်းခန့်ရှိသည်။ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းသည် ကောက်ပဲသီးနှံများ အများဆုံးစိုက်ပျ ိုးရာဒေသ ဖြစ်သည်။ မြန်မာ့ ကောက်ပဲသီးနှံများ ထွက်ရှိရာ နေရာ စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေးကဏ္ဍ ထိခိုက်ဆုံးရှုံးစေနိုင်သော အခြေအနေ ထွက်နှုန်း အများဆုံးဖြစ်သော ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသသည် ရာသီဥတုပြောင်းလဲမှုဒဏ်ကို အခံရဆုံးသော ဇုံထဲတွင် တည်ရှိနေသည်။ နောင်တွင်ဖြစ်လာနိုင်သော ဆိုင်ကလုန်းများ၊ ရေကြီးရေလျှ ံမှု၊ မိုးရေချ ိန် မြင့်တက်ခြင်း၊ နေ့အပူချ ိန် မြင့်တက်ခြင်း၊ မိုးခေါင်ခြင်း၊ ပင်လယ်ရေမျက်နှာပြင် မြင့်တက်လာခြင်း အစရှိသော ရာသီဥတုပြောင်းလဲမှုများကြောင့် နိင်ငံ၏ စားနပ်ရိက္ခာ ကဏ္ဍသည် ထိခိုက်လာနိုင်သည်။ ဥပမာအားဖြင့်ဆန်စပါးအဓိကစိုက်ပျ ိုးရာဒေသများသည်ကမ်းရိုးတန်းဒေသနှင့် မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသတို့ဖြစ်ပြီး အခြားကောက် ပဲသီးနှံများအများဆုံးစိုက်ပျ ိုးရာဒေသများသည် အလယ်ပိုင်းမိုးနည်း ရပ်ဝန်းတွင် တည်ရှိသည်။ သို့သော်ရာသီဥတုပြောင်းလဲ မှုများကြောင့် ကမ်းရိုးတန်းဒေသများတွင် အချ ိန်တိုတောင်း၍ ဆိုးရွားပြင်းထန်သောမိုးရာသီတွင် မိုးရေချ ိန်လက်မတိုးလာမှုကို ကြုံတွေ့လာရမည်ဖြစ်ပြီး ရေလွှမ်းမိုးမှုဖြစ်စဉ်များလည်း တိုးပွားလာမည်။ တစ်ချ ိန်တည်းမှာပင် ပင်လယ်ရေမျက်နှာပြင် မြင့်တက်လာမှုကြောင့် ပင်လယ်ရေ ဝင်ရောက်မှု ပြဿနာများလည်း ပိုမိုဖြစ်လာမည်။ ဆိုင်ကလုန်းမုန်တိုင်းများကလည်း ရေကြီးရေလျှ ံမှုများနှင့် လေတိုက်နှုန်းပြင်းထန်မှုများကို ပိုမိုဆိုးရွားလာစေမည်။ အလယ်ပိုင်းမိုးနည်းရပ်ဝန်းဒေသတွ င်မူ မိုးခေါင်ရေရှားပါးမှုများ ပိုမိုပြင်းထန်လာမည်ဖြစ်ပြီး မိုးရာသီကာလသည်လည်း တိုတောင်းလာမည်ဖြစ်သည်။ အပူချ ိန်များလည်း မြင့်တက်လာမည်ဖြစ်ပြီး ၂၀၅၁ ခုနှစ်တွင် အပူချ ိန် ၄ ဒီဂရီဆဲလ်စီးယပ် မြင့်တက်လာမည်ဟု ခန့်မှန်းရသည်။ ဆိုင်ကလုန်း ရေကြီးရေလျှံမှု မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ မည်သည့်နေရာများတွင် မည်ကဲ့သို့သော ရာသီဥတုပြောင်းလဲမှုများကို ကြုံတွေ့နေရပါသနည်း။ 2852870ha 11602493.65ha 234341ha 5330936.8ha 535176ha 842735ha 343989ha 8517506.1ha 224954.9ha 80024.1ha 1534ha 93535.2ha 11812ha 10069ha 308493ha 889859.9ha 796590.1ha 738267.5ha 17283.95ha ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသ ကျန်ဒေသများ ဆန်စပါး ဆီထွက် သီးနှံများ ကောက်နှံပင် ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုး ကွမ်းနှင့် ဆေးရွက်ကြီး လက်ဖက် ကော်ဖီ ကြံ ချည်မျှင် မြင့် နိမ့် လတ် မရှိ နေ့အပူချိန်လွန်ကဲခြင်း မိုးခေါင်ခြင်း မိုးရေချိန်မြင့်တက်ခြင်း ပင်လယ်ရေမျက်နှာပြင် မြင့်တက်ခြင်း သစ်သီး
  • 131.
    1514 ဆန်စပါး ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုး မွေးမြူရေး ဆန်စပါးသည်စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေးထုတ်ကုန် တန်ဖိုး စုစုပေါင်း၏ ၄၃% ရှိပြီး ဒုတိယ တန်ဖိုးအမြင့်ဆုံးဖြစ်သည့် မွေးမြူရေးထုတ်ကုန်ထက် ၅ ဆ ပိုသည်။ ဤသို့ဖြစ်ရခြင်းမှာ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ ရေသယံဇာတ ကြွယ်ဝမှုနှင့် စိုက်ပျ ိုးမြေကောင်းသော မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသတို့ကြောင့် ဖြစ်သည်။ ပြည်နယ်နှင့်တိုင်းဒေကြီးအားလုံး ပေါင်းကြည့်မည်ဆိုပါက ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ် ဒေသသည် စိုက်ပျ ိုး ရေးအတွက် အလွန်အရေးကြီးကြောင်း သိနိုင်သည်။ မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသသည် မြစ်ဝှမ်းတစ်ခုလုံးရှိ စပါး စိုက်ပျ ိုးမြေ စုစုပေါင်း၏ ၆၉% သာ ပိုင်ဆိုင်သော်လည်း နိုင်ငံ့ ဆန်စပါး စိုက်ပျ ိုးထုတ်လုပ်မှု၏ ၇၁% ကို ထုတ်လုပ်ပေးနိုင်နေသဖြင့် မြန်မာ့ “ဆန်အိုးကြီး” ဟု တင်စား ခေါ်ဝေါ်ထိုက်သည့်ဒေသ ဖြစ်သည်။ ယင်းကိုကြည့်ခြင်းဖြင့် ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသ၏ တစ်ဧက ထွက်နှုန်းသည် ကျန်ဒေသများထက် ပိုများကြောင်း သိနိုင်သည်။ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် ဒုတိယအများဆုံး စိုက်ပျ ိုးသော သီးနှံမှာ ကုလားပဲ၊ ပဲစင်းငုံ အစရှိသော ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုး ဖြစ်သည်။ အိန္ဒိယ (ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုးတင်ပို့မှု၏ ၅၈%) နှင့် တရုတ် (ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုး တင်ပို့မှု၏ ၁၈%) တို့သည် မြန်မာ့ ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုးကို အဓိက ဝယ်ယူ တင်သွင်းသည့် နိုင်ငံများဖြစ်ပြီး မြန်မာနိုင်ငံသည် ကမ္ဘာပေါ်တွင် ကနေဒါနိုင်ငံ၏ နောက်တွင် ပဲတင်ပို့မှု ဒုတိယ အများဆုံး နိုင်ငံအဖြစ် ရပ်တည်နေသည်။ ယခုအခါ ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုးသည် စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေးထုတ်ကုန်များအနက် နိုင်ငံခြားဝင်ငွေ အများဆုံး ရရှိသည့် အမျ ိုးအစား ဖြစ်ပြီး ပို့ကုန်စုစုပေါင်း၏ ၁၂% (အမေရိကန်ဒေါ်လာ ၁.၄ ဘီလီယံခန့်) ရှိသည်။ ၂၀၁၁ ခုနှစ်တွင် ပဲစိုက်ပျ ိုးသော ဧရိယာ ဟက်တာပေါင်း ၄.၄ သန်းခန့် (စပါးစိုက်ပျ ိုးသော ဧရိယာ၏ ၅၅% ခန့်) ရှိသည်ဟု ခန့်မှန်းချက်များအရ သိရသည်။ ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုးကို အလယ်ပိုင်း မိုးနည်း ရပ်ဝန်း ဒေသ တွင်အများဆုံးစိုက်ပျ ိုးကြပြီး မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေ သ၊ တောင်ပေါ်ဒေသများနှင့် ကမ်းရိုးတန်းဒေ သများ တွင်လည်း စိုက်ပျ ိုးကြသည်။ တစ်နိုင်ငံလုံးဆိုင်ရာ စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေး စာရင်းဇယားများအရ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံအတွင် စိုက်ပျ ိုးထုတ်လုပ်သည့် ပဲအမျ ိုးမျ ိုး၏ ၉၆% ကို ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသတွင် စိုက်ပျ ိုးခြင်း ဖြစ်သည်။ ၂၀၁၀ ခုနှစ်တွင် မွေးမြူရေးနှင့် ရေလုပ်ငန်းကဏ္ဍသည် နိုင်ငံ့ ဂျ ီဒီပီ၏ ၇.၄% ရှိသည်။ သို့ရာတွင် တရားဝင် ဂျ ီဒီပီ ကိန်းဂဏန်းများအပြင် မွေးမြူရေးလုပ်ငန်းသည် စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေးလုပ်ငန်းနှင့် တသားတည်း ဆက်စပ်နေကာ - နွား (နှင့်ကျွဲ) သည် ခွန်အားဖြင့် လုပ်ဆောင်ရမည့်ကိစ္စများကို လုပ်ဆောင်ပေးခြင်းနှင့် ကျေးလက်ဒေသများတွင် သယ်ယူပို့ဆောင်ပေးခြင်း၊ နို့နှင့် နို့ထွက်ပစ္စည်းများ ထောက်ပံ့ပေးခြင်း စသည်တို့ဖြင့် လူသားတို့ကို အကျ ိုးပြုပေးသည်။ ထို့ပြင် အခြားမွေးမြူရေးသတ္တဝါများသည်လည်း အစားအစာနှင့် ဝင်ငွေတိုးပွားစေခြင်းဖြင့် လူသားတို့ကို အကျ ိုးပြုသည်။ ၂၀၁၂ ခုနှစ် စာရင်းအရ မွေးမြူရေးလုပ်ငန်းများတွင် နွား ၁၄ သန်း၊ ကျွဲ ၃.၁ သန်း၊ သိုးနှင့် ဆိတ် ၄.၆ သန်း၊ ဝက် ၁၀.၃ သန်း၊ ကြက် ၁၇၂ သန်း၊ ဘဲ ၁၅ သန်းနှင့် အခြားမွေးမြူရေးကြက်များ ၁.၉ သန်း ရှိကြောင်း သိရသည်။ လူတစ်ဦးသည် တစ်နှစ်လျှင် အသား ၁၁.၃ ကီလိုဂရမ် (ဂျာမနီနိုင်ငံတွင် လူတစ်ဦးလျှင် နှစ်စဉ်စားသုံးသော အသားဂရမ် ၈၈ ကီလိုဂရမ်)၊ နို့ ၁၅.၃ ကီလို ဂရမ်နှင့် ဥအမျ ိုးမျ ိုး ၅၂ လုံးခန့် စားသုံးကြောင်း ခန့်မှန်း ကြသည်။ နွားမွေးမြူရေးကို ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်း အလယ်ပိုင်း အပူပိုင်း မိုးနည်းရပ်ဝန်း ဒေသများတွင် အများဆုံးလုပ်ကိုင်ကြပြီး တစ်နိုင်ငံလုံး စုစုပေါင်း၏ ၅၀% ကျော်ဖြစ်သည်။ ၂၀၁၂ ခုနှစ်တွင် မွေးမြူရေးထွက်ကုန်ပစ္စည်းများ တင်ပို့ရာမှ အမေရိကန် ဒေါ်လာ ၄၇.၁သန်း ရရှိခဲ့သည်။ ဤပမာဏသည် ငါးပုဇွန်များ (ရေချ ိုနှင့် ပင်လယ်ငါးများ) တင်ပို့ရာမှ ရရှိသော အမေရိကန်ဒေါ်လာ ၆၄၁.၇သန်း နှင့် ကောက်ပဲသီးနှံများ တင်ပို့ရာမှ အမေရိကန် ဒေါ်လာ သန်းပေါင်း၂၆၀ဝ နှင့် နှိုင်းယှဉ်လျှင် နည်းပါးသည်။ သို့ရာတွင် တရားဝင် ထုတ်ပြန်ချက်များအရ မွေးမြူရေးနှင့် နို့နှင့် နို့ထွက်ပစ္စည်းများ ကဏ္ဍသည် ကောက်ပဲသီးနှံ ကဏ္ဍနှင့် နှိုင်းယှဉ်လျှင် ပိုမိုလျင်မြန်စွာ ဖွံဖြိုး တိုးတက် လာခဲ့သည်။ ဤအချက်ကို ဖော်ပြပါပုံကို ကြည့်ခြင်းဖြင့် သိနိုင်သည်။ ပုံတွင် အသားထုတ်လုပ်မှုသည် နှစ်အလိုက် လျင်မြန်စွာ တိုးလာကြောင်း သိနိုင်သည်။ အသား ထုတ်လုပ်မှု ကဏ္ဍတွင် ကြက်သားသည် ထုတ်လုပ်မှု အများဆုံး ဖြစ်ပြီး ၂၀၁၀ ခုနှစ်တွင် ၉၉၅၃၈၀ တန် (အသား ထုတ်လုပ်မှု စုစုပေါင်း၏ ၅၁.၃%) ဖြစ်သည်။ ဒုတိယနှင့် တတိယ အများဆုံးတို့မှာ ဝက်နှင့် အမဲသားတို့ ဖြစ်သည်။ နို့နှင့် နို့ထွက်ပစ္စည်း ထုတ်လုပ်မှု ကဏ္ဍသည်လည်း အရေးကြီးသော အခန်းကဏ္ဍမှ ပါဝင်နေသည်။ 2001 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2005 2008 2011 2013 တန်ပေါင်းထောင်ဂဏန်း မြန်မာနိုင်ငံရှိ မွေးမြူရေးကဏ္ဍမှ အသားထုတ်လုပ်မှု
  • 132.
    1716 ရေလုပ်ငန်း မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ တိုင်းဒေသကြီးအလိုက် ရေလုပ်ငန်းမွေးမြူရေးလုပ်ငန်းများ ဆန်စပါးကဲ့သို့ပင်ငါး သည် မြန်မာ့ စားနပ်ရိက္ခာ ကဏ္ဍတွင် အဓိကနေရာမှပါဝင်ပြီး တိရစ္ဆာန် ပရိုတင်းဓာတ် စားသုံးမှု၏ ၆၀% ခန့်ရှိသည်။ တစ်နိုင်ငံလုံးအတိုင်းအတာဖြင့် ကြည့်လျှင်၂၀၁၀ ခုနှစ်တွင် မွေးမြူရေးနှင့် ရေလုပ်ငန်းကဏ္ဍသည် နိုင်ငံ၏ အသားတင် ကုန်ထုတ်လုပ်မှု၏ ၇.၄% ဖြစ်သည်။ တရားဝင်စစ်တမ်းထုတ်ပြန်ချက်များအရ ရေလုပ်ငန်းမှ လူဦးရေ ၃.၂သန်းခန့် (ဝ.၁၅%)အတွက် အလုပ်အကိုင်အခွင့်အလမ်းများရရှိစေခဲ့ သည်။ ကောင်းမွန်သောမြစ်သည် ရေလုပ်ငန်းများ အပေါ် များစွာအကျ ိုးပြုသည်။ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်း အခြေအနေ ဆန်းစစ်လေ့လာမှု အစီရင်ခံစာအရ မြစ်မှ ရေလုပ်ငန်း အပေါ် အကျ ိုးပြုခြင်းသည် တန်ဖိုးအားဖြင့် ရေချ ိုငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်းတွင် အမေရိကန်ဒေါ်လာ သန်းပေါင်း ၃၅၀ မှ ၅၃၀ အတွင်းရှိပြီး ရေလုပ်ငန်းမွေးမြူရေးများတွင် အမေရိကန်ဒေါ်လာ သန်းပေါင်း ၃၈၀မှ ၆၀ဝ အတွင်း ရှိသည်။ အသစ်ထုတ်ပြန်ထားသော တရားဝင် စစ်တမ်းထုတ်ပြန်မှုများအရ မြန်မာငါးထုတ်လုပ်မှု၏ ၃ပုံ၁ပုံသည် ကုန်းတွင်းပိုင်း ငါးဖမ်း လုပ်ငန်းများမှ လည်းကောင်း၊ အခြား ၃ပုံ၁ပုံသည် ပင်လယ်ဘက်ငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်းများမှလည်း ကောင်း၊ ကျန် ၃ပုံ၁ပုံ သည်ငါးမွေးမြူရေးလုပ်ငန်းများမှ လည်းကောင်း အဓိက ရရှိသည်။ ၂၀၁၅ခုနှစ်တွင် ဤသုံး မျ ိုးပေါင်းသည် ပမာဏအားဖြင့် တန်ပေါင်း ၂.၉သန်းခန့် ရှိသည်။ ကုန်းတွင်းပိုင်း ငါးဖမ်း လုပ်ငန်းများမှ တန်ပေါင်း ၈၆၃၀ဝ၀ (ထုတ်လုပ်မှုစုစုပေါင်း၏ ၃၀%)၊ ပင်လယ်ဘက်ငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်းများမှ မက်ထရစ်တန်ပေါင်း ၁၀၆၂၀ဝ၀ခန့် (ထုတ်လုပ်မှုစုစုပေါင်း၏ ၃၇%) နှင့် ငါးမွေးမြူရေးလုပ်ငန်းများမှ မက်ထရစ်တန်ပေါင်း ၉၄၂၀ဝ၀ (ထုတ်လုပ်မှုစုစုပေါင်း၏ ၃၃%) ရရှိသည်။ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ရေထွက်ပစ္စည်းထုတ်လုပ်မှုအခြေအနေကို ပုံတွင်ဖော်ပြထားသည်။ ပင်လယ်ငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်းသည် နှစ်အလိုက် အနည်းငယ်သာပြောင်းလဲမှုရှိကြောင်းတွေ့ရသည်။ ငါးမွေးမြူရေး လုပ်ငန်းသည် လျင်မြန်စွာ တိုးတက်ပြောင်းလဲလာ၍ ကုန်းတွင်းပိုင်း ငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်း မှာမူ ပြီးခဲ့သောနှစ်အနည်းငယ်အတွင်း ကျဆင်း လာကြောင်း တွေ့ရသည်။ 2004 0 50 100 150 200 250 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 ပင်လယ်ငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်းများ၊ ရေချ ိုငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်းများနှင့် ငါးပုဇွန်မွေးမြူရေးလုပ်ငန်းများ အခြေအနေ ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသသည် ကုန်းတွင်း ငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်းများအတွက် အလွန်အရေးပါသော အရင်းအမြစ်ပင် ဖြစ်သည်။ သဘာဝမှ ဖမ်းယူသည့် ငါးလုပ်ငန်းများ အတွက်သာမက ငါးမွေးမြူရေး လုပ်ငန်းများ အတွက်ပါ အရေးပါသည်။ ဥပမာအားဖြင့် မြန်မာတစ်နိုင်ငံလုံး ငါးမွေးမြူရေးကန်များ၏ ၇၀% သည် မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသ (ရန်ကုန်နှင့် ဧရာဝတီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး) တွင် ရှိသည်။ နှိုင်းယှဉ်မှုအရ ဧရာဝတီ၏ အရေးပါပုံကို ပုံတွင် ဖော်ပြထားသည်။ ဧရာဝတီတွင် ငါးမွေးမြူရေး လုပ်ငန်း (တွက်ချက်မှုများအရ တစ်နှစ်လျှင် ၈% ခန့်) နှစ်စဉ် တိုးတက်လာနေမှုက မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသရှိ ဒေသငါးမျ ိုးရင်းများအပေါ် ထိခိုက်ဆုံးရှုံးစေမှုများ ဖြစ်နေစေသည်။ အထူးအားဖြင့် ဧရာဝတီမြစ်အတွင်း သဘာဝအတိုင်း ရှင်သန်ကျက်စား သည့် ငါးများနှင့် ပတ်သက်သော အချက်အလက်များ နည်းပါးသဖြင့် ထိုသို့ ထိခိုက်ဆုံးရှုံးစေနိုင်မှုသည် စိုးရိမ်ဖွယ် အနေအထား ဖြစ်နေသည်။ ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင် ဒေသတွင် တွေ့ရသော ငါးမျ ိုးစိတ်ပေါင်း ၃၈၈ မျ ိုးအနက် ၃၁၁ မျ ိုးကို မြန်မာနိုင်ငံဘက်ခြမ်းတွင် တွေ့ရပြီး ကျန်မျ ိုးစိတ်များကို အိန္ဒိယနှင့် တရုတ်ဘက်အခြမ်းတွင် တွေ့ရသည်။ ထိုမျ ိုးစိတ် ၃၈၈ မျ ိုးတွင် ၁၉၃ မျ ိုး (၅၀%) ခန့်သည် ဤမြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသတွင်သာ တွေ့ရခြင်း ဖြစ်ကာ ထိုအထဲတွင် မျ ိုးစိတ်ပေါင်း ၁၀ဝ (၂၆%) ခန့်သည် မြန်မာဘက်ခြမ်းတွင်သာ တွေ့ရခြင်း ဖြစ်သည်။ ပြည်ပမှ တင်သွင်းလာသော ပြင်ပမျ ိုးစိတ် ငါးများက သဘာဝအတိုင်း ရှင်သန်ကျက်စားနေသော ဒေသမျ ိုးရင်း ငါးမျ ိုးစိတ်များကို လွှမ်းမိုး ခြိမ်းခြောက်လာဖွယ် အနေအထားကို တွေ့ရသည်။ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်း အခြေအနေ ဆန်းစစ်လေ့လာမှု၏ ရေလုပ်ငန်းအပေါ် ဆန်းစစ်လေ့လာမှု အစီရင်ခံစာတွင် “သဘာဝအတိုင်း ဖြစ်နေသော အင်း၊ အိုင်၊ ရေကန်များတွင် မွေးမြူရေးငါးမျ ိုးစိတ်များ မွေးမြူခြင်း၏ ကောင်းကျ ိုး ဆိုးပြစ်များကို လေ့လာမှု ပြုလုပ်ခြင်း နည်းပါးနေသေးကြောင်း တွေ့ရသည်။ ရေလုပ်သားများကလည်း မွေးမြူရေးငါးများနှင့် သဘာဝအတိုင်း ရှင်သန်ကျက်စားသည့် ငါးများအကြား ရှင်သန်ရေးအတွက် ပြိုင်ဆိုင်ရမှုနှင့် သဘာဝအတိုင်း ရှင်သန်ကျက်စားသည့် ငါးမျ ိုး ဖမ်းဆီးရမိမှု အကြိမ်ကြိမ် ကျဆင်းခဲ့မှုများကို စောဒကတက်ကြသည်။ ၂၀ဝ၇ ခုနှစ်တွင် အင်းလုပ်ငန်းများမှ ဖမ်းဆီးရမိမှု၏ ၇.၄% သာ ထိုအင်းထဲတွင် နဂိုမူလကပင် ရှိနေသော ဒေသမျ ိုးရင်းများ ဖြစ်ကြောင်းသိရသည်။ ဤအချက်သည် ပိုမို အသေးစိတ် လေ့လာရန် လိုအပ်နေကြောင်း ဖော်ပြနေသည်။” ဟုတင်ပြထားသည်။ 500,000 1,000,000 1,500,000 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 ပင်လယ်ငါးဖမ်းမှု ရေချ ိုငါးဖမ်းမှု ငါးပုဇွန်မွေးမြူရေး မွေးမြူရေးကန်အကျယ်အဝန်းဧရိယာ(*တစ်ထောင်ဧက) စုစုပေါင်းဖမ်းယူရရှိမှု အခြားပြည်နယ်နှင့်တိုင်း ပဲခူး ရန်ကုန် ဧရာဝတီ
  • 133.
    1918 ငါးများအပြင် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် မျိုးသုဉ်းရန် အထူးစိုးရိမ်ဖွယ်ရှိသည့် ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင်များသည်လည်း ခြိမ်းခြောက်မှုများနှင့် ရင်ဆိုင်နေ ရသည်။ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ထဲတွင် အကြမ်းအားဖြင့် လင်းပိုင်ပေါင်း ၆၀ ခန့်သာ ကျန်ရှိတော့သည်။ ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင်များ ကျင်လည်ကျက်စားရာဒေသများသည် တိုးပွားလာသော လူတို့၏ လုပ်ဆောင်မှုများကြောင့် အန္တရာယ်ဖြစ်စေသော ဒေသများနှင့် အထူးပင် တထပ်တည်းကျနေသည်။ လင်းပိုင်ကောင်ရေ လျော့ကျလာမှု၏ အဓိကအကြောင်းရင်း မှာ အသေးစား ငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်းများ၏ ငါးဖမ်းမှုများ (အထူးသဖြင့် ပိုက်တန်းချ ငါးဖမ်းမှုများ၊ လျှပ်စစ်ရှော့ရိုက် ငါးဖမ်းမှုများ) တွင် သေဆုံးရမှုကြောင့် ဖြစ်သည်။ ရေချ ိုဒေသများတွင် မြစ်ထဲရှိ တည်ရှိပြီးဖြစ်သော ဆည်များနှင့် တည်ဆောက်ရန် စီမံကိန်းရေးဆွဲပြီးဖြစ်သော ဆည်များကြောင့် စားကျက်နယ်မြေများလျော့ကျလာခြင်းနှင့်ပျောက်ဆုံးခြင်းတို့သည်လင်းပိုင်များအတွက်မျ ိုးသုဉ်းစေနိုင်သောအကြောင်းအရင်းများထဲတွင် ပါဝင်သည်။ ထို့ပြင် ကမ်းရိုးတန်းဒေသရှိ စားကျက်နယ်မြေများ ပျောက်ဆုံးရခြင်းတွင်မူ ရေချ ိုစီးဆင်းမှု လျော့နည်းလာခြင်း၊ ကုန်သွယ်ရေး သင်္ဘောများ များပြားလာခြင်းနှင့် ရေထုညစ်ညမ်းလာမှု တို့ကြောင့် ဖြစ်သည်။ အချ ို့သော ရေလုပ်သားများက ဤကဲ့သို့ လင်းပိုင်များအပေါ် အန္တရာယ်ဖြစ်စေရခြင်းမှာ မွေးမြူရေး၊ ရေလုပ်ငန်းနှင့် ကျေးလက်ဒေသ ဖွံ့ဖြိုးရေး ဝန်ကြီးဌာနမှ ချပေးသော ငါးဖမ်းလိုင်စင်များတွင် သန္ဓေတည်သည်ဟု ယူဆကြသည်။ ငါးဖမ်းလိုင်စင်ရရှိရန် အပြိုင်အဆိုင် လေလံတင်ရခြင်း၊ငါးဖမ်းခွင့်ကာလတိုတောင်းခြင်းများကြောင့်တရားမဝင်ငါးဖမ်းခြင်းများပိုမိုဖြစ်စေပြီးလင်းပိုင်များနှင့် ရေနေသတ္တဝါများ သာမက တရားဝင် နည်းလမ်းတကျ ငါးဖမ်းသော ရေလုပ်သားများ၏ စီးပွားရေးကိုလည်း ထိခိုက်စေသည်။ ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင် အတူတကွပူးပေါင်းလုပ်ဆောင်ခြင်း ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင်များ၏ လူတို့ကို အကျ ိုးပြုသောအချက်မှာ လူတို့၏ ငါးဖမ်းလုပ်ငန်းများတွင် ပူးပေါင်းပါဝင်၍ ကူညီပေးခြင်းပင် ဖြစ်သည်။ ထိုသို့ ကူညီပေးခြင်းသည် လူတို့အတွက် အလွန်အကျ ိုးရှိသည်။ လူသားတို့နှင့် လင်းပိုင်တို့ ပူးပေါင်း၍ ငါးဖမ်းခြင်းက ငါး ပိုမို ဖမ်းမိ၍ ဝင်ငွေတိုးကြောင်း ၂၀ဝ၆ နှင့် ၂၀ဝ၇ ခုနှစ်တွင် ငါးလုပ်ငန်းဦးစီးဌာန(DOF) နှင့် သားဌက်ထိန်းသိမ်းရေးအဖွဲ့ (WCS) တို့ ပြုလုပ်သော လေ့လာမှုက တွေ့ရှိခဲ့သည်။ သို့သော် ၂၀၁၁ ခုနှစ်မှ ၂၀၁၃ ခုနှစ်အတွင်း ရေလုပ်သားများ၏ ဝင်ငွေ ၁၇% ခန့် လျော့ကျလာကြောင်း သိရသည်။ ၄၀% သော ရေလုပ်သားများသည် အခြား ဝင်ငွေရရှိနိုင်သော နည်းလမ်းမရှိဘဲ ၃၈% သော ငါးဖမ်းသမားများသည် လယ်ယာ စိုက်ပျ ိုးခြင်းကို အပိုဝင်ငွေ ရရှိရန် မှီခိုကြောင်း သိရသည်။ သို့သော် လယ်ယာစိုက်ပျ ိုးခြင်းမှ ရရှိသော ဝင်ငွေသည် နှစ်အလိုက် ရာသီပေါ် မူတည်၍ ပြောင်းလဲနေပြီး ဝင်ငွေအတည်တကျမရှိချေ။ ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်း သဘာဝအခြေပြု ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းတွင် လင်းပိုင်နှင့် လူတို့ ပူးပေါင်းငါးဖမ်းမှုကို လက်တွေ့ကြည့်ရှုလေ့လာနိုင်မည့် နေရာသည် ကမ္ဘာပေါ်တွင် ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသတွင်သာ ရှိသည်။ မျ ိုးသုဉ်းမည့် အန္တရာယ် ကျရောက်နေသော ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင်များကိုလည်း လာရောက် ကြည့်ရှုနိုင်သည်။ ထိုသို့ကြည့်ရှုခြင်းဖြင့် ရေလုပ်သားများ၏ ဝင်ငွေကိုလည်း အနည်းငယ်တိုးစေ၍ လျှပ်စစ်ရှော့ရှိုက် ငါးဖမ်းမှုကိုလည်း လျော့စေနိုင်မည် ဖြစ်သည်။ ထိုသို့ သဘာဝအခြေပြု ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းကို ဖွံ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်စေရန် လုပ်ဆောင်သင့်သည်မှာ သိသာထင်ရှားလှသည်။ ၂၀၁၆ ခုနှစ်တွင် ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင်များ အများဆုံး တွေ့ရသော မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီးတွင် ခရီးသွားဧည့်သည် ၃၈၅၀၃၁ ယောက်ကျော် လာရောက်ကြောင်းသိရသည်။ ထိုသို့ လာရောက်ကြသူများတွင် အပျော်စီးသင်္ဘောများကို အသုံးပြုသူ ၁၉၈၁၀ ခန့် ရှိသည်။ ထိုသင်္ဘောများသည် ပုဂံသို့သွားသော သင်္ဘောများ ဖြစ်သော်လည်း ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင်များကို ကြည့်ရှုရန် အသုံးပြုရန်လည်း ဖြစ်နိုင်ခြေရှိပေသည်။ ဤသို့ အသုံးပြုခဲ့မည်ဆိုပါက ၂၀၁၆ ခုနှစ်တွင် ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင် ကြည့်ရှုခြင်းမှ ရရှိခဲ့သော ဝင်ငွေသည် အမေရိကန် ဒေါ်လာ ၁၀.၅ သန်း ဖြစ်ခဲ့ပေမည်။ လင်းပိုင်နှင့် လူတို့ ပူးပေါင်းငါးဖမ်းမှုကို လက်တွေ့ ကြည့်ရှုလေ့လာနိုင်မည့် နေရာသည် ကမ္ဘာပေါ်တွင် ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသတွင်သာ ရှိသည်။ စိတ်မကောင်းစရာမှာ ထို နှစ်ပေါင်းများစွာ သက်တမ်းရှိ အလေ့အထသည် ခြိမ်းခြောက်မှုနှင့် ရင်ဆိုင်နေရသည်။ ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းက ဧရာဝတီ လင်းပိုင်များကို ကယ်တင် နိုင်ပါမည်လော။
  • 134.
    2120 မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ သဘာဝအရင်းအမြစ်များတွင် ရေနံနှင့်သဘာဝဓါတ်ငွေ့၊ ရွှေ၊ ငွေ၊ ကြေးနီ အစရှိသော တွင်းထွက်သတ္တုများနှင့် ကျောက်စိမ်း၊ ပတ္တမြားစသော ကျောက်မျက် ရတနာများ ပါဝင်သည်။ ၂၀၁၃ ခုနှစ်တွင် ဤကဏ္ဍသည် နိုင်ငံ၏ ဂျ ီဒီပီ၏ ၆%၊ နိုင်ငံတော် ဝင်ငွေ၏ ၂၃.၆% နှင့် ပြည်ပပို့ကုန် စုစုပေါင်း၏ ၃၈.၅% ဖြစ်သည်။ သတ္တုတွင်း လုပ်ငန်းများသည် နိုင်ငံ၏ စီးပွားရေးအတွက် သာမက ပြည်သူတို့အတွက် အလုပ်အကိုင် အခွင့်အလမ်း များစွာပေး သော အရေးကြီးသည့် ကဏ္ဍတစ်ခုဖြစ်သည်။ တစ်နိုင်တစ်ပိုင် သတ္တုတွင်းလုပ်ငန်းများသည် ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသ တစ်ခုလုံးတွင် ပျ ံ့နှံ့တည်ရှိနေပြီး ထိုလုပ်ငန်းများသည် ဧရာဝတီမြစ် အထက်ပိုင်းဒေသများ၊ အလယ်ပိုင်းဒေသများနှင့် ချင်းတွင်းမြစ်ဝှမ်းရှိ ဒေသခံပြည်သူများ အတွက် အရေးကြီးသော ဝင်ငွေရရှိသည့် အလုပ်အကိုင်များဖြစ်သည်။ ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသရှိ သတ္တုတွင်းလုပ်ငန်းများသည် လျင်မြန်စွာ တိုးတက်လာပြီး နိုင်ငံ၏ စီးပွားရေးတွင်လည်း အလွန် အရေးပါသည်။ သတ္တုတွင်း အများစုသည် စစ်ကိုင်းတိုင်းဒေသကြီးနှင့် မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီးတို့တွင် တည်ရှိသည်။ ထိုတိုင်းဒေသကြီးတို့သည် ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသတွင် တည်ရှိသောကြောင့် နိုင်ငံ၏ ၈၇% သော မိုင်းလုပ်ငန်းတို့သည် ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသတွင် တည်ရှိသည်ဟု ဆိုနိုင်သည်။ ကောင်းကင်မှ ရိုက်ယူထားသော မြေပြင်အချက်အလက်များအရ သတ္တုတွင်း လုပ်ငန်းများသည် ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသအတွင်း လျင်မြန်စွာ တိုးချဲ့ နေရာယူလာပြီး ယခုအခါတွင် စတုရန်း ကီလိုမီတာပေါင်း ၇၄၀ ကျော်ခန့်ကိုတိုက်ရိုက်ထိခိုက်မှုရှိနေသည်။ထိုပမာဏသည်ချင်းတွင်းမြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်တွင်သတ္တုလုပ်ငန်း ကဏ္ဍတစ်ခုတည်းကြောင့်ပျက်ဆီးထိခိုက်ရမှု၏၁%နီးပါးမျှနှင့်ညီမျှသည်။တိုးချဲ့လုပ်ကိုင်မှုအများစုသည် ချင်းတွင်းမြစ်ဝှမ်း သို့မဟုတ် မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး အနီးတဝိုက်တွင် ဖြစ်သည်။ မြန်မာ့ သတ္တုတွင်းများ၏ တည်နေရာ 220 63 26 38 40 6 1 သတ္တုတွင်း လုပ်ငန်းများသည် မြစ်ဝှမ်းအတွင်း လျင်မြန်စွာ တိုးချဲ့ နေရာယူလာပြီး ယခုအခါတွင် စတုရန်းကီလိုမီတာပေါင်း ၇၄၀ ကျော်ခန့် ရှိသည်။ ထိုပမာဏသည် ချင်းတွင်းမြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ရှိ လျော့နည်းလာသော မိုင်းလုပ်ငန်း ကဏ္ဍတစ်ခုတည်း၏ ၁% နှင့် ညီမျှသည်။ သတ္တုတွင်းလုပ်ငန်းများနှင့် တွင်းထွက်ပစ္စည်းများ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ အဝှမ်းတွင် သတ္တုတွင်း စုစုပေါင်း ၅၈၅ ခုရှိပြီး ၅၀၉ ခုမှာ ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင်ဒေသတွင် တည်ရှိသည်။ 209 ကယားပြည်နယ် ရှမ်းပြည်နယ် ကချင်ပြည်နယ် မွန်ပြည်နယ် စစ်ကိုင်းတိုင်းဒေသကြီး ကရင်ပြည်နယ် တနင်္သာရီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး ပဲခူးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
  • 135.
    2322 “ပိုမိုကောင်းမွန်သော လောင်စာဆီ ရရှိရေး ရေနံစိမ်းကိုကျ ိုချက်ရန် ထင်းလိုအပ်မှုကြောင့် အသေးစား လုပ်ငန်းများသည် မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသအတွင်း ကြီးမားသော သစ်တောပြုန်းတီးမှုများ အတွက် တာဝန်ရှိနေသည်။” ရေနံနှင့် သဘာဝဓါတ်ငွေ့ အာရှတွင် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံသည် အရေးကြီးသော ရေနံနှင့် သဘာဝဓါတ်ငွေ့ ထုတ်လုပ်တင်ပို့သော နိုင်ငံ ဖြစ်သည်။ ၁၈၅၃ ခုနှစ်ကပင် ပထမဆုံး ရေနံဆီကို တင်ပို့နိုင်ခဲ့သဖြင့် ကမ္ဘာ့ရှေးအကျဆုံး ရေနံချက် စက်ရုံများ တည်ရှိရာ နိုင်ငံဟုလည်း ဆိုနိုင်သည်။ ယခုအခါတွင် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ သည် ကမ္ဘာပေါ်ရှိ အဓိက သဘာဝဓါတ်ငွေ့ ထုတ်လုပ်သော နိုင်ငံများတွင် ပါဝင်သည်။ ရင်းနှီးမြှပ်နှံမှုနှင့်ကုမ္ပဏီများညွှန်ကြားမှုဦးစီးဌာန၏ပြောကြားချက်အရ၂၀၁၇ခုနှစ်ဇန်နဝါရီတွင် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံသည် ပြည်ပမှ ရင်းနှီးမြှပ်နှံငွေ အမေရိကန်ဒေါ်လာ (၆၉) ဘီလီယံကျော် ရရှိခဲ့သည်။ ရေနံနှင့် သဘာဝဓါတ်ငွေ့ကဏ္ဍသည် နိုင်ငံခြားကုမ္ပဏီပေါင်း ၁၅၄ ခုထံမှ ရင်းနှီးမြပ်နှံငွေ အမေရိကန် ဒေါ်လာ (၂၂.၄) ဘီလီယံကျော် (ပြည်ပမှ ရင်းနှီးမြှပ်နှံငွေ စုစုပေါင်း၏ ၃၂% ခန့်) ရရှိခဲ့သည်။ ဤအချက်အလက်အရ ရေနံနှင့် သဘာဝဓါတ်ငွေ့ ကဏ္ဍသည် ပြည်ပမှ ရင်းနှီးမြှပ်နှံငွေ အများဆုံး ရရှိသော ကဏ္ဍဖြစ်၍ စွမ်းအင်ကဏ္ဍ၊ ထုတ်လုပ်ရေး ကဏ္ဍ၊ သယ်ယူပို့ဆောင်ရေး ကဏ္ဍနှင့် ဆက်သွယ်ရေးကဏ္ဍတို့ထက် ပိုမိုရရှိကြောင်းသိနိုင်သည်။ ရေနံနှင့်သဘာဝဓါတ်ငွေ့ထုတ်လုပ်ရာနေရာ အများစုသည် ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းအတွင်းတွင် တည်ရှိ ပြီး ကျန်နေရာများသည် ကမ်းလွန်ဒေသများတွင် တည်ရှိသည်။ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းအတွင်းရှီ ရေနံနှင့် သဘာဝဓာတ်ငွ​ေ့လုပ်ငန်းသည် ရှေးရိုးစဉ်လာ လက်ယက်တွင်းများ အများစု ဖြစ်ကြသည်။ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံသည် လက်ယက် ရေနံတွင်းများနှင့် ပတ်သက်၍ ရှည်လျားသည့် သမိုင်းကြောင်း ရှိပြီး တစ်ဦးချင်းစီ သို့မဟုတ် စနစ်တကျဖွဲ့စည်းထားခြင်း မဟုတ်သည့် အသေးစား လုပ်ငန်းများက ရေပုံးနှင့် ကြိုးကဲ့သို့သော ရိုးရှင်းလှသည့် ကိရိယာပစ္စည်းများ အသုံးပြုကာ ရေနံကို ထုတ်ယူကြသည်။ လက်ရှိအချ ိန်ထိ ရေနံမြေအများအပြားတွင်ဒေသခံလူထုအတွက်အဓိကသို့မဟုတ်ဒုတိယအရေးကြီးဆုံးအသက်မွေးဝမ်းကျောင်းမှု ဖြည့်စည်းပေးနေသည့် လက်ယက် ရေနံတွင်းများ ရှိနေသေးသည်။ လက်ယက်တွင်းများသည် မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး ကျောက်ပန်းတောင်းမြို့နယ်ရှိ ငရှမ်းတောင်၊ စစ်ကိုင်းတိုင်း ဒေသကြီး ကလေးမြို့နယ်နှင့် မကွေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး မြိုင်၊ ပေါက်၊ ဂန့်ဂေါနှင့် မင်းလှ မြို့များတွင် ပျ ံ့နှံ့တည်ရှိ နေ သည်။မင်းလှမြို့တွင်ထောင်သောင်းမကသောအသေးစားရေနံတူးဖော်ရေးလုပ်ငန်းများသည်နှစ်ဒါဇင်ကျော်သည့် ရေနံမြေများတွင် ပျ ံ့နှံ့ တည်ရှိသည်။ အများစုသည် ၅ မှ ၇ စတုရန်းပေ အတွင်းသာ ကျယ်ဝန်းသည့် စီမံကိန်း အကွက်များ ဖြစ်ကြသည်။ အစိုးရအနေဖြင့် အဆိုပါ လက်ယက်တွင်း လုပ်ငန်းများအတွက် ပိုမိုတင်းကြတ်သော ဘေးကင်းရေးနှင့် သဘာဝ ပတ်ဝန်းကျင်ဆိုင်ရာ စံနှုန်းများ သတ်မှတ်ပေးရန် လိုအပ်နေပေသည်။ ပိုမိုကောင်းမွန်သော လောင်စာဆီ ရရှိရေး ရေနံစိမ်းကို ကျ ိုချက်ရန် ထင်းလိုအပ်မှုကြောင့် အဆိုပါ အသေးစား လုပ်ငန်းများသည် မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသအတွင်း ကြီးမားသော သစ်တောပြုန်းတီးမှုများ အတွက် တာဝန်ရှိနေသည်။ ထိုသို့ သစ်တောပြုန်းတီးမှုက ရေကို ထိန်းပေးထားနိုင်မှုကို လျော့ကျစေပြီး ဧရာဝတီမြစ်အတွင်း နုန်းမြေ တိုက်စားမှု မြင့်တက်စေကာ မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသ တစ်ခုလုံးအတွက် ဆိုးကျ ိုး ဖြစ်ပေါ်စေပါသည်။
  • 136.
    2524 စက်မှုနှင့် ကုန်ထုတ်လုပ်မှု စက်မှုနှင့် ကုန်ထုတ်လုပ်မှုကဏ္ဍ၏ နိုင်ငံ့ စီးပွားရေးကို ဖြည့်ဆည်းနိုင်မှုသည် ၂၀၁၀ ခုနှစ်တွင် ၂၆.၅% မှ ၂၀၁၄ ခုနှစ်တွင် ၃၄.၄% အထိ တိုးတက်လာခဲ့ပြီး ထိုကာလအတွင်းတွင် စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေး ကဏ္ဍ၏ ဖြည့်ဆည်းနိုင်မှုသည် ၃၆.၈% မှ ၂၇.၉% အထိ ကျဆင်းသွားခဲ့သည်။ မြန်မာ့ စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်းကဏ္ဍသည် မကြာသေးမီ ဆယ်စုနှစ်များအတွင်း လျှင်မြန်စွာ ဖွံ့ဖြိုး လာခဲ့သည်။ စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်း အများစုသည် ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသ၏ အဓိက မြို့ကြီးပြကြီးနှင့် လမ်းပန်း ဆက်သွယ်ရေး စုံရာနေရာများ အထူးသဖြင့် မြစ်ဝှမ်းအလယ်ပိုင်း၊ မြစ်ဝှမ်းအောက်ပိုင်းနှင့် မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသရှိ မြို့ကြီးများတွင် တည်ရှိသည်။ မြန်မာ့ စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်း ကဏ္ဍသည် အမျ ိုးမျ ိုးကွဲပြားကြပြီး အစားအစာနှင့် အဖျော်ယမကာ လုပ်ငန်း၊ အဝတ်အစားနှင့် အထည်အလိပ်လုပ်ငန်း၊ ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးပစ္စည်းများ၊ တစ်ကိုယ်ရည်သုံး၊ အိမ်ထောင်စုသုံးနှင့် အီလက်ထရောနစ် အသုံးအဆောင်များ၊ ပုံနှိပ်လုပ်ငန်း၊ စက်မှုကုန်ကြမ်းများ၊ သတ္တုနှင့် ရေနံထွက် ပစ္စည်းများ၊ စိုက်ပျ ိုးရေးနှင့် စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်းသုံး စက်ပစ္စည်း/ကိရိယာများ၊ ပို့ဆောင်ရေးယာဉ်များနှင့် လျှပ်စစ်ပစ္စည်းများ စသည်တို့ ထုတ်လုပ်သည့် လုပ်ငန်းများ ပါဝင်သည်။ အစားအစာနှင့် အဖျော်ယမကာလုပ်ငန်းသည် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏အဓိက စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်း ကဏ္ဍခွဲတစ်ခု ဖြစ်ပြီးတစ်နိုင်ငံလုံးရှိစက်မှုလုပ်ငန်းများ၏ ၆၂% ခန့်ရှိသည်။ အဓိက အစားအစာနှင့် အဖျော်ယမာကာ စက်ရုံများသည် ရန်ကုန်နှင့် မန္တလေးမြို့များတွင် တည်ရှိပြီး အထည်ချုပ်လုပ်ငန်း များမှာမူ ပုသိမ်နှင့် ရန်ကုန်မြို့များနှင့် သတ္တုနှင့် ရေနံထွက်ပစ္စည်း လုပ်ငန်းများသည် မုံရွာနှင့် မန္တလေးတွင် တည်ရှိကြသည်။ အသေးစားလုပ်ငန်းများသည် ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသအတွင်းရှိ စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်းကဏ္ဍ၏ ၈၀% ရှိသည်။ လူနေနည်းပါးသည့် ဒေသများတွင် အသေးစားလုပ်ငန်းများက လွှမ်းမိုးထားသကဲ့သို့ပင် မြို့ပြဧရိယာများတွင်လည်း အရေးပါလှကာ ရန်ကုန်တိုင်းဒေသကြီး စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်းများ၏ ၄၂% နှင့် မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး၏ ၅၀% ဖြစ်ကြသည်။ အသေးစားစက်မှုလုပ်ငန်းများက သန့်စင်ပေးသည့် လုပ်ငန်းစဉ်များ သင့်တင့် စီလျော်စွာ မရှိခြင်းနှင့် ညစ်ညမ်းစေနိုင်မှုကို လျှော့ချရေးနှင့် ပတ်သက်သည့် ဗဟုသုတနည်းပါးခြင်းတို့ကြောင့် ရေထုညစ်ညမ်းမှုကို သိသိသာသာ ဖြစ်ပေါ်စေနိုင်ပါသည်။ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံရှိ တိုင်းနှင့်ပြည်နယ်အလိုက် စာရင်းရှိ စက်မှုနှင့် ကုန်ထုတ်လုပ်ငန်းများ အသေးစား အလတ်စား အကြီးစား 1334 172 53 350 273 5 1306 172 68 142 25 478 2822 659 90 168 189 998 718 21 2645 502 132 180 347 1025 2057 608 152 324 164 3271 3165 761 3885 2692 2307 347 125 3167 1732 4856 773 1955 1346 “အသေးစား စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်းများသည် ရေထုညစ်ညမ်းမှုကို သိသိသာသာ ဖြစ်စေသည်။” ကချင်ပြည်နယ် ချင်းပြည်နယ် ရခိုင်ပြည်နယ် ပဲခူးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး ကရင်ပြည်နယ် စစ်ကိုင်းတိုင်းဒေသကြီး မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး နေပြည်တော် ရန်ကုန်တိုင်းဒေသကြီး မွန်ပြည်နယ် ရှမ်းပြည်နယ် မကွေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး ကယားပြည်နယ် ဧရာဝတီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး တနင်္သာရီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး ကချင်ပြည်နယ် ရှမ်းပြည်နယ် မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး နေပြည်တော် ကယားပြည်နယ် ပဲခူးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး ရန်ကုန်တိုင်းဒေသကြီး ကရင်ပြည်နယ် မွန်ပြည်နယ် ဧရာဝတီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး ရခိုင်ပြည်နယ် မကွေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး ချင်းပြည်နယ် တနင်္သာရီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး စစ်ကိုင်းတိုင်းဒေသကြီး
  • 137.
    2726 စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်း စွန့်ပစ်ပစ္စည်းများကြောင့် ရေထုညစ်ညမ်းခြင်းနှင့် မြစ်လက်တက်များအား ဆည်များကို ဖြတ်၍စီးဆင်းစေခြင်း စသော မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသအတွင်း လုပ်ဆောင်မှု များစွာက ရေလမ်း သွားလာရေးကို အဟန့်အတား ဖြစ်စေသည်။ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် ရန်ကုန်နှင့် မန္တလေးအကြား ချ ိတ်ဆက်ပေးမှု အပါအဝင် နိုင်ငံ၏ အဓိက ပို့ဆောင်ဆက်သွယ်ရေး လမ်းကြောင်းအဖြစ် အသုံးပြုနိုင်ရန် သင့်လျော်လှသော ရှည်လျားသည့် မြစ်ချောင်းများ ဖွဲ့စည်းပုံ ရှိသည်။ သို့ရာတွင် ယခုအခါ ပြည်တွင်း ရေကြောင်းပို့ဆောင်ရေးသည် အရင်က မရှိခဲ့ဖူးသည့် ဖိအားများနှင့် ရင်ဆိုင်နေရသည်။ ရေကြောင်းသွားလာရေးတွင် အဓိကအရေးပါသောမြစ်များသည် နွေအခါတွင်ရေနည်းခြင်း၊ မြစ်လမ်းကြောင်း ပြောင်းသွားခြင်း၊ လှေဆိပ်၊ သင်္ဘောဆိပ်များတွင် လုံလောက်သော ဝန်ဆောင်မှု မပေးနိုင်ခြင်းတို့ကြောင့် ရေလမ်း သွားလာရေးတွင် အခက်အခဲများ ကြုံတွေ့နေရသည်။ သို့သော်လည်း ဖွံ့ဖြိုးမှုနှုန်းသည် ဆက်လက် မြင့်တက်နေပြီး ဤကဏ္ဍသည် ပြည်တွင်းနှင့် ဒေသတွင်း ကုန်စည်စီးဆင်းမှုအတွက် အဓိက အကျပ်အတည်း ဖြစ်နေသည်ဟု သတ်မှတ်ထားကြသည်။ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသတွင် နိုင်ငံအတွင်း လှေ/သင်္ဘောများ သွားလာနိုင်သော မြစ်များအားလုံး၏ ၇၀% တည်ရှိသည်။ ရန်ကုန်၊ မန္တလေး နှင့်ဗန်းမော် တို့အကြား ရေကြောင်းသွားလာရေးသည် အများဆုံးဖြစ်သည်။ ခရီးသည်သယ်ယူပို့ဆောင်မှုတွင် ဧရာဝတီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး သည် အများဆုံးဖြစ်ပြီး ကုန်စည်သယ်ယူပို့ဆောင်ရေးတွင် မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီးသည် အများဆုံးဖြစ်သည်။ AIRBM Synthesis ၏ မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသ အခြေအနေ အစီရင်ခံစာအရ “လွန်ခဲ့သော နှစ်အနည်းငယ်ခန့်အတွင်း ရေကြောင်းဖြင့် ကုန်ပစ္စည်း သယ်ယူပို့ဆောင်မှု များလျော့ကျလာခဲ့သည်။ ထိုသို့ဖြစ်စေသော အကြောင်းများတွင် သောင်တူးလုပ်ငန်းများ လုံလောက်အောင်မလုပ်နိုင်ခြင်း၊ ပစ္စည်းအတင်အချပြုလုပ်ချ ိန် ကြာမြင့်၍ အချ ိန်မလုံလောက်ခြင်း၊ ကုန်းတွင်း လမ်းပန်း ဆက်သွယ်ရေး တိုးတက်လာခြင်း တို့ကြောင့်ဖြစ်သည်။ ရေလမ်းသွားလာရေးသည် မြစ်ရေ စီးဆင်းပုံ ပြောင်းလဲခြင်း၊ နုံးအနည် သယ်ဆောင်ပို့ချမှု၊ ရာသီအလိုက် မြစ်ရေ စီးဆင်းမှုနှင့် မုတ်သုံရာသီဥတုတို့က ရေကြောင်း သွားလာမှုအပေါ် သက်ရောက်မှု ရှိသည်။ စက်မှုလုပ်ငန်း စွန့်ပစ်ပစ္စည်းများကြောင့် ရေထု ညစ်ညမ်းခြင်းနှင့် မြစ်လက်တက်များအား ဆည်များကို ဖြတ်၍ စီးဆင်းစေခြင်း စသော မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသအတွင်း လုပ်ဆောင်မှု များစွာက ရေလမ်း သွားလာရေးကို အဟန့်အတား ဖြစ်စေသည်။ သောင်တူးဖော်မှု ပြုလုပ်ရသည့် မြစ်ထဲမှ သဲထုတ်လုပ်ခြင်း ကဲ့သို့သော လုပ်ငန်းများမှာမူ ရေလမ်း သွားလာရေးအတွက် အထောက်အကူဖြစ်သည်။ သို့သော်လည်း သဲနှင့် ကျောက်စရစ်ခဲ ထုတ်လုပ်ရာ ဧရိယာများ၏ နုန်းအနည် ပို့ချမှု အနည်းအများ ကွာခြားချက်နှင့် မြစ်အောက်ပိုင်းအပေါ် သက်ရောက်မှု ရှိပုံကို နားလည်သိရှိမှု နည်းပါးသေးသည်။ ရေကြောင်းသွားလာရေး
  • 138.
    2928 ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးလုပ်ငန်း ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးလုပ်ငန်းများသည် နိုင်ငံ့ ဂျီဒီပီ၏၅.၂% သို့မဟုတ် စက်မှုထွက်ကုန် ပစ္စည်းများ၏ ၁၈% ဖြစ်သည်။ ထိုသို့ ရာခိုင်နှုန်းအားဖြင့် နည်းပါးသော်လည်း ဤကဏ္ဍသည် မြစ်အပေါ် ဆိုးကျ ိုးသက်ရောက်မှု များပြားလှသည်။ သို့သော် ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးကဏ္ဍသည် အခြားစီးပွားရေး ကဏ္ဍများနှင့်လည်း ချိတ်ဆက်လျှက် ရှိသည်။ ဥပမာအားဖြင့် ဘဏ်လုပ်ငန်းကဏ္ဍ၏ ရရန်ရှိ ကြွေးမြီများ၏ ၃၀% သည် ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးလုပ်ငန်းများမှ ဖြစ်သည်။ ထို့ကြောင့် ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးကဏ္ဍသည် အလုပ်အကိုင်ကဏ္ဍ တစ်ခုတည်း အတွက်သာမက ဘဏ်လုပ်ငန်းများ အတွက်ပါ သက်ရောက်မှု ရှိသည်။ ဆောက်လုပ်ရေး လုပ်ငန်းများအတွက် စည်းမျဉ်းများကို တိုးတက် ကောင်းမွန်အောင် ဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်းဖြင့် မြို့ပြ လူ နေမှုအဆင့်မြင့်မားလာမည့်အပြင် ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးလုပ်ငန်း အရည်အသွေးနှင့် သဘာဝပတ်ဝန်းကျင်ကို မထိခိုက်သော ရေရှည် ဖွံ ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်မှုများ မြင့်မားလာမည့်အပြင် လူနေမှုစရိတ်များလည်း အကုန်အကျ သက်သာလာစေနိုင်သည်။ ထိုသို့ပြုလုပ်ရာတွင်လည်းပွင့်လင်းမြင်သာမှုရှိပြီးကြိုတင်ခန့်မှန်း၍ရနိုင်သောအဆင့်များဖြင့်ချဉ်းကပ်ရန်အရေးကြီးပါသည်။ သို့မှသာ ပြန်လည်နာလန်ထူရန် ခက်ခဲသော စီးပွားရေးဂယက်ရိုက်မှုများကို ရှောင်ရှားနိုင်မည် ဖြစ်သည်။ ဆောက်လုပ်ရေး လုပ်ငန်းများသည် ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ထဲရှိ သဲထုတ်ယူသော လုပ်ငန်းများအတွက် အဓိက အချက်တစ်ချက်ပင် ဖြစ်သည်။ အများအားဖြင့် သဲနှင့် ကျောက်စရစ်များ (ဆောက်လုပ်ရေး လုပ်ငန်းများအတွက် ကုန်ကြမ်းပစ္စည်းများ) ကို ထုတ်ယူကြသည်။ ပုံတွင်ပြထားသော နေရာများမှ ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးအတွက် တစ်နှစ်လျှင် သဲနှင့် ကျောက်စရစ် တန်ချိန် (၁၀) သန်းခန့် ထုတ်ယူသည်။ သို့ရာတွင် ဤကိန်းဂဏန်းများသည် ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ထဲမှ သဲထုတ်ယူမှုအားလုံးကို မူရင်းတန်ဖိုးထက် လျှော့၍ ခန့်မှန်း တွက်ချက်ယူထားခြင်းသာ ဖြစ်သည်။ အဘယ်ကြောင့်ဆိုသော် ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးလုပ်ငန်း အများစုသည် မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသအတွင်းတွင် ဖြစ်၍ အဆောက်အအုံများ၊ လမ်းများ၊ တံတားများ ဆောက်လုပ်ရာတွင် မြစ်အတွင်းမှ ထုတ်ယူသော သဲကို အသုံးပြုသည်ဟု ယူဆနိုင်သည်။ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်အတွင်းမှ ထုတ်ယူသော သဲနှင့် ကျောက်စရစ်များနှင့် ပတ်သက်သော အချက်အလက်များနည်းပါးသော်လည်းမြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ဖွံ ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်မှုအပေါ်စစ်တမ်းကောက်ယူမှုများအရဆောက်လုပ်ရေး၊ လမ်းတံတား ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးများနှင့် ဆည် ဆောက်လုပ်ရေးလုပ်ငန်းများတွင် လိုအပ်သော သဲနှင့် ကျောက်စရစ် ပမာဏ အများစုသည် မြစ်အတွင်းမှ ထုတ်ယူရရှိခြင်း ဖြစ်နိုင်ချေ များစွာရှိပြီး အနာဂတ်တွင်လည်း ပိုမို ထုတ်ယူလာနိုင်ကြောင်း တွေ့ရသည်။ ထိုအချက်ကြောင့်ပင် ကမ်းပြိုခြင်းနှင့်မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသ နစ်မြုပ်သွားနိုင်သော အခြေအနေမှာလည်း ပိုမိုများပြားလာသည်။ မြစ်အတွင်းမှ သဲများ ထုတ်ယူခြင်းသည် မြစ်အပေါ် ဆိုးရွားစွာ အကျ ိုး သက်ရောက်လျှက် ရှိသည်။
  • 139.
    3130 ကမ္ဘာလှည့်ခရီးသွားများကို ဆွဲဆောင်နိုင်သော နေရာများထဲမှ အများစုမှာ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းအတွင်းတွင်တည်ရှိသည်။ ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်း ကမ္ဘာ့ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းနှင့် ခရီးသွားခြင်း ကောင်စီမှ ထုတ်ပြန်ကြေငြာထားသော အစီရင်ခံစာ အရ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံရှိ ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းများတွင် အလုပ်အကိုင် အခွင့်အလမ်းများသည် (ကဏ္ဍက သွယ်ဝိုက်၍ ပံ့ပိုးပေးသည့် အလုပ်အကိုင် အခွင့်အလမ်းများ အပါအဝင်) ၂၀၁၄ ခုနှစ်တွင် ၆.၅% တိုးတက်လာက အလုပ်အကိုင်နေရာပေါင်း ၈၇၇၅၀ဝ ခန့် ရှိလာခဲ့သည်။ ၎င်းအစီရင်ခံစာ၏ ခန့်မှန်းချက်များတွင် ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းကဏ္ဍသည် နိုင်ငံ ဂျီဒီပီ၏ ၃% ရှိပြီး ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းများနှင့် သွယ်ဝိုက်ဆက်စပ်နေသော လုပ်ငန်းများပါ ထည့်သွင်း စဉ်းစားမည် ဆိုပါက ၆.၆% ထိ ရှိသည်။ အလုပ်အကိုင် ကဏ္ဍတွင်မူ ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းများသည် တစ်နိုင်ငံလုံး အတိုင်းအတာ၏ ၅.၈% ဖြစ်သည်။ ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းအနေဖြင့်ကြည့်မည်ဆိုပါက မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် ကမ္ဘာလှည့်ခရီးသည်များကို ဆွဲဆောင်သောနေရာ ၆ နေရာရှိသည်။ ၎င်းတို့မှာ ရန်ကုန်၊ ပုဂံ၊ မန္တလေး၊ အင်းလေးကန်၊ ကျ ိုက်ထီးရိုးနှင့် ရခိုင်ပြည်နယ်မှ ငပလီကမ်းခြေတို့ ဖြစ်ကြသည်။ ထို့ပြင် ယခုအခါတွင် ပူတာအိုရှိ တောင်တန်းများ၊ ချင်းပြည်နယ်ရှိ နာဂဒေသ၊ ဟားခါး၊ (ဝိတိုရိယတောင်) နတ်မတောင်၊ ကယားပြည်နယ်ရှိ လွိုင်ကော်၊ တနင်္သာရီတိုင်းရှိ မြိတ်ကျွန်းစုများ စသောနေရာများသည်လည်း ကမ္ဘာလှည့်ခရီးသည်များကို ဆွဲဆောင်နိုင်သော နေရာများဖြစ်လာကြသည်။ အထက်တွင် ဖော်ပြခဲ့သော နေရာအများစုမှာ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသအတွင်းတွင် တည်ရှိသည်။ (ဥပမာ ရန်ကုန်၊ မန္တလေး၊ ပုဂံ) ပုံတွင် ၂၀၁၆ ခုနှစ်အတွင်း ကမ္ဘာလှည့်ခရီးသည်များ လာရောက်ရာ အဓိကနေရာ ၄ နေရာကို ဖော်ပြထားသည်။ ထို ၄ နေရာအနက် ၃ နေရာသည် ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသအတွင်းတည်ရှိသဖြင့် ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်း၌ ကောင်းမွန်သော မြစ်တစ်စင်း၏ အရေးကြီးပုံကို သိရှိနိုင်သည်။ m^ p p ml o q 385031(30%) 178787(14%) 283877(22%) 428370(34%) ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းအတွင်း ကမ္ဘာလှည့်ခရီးသည်များကို ဆွဲဆောင်သောနေရာများ ပုဂံ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်း မန္တလေး အင်းလေးကန် ရန်ကုန်
  • 140.
    3332 တိုင်းပြည် ဖွံ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်လာသည်နှင့်အမျှ လူဦးရေလည်းတိုးပွားလာပြီး လျှပ်စစ်လိုအပ်မှုသည် လွန်ခဲ့သည့် ၅ နှစ်နှင့် နှိုင်းယှဉ်လျှင် နှစ်စဉ် ပျမ်းမျှ ၁၅.၇% ခန့် တိုးလာခဲ့သည်။ ထိုသို့ တိုးတက်လာသော နိုင်ငံနှင့်အတူ စွမ်းအင်လိုအပ်မှုသည်လည်း တိုးလာသည်။ ရေအားလျှပ်စစ်သည် လျှပ်စစ်စွမ်းအင် လိုအပ်မှုအတွက် ဖြေရှင်းချက်တစ်ခု ဖြစ်လာနိုင်သည်။ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် တည်ရှိပြီးသော ရေအားလျှပ်စစ် စီမံကိန်းပေါင်း ၂၉ ခုရှိပြီး ထုတ်လုပ်နိုင်စွမ်း ၃၂၉၈ မဂ္ဂါဝပ် ရှိသည် ။ ရေအား လျှပ်စစ်စီမံကိန်း ၆ ခုမှာ တည်ဆောက်ဆဲ အခြေအနေဖြစ်ပြီး ထုတ်လုပ်နိုင်စွမ်း ၁၅၆၄ မဂ္ဂါဝပ် ရှိသည်။ ကျန်ရှိသော ရေအားလျှပ်စစ်စီမံကိန်း ၅၁ ခုမှာ ထုတ်လုပ်နိုင်စွမ်း ၄၂၉၆၈ မဂ္ဂါဝပ်ဖြစ်၍ အကောင်အထည်ဖော် ဆောင်ရွက်ဆဲဖြစ်သည်။ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်း(ချင်းတွင်းမြစ်ဝှမ်းအပါအဝင်) တွင် ယခုလက်ရှိ တည်ဆောက်ဆဲနှင့် တည်ဆောက်ပြီး ရေအားလျှပ်စစ် စီမံကိန်းပေါင်း ၁၇ ခု၊ စီစဉ်ဆောင်ရွက်ဆဲ ၃၁ ခုနှင့် ဆိုင်းငံ့ထားသော စီမံကိန်း ၁ ခု ရှိသည်။ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်း၏ အမြင့်ဆုံး ထုတ်လုပ်နိုင်စွမ်းမှာ မဂ္ဂါဝပ်ပေါင်း ၂၁၀ဝ ဖြစ်သည်။ အကယ်၍ စီမံချက်ရေးဆွဲထားသော ရေအားလျှပ်စစ် စီမံကိန်းများ အားလုံး တည်ဆောက်ပြီးစီးမည်ဆိုပါက ဧရာဝတီနှင့် သံလွင်သည်ထုတ်လုပ်နိုင်စွမ်းမဂ္ဂါဝပ်ပေါင်း၂၈၁၀ဝ(ရေအားလျှပ်စစ်အားလုံး၏၅၈%)နှင့်မဂ္ဂါဝပ်ပေါင်း၁၆၅၀ဝ(ရေအားလျှပ်စစ်အားလုံး၏ ၃၄%) ရှိမည်ဖြစ်သည်။ WWF-မြန်မာ စွမ်းအင်ကဏ္ဍ မျှော်မှန်းချက်အရ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ ဖွံ့ဖြိုးရေးအတွက် ဆုံးဖြတ်ချက်ချရာတွင် မြစ်အထက်ပိုင်းရှိ ရေအားလျှပ်စစ် စီမံကိန်းများသည် မြစ်အောက်ပိုင်း ဒေသများနှင့် မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ် ဒေသများအပေါ် မမျှော်မှန်းနိုင်သော အကျ ိုးဆက်များ သက်ရောက် စေနိုင်ကြောင်းကို ထည့်သွင်းစဉ်းစားရန် အလွန်အရေးကြီးသည်။ အထူးသဖြင့် ရေစီးဆင်းမှု ဝိသေသပုံစံများ၊ ငါးများ နေရာပြောင်းရွှေ့ ကျင်လည် ကျက်စားခြင်းနှင့် နုံးအနည်အနှစ် ပို့ချမှု စသော ဖြစ်စဉ်များကို သိရှိနားလည်ရန် လိုအပ်သည်။ မြန်မာ့ စွမ်းအင် အထူးစီမံကိန်းသည် သဘာဝပတ်ဝန်းကျင် ထိခိုက်မှုများနှင့် ရေရှည် ဆိုးကျ ိုးသက်ရောက်မှုများကို ဖြစ်စေသော ကျောက်မီးသွေးသုံး ဓာတ်အားပေး စက်ရုံများ၊ ကြီးမားသော ဆည်များအပေါ် ပိုမိုအာရုံစိုက်လျှက်ရှိသည်။ သို့သော်လည်း တိုးတက်လာသော စွမ်းအင် လိုအပ်ချက်အတွက် ၁၀ဝ% ပိုမိုစိမ်းလန်းသော ပြန်လည်ပြည့်ဖြိုးမြဲစွမ်းအင် အသုံးပြုသည့် အနာဂတ်ကို အကောင်အထည်ဖော်နိုင်ကြောင်း WWF-မြန်မာက ထောက်ပြထားခဲ့သည်။ WWF က မြန်မာနိုင်ငံသည် လွန်ခဲ့သော နှစ် ၁၃၀ ခန့်ကပင် စတင်ခဲ့သော လောင်စာအသုံးပြု စွမ်းအင် ထုတ်လုပ်မှုမှ ယခုအခါ ပြန်ပြည့်မြဲစွမ်းအင် ကာလသို့ ကူးပြောင်းရန် အခွင့်အလမ်းရှိကြောင်း ယုံကြည်သည်။ စွမ်းအင် ၂၀၁၇ ခုနှစ်၏ ပထမ ၆ လ၌ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် စုစုပေါင်း လျှပ်စစ်ထုတ်လုပ်နိုင်စွမ်းသ ည် ၅၃၈၉ မီဂါဝပ် ရှိခဲ့ပြီး ထိုအထဲတွင် ၃၂၅၅ မီဂါဝပ် (၆၀.၄%) သည် ရေအားလျှပ် စစ်မှ လည်းကောင်း၊ ၁၉၂၀ မက်ဂါဝပ် (၃၅.၆%) သည် ဓါတ်ငွေ့မှ လည်းကောင်း၊ ၁၂၀ မီဂါဝပ် (၂.၂%) သည် ကျောက်မီးသွေးမှ လည်းကောင်း၊ ၉၄.၃ မီဂါဝပ် (၁.၇၅%) သည် ဒီဇယ်ဆီမှ လည်းကောင်း ဖြစ်သည်။ ယခုအခါတွင် လူဦးရေ စုစုပေါင်း၏ သုံးပုံတစ်ပုံ မျှသာလျှင် လျှပ်စစ် သုံးစွဲနိုင်သေးသည်။ ပြည်နယ်နှင့် တိုင်းအလိုက် လျှပ်စစ်သုံး စွဲခွင့်ရရှိသောရာခိုင်နှုန်းများကို ပုံတွင်ဖော်ပြထားသည်။ ရန်ကုန်၏ ၆၀% ကျော်သည်သာ လျှပ်စစ် သုံးစွဲနိုင်ကြသည်။ ကယား၊ နေပြည်တော်နှင့် မန္တလေးတို့တွင် လူဦးရေ၏ ၃၀% မှ ၄၀% အထိသည် လျှပ်စစ်ရရှိနိုင်ကြသည်။ 31% 24% 27% 23% 39%69% 33% 48% 27% 15% 43% 12% 36%8%12% လက်ရှိ ၁ စီစဉ်ဆဲ ၁၂ ရပ်ဆိုင်း ၁ လက်ရှိ ၁ စီစဉ်ဆဲ ၆ လက်ရှိ ၁၂ စီစဉ်ဆဲ ၁၁ လက်ရှိ ၃ စီစဉ်ဆဲ ၂ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ တပ်ဆင်ပြီး စွမ်းအင် ပမာဏ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းငယ်များအတွင်း စီမံချက်ချထားသော ရေအားလျှပ်စစ်စီမံကိန်းများ WWF အနေဖြင့် ပြန်ပြည့်မြဲနှင့် ပိုမို စိမ်းလန်း သော စွမ်းအင် ၁၀ဝ% အသုံးပြု ရန် နည်းပညာအရ ဖြစ်နိုင်ကြောင်း ထောက်ပြခဲ့ပြီး ဖြစ်သည်။ ဒီဇယ်ဆီ ရေအားလျှပ်စစ် ကျောက်မီးသွေး ဓါတ်ငွေ့ ကချင်ပြည်နယ် ပဲခူးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး ရန်ကုန်တိုင်းဒေသကြီး စစ်ကိုင်းတိုင်းဒေသကြီး မကွေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး ရှမ်းပြည်နယ် ဧရာဝတီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး ကယားပြည်နယ် ကရင်ပြည်နယ် တနင်္သာရီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး ချင်းပြည်နယ် နေပြည်တော် ရခိုင်ပြည်နယ် မွန်ပြည်နယ် မြစ်အထက်ပိုင်း ချင်းတွင်းမြစ်ဝှမ်း မြစ်အလယ်ပိုင်း မြစ်အောက်ပိုင်း
  • 141.
    3534 WWF သည် သဘာဝနှင့်လူသားတို့ အတူတကွ ယှဉ်တွဲနေထိုင်နိုင်ရန် ဦးစားပေးပါသည် ။ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင်လည်း ထိုသို့နေထိုင်နိုင်မည်ဟု ယုံကြည်ပါသည်။ WWF သည် မြန်မာ့ လူမှုရေးနှင့် စီးပွားရေး ဖွံ ့ဖြိုး တိုးတက်အောင် ဆောင်ရွက်ရာ တွင် မြစ်များကို မထိခိုက်စေဘဲ တိုးတက်ရန် ပံ့ပိုးပေးပါသည်။ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ လူမှုရေးနှင့် စီးပွားရေး တို့တွင် ဧရာဝတီမြစ်၏ တန်ဖိုးကို အကဲဖြတ်လေ့လာမှု နိဂုံးချုပ် တိုက်တွန်းလွှာ တစ်စောင် ဤအစီရင်ခံစာအရ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသသည် မြန်မာနိုင်ငံရှိ စီးပွားရေးလုပ်ငန်းများကို အဓိက ထောက်ပံ့ပေးနေကြောင်း ထင်ရှားသည်။ ထို့ပြင် အချ ို့သော စီးပွားရေးကဏ္ဍများသည် မြစ်မှ ထောက်ပံ့ပေးသော အရာများနှင့် ဂေဟစနစ်ဝန်ဆောင်မှုများကို လျော့ကျ စေကြောင်းမှာလည်း ထင်ရှား သည်။ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံအတွက် လူမှုရေးနှင့် စီးပွားရေး ဖွံ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်ရေးမှာ အရေးပါသော်လည်း ၎င်းအတွက်ကြောင့် ကောင်းမွန်သောမြစ်ကို ထိခိုက်စေခြင်းသည် မဖြစ်သင့်ပေ။ WWF သည် သဘာဝနှင့် လူသားတို့ အတူတကွ ယှဉ်တွဲနေထိုင်နိုင်ရန် ဦးစားပေးပါသည်။ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် ထိုသို့ နေထိုင် နိုင်မည်ဟုလည်း ယုံကြည်ပါသည်။ WWF သည် မြန်မာ့ လူမှုရေးနှင့် စီးပွားရေး ဖွံ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်အောင် ဆောင်ရွက်ရာတွင် မြစ်များကို မထိခိုက်စေဘဲ တိုးတက်ရန်ပံ့ပိုးပေးပါသည်။ဧရာဝတီမြစ်သည်မြန်မာနိုင်ငံအတွင်းရှိလူမှုရေးနှင့်စီးပွားရေးလုပ်ငန်းများစွာအတွက်အထောက်အကူပြုလျှက် ရှိပါသည်။ မြစ်မှ ထောက်ပံ့ပေးနေသော အရာများမရှိလျှင် မြန်မာ့စီးပွားရေးသည် ယခုအခြေအနေနှင့် တူညီစွာ ရှိနေမည် မဟုတ်ချေ။ ရေအားလျှပ်စစ် ဖွံ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်မှု၊ စက်မှုဇုန်များ တိုးချဲ့မှု၊ ရေလုပ်ငန်းများ တိုးချဲ့ခြင်း စသော စီးပွားရေး ဖွံ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်မှုများ အားလုံးကို တပြိုင်တည်းတိုးတက်စေရန်မှာ မဖြစ်နိုင်ချေ။ အနာဂတ်အတွက် တူညီသော အမြင်မရှိပါက ကဏ္ဍတစ်ခုနှင့် တစ်ခု အပြိုင်အဆိုင် ဖြစ်နေကြမည် ဖြစ်ပြီး အမှန်တကယ် အရေးကြီး အသုံးဝင်သော အခွင့်အလမ်းများကို လက်လွှတ်ရနိုင်သည်။ မတူညီသော ကဏ္ဍများ၏ ဖွံ့ဖြိုး တိုးတက်စေနိုင်မည့် အခွင့်အလမ်းများနှင့် သက်ရောက် စေနိုင်သော ဆိုးကျ ိုးများကို ကိန်းဂဏန်းများဖြင့် ဖော်ပြထားခြင်းဖြင့် ကဏ္ဍတစ်ခုချင်းစီ၏ မျှခြေအခြေအနေများကို သိရှိပြီး စီမံကိန်းရေးဆွဲရာတွင် ပိုမိုအမြော်အမြင်ရှိသော ၊ ရေရှည်ဖွံ့ဖြိုးစေနိုင် သော ချဉ်းကပ်မှု များ ဖြင့် လုပ်ဆောင်နိုင်မည်ဖြစ်သည်။ ကျွန်ုပ်တို့၏ ရေရှည်တည်တံ့နိုင်ပြီး လွတ်လပ်စွာ စီးဆင်းနေဆဲ ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသဖြစ်ရေး တိုက်တွန်းချက်မှာ အောက်ပါအတိုင်း ဖြစ်သည်။ နောက်ဆုံးအချက်အနေဖြင့် တင်ပြလိုသည်မှာ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံအနေဖြင့် စီးပွားရေးအရ ဖွံ ့ဖြိုးမှုနှင့် လူမှုရေးအရ တိုးတက်မှုတို့ဆီ သွားရာလမ်းတွင် မဟာဗျူဟာများနှင့် စီမံကိန်းများကို ညှိနှိုင်းဆောင်ရွက်ရန်မှာ အထူးပင် အရေးကြီးပါသည်။ ဤအချက်သည် အစိုးရအတွက်သာမကနိုင်ငံတွင်းရှိဖွံ ့ဖြိုးရေးအကူအညီများအတွက်ပါမှန်ကန်ပါသည်။အထူးသဖြင့်မြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသစီစဉ်ဆောင်ရွက်မှုသည် သတ္တုတွင်းလုပ်ငန်းများမှသည် ခရီးသွားလုပ်ငန်းများအထိနှင့် အထက်ပိုင်း ရေဝေရေလဲ ဒေသမှသည် မြစ်ဝကျွန်းပေါ်ဒေသအထိ စီးပွားရေး လုပ်ငန်းဆောင်တာများ အားလုံး ညှိနှိုင်းလုပ်ဆောင်ကြရေးအတွက် အရေးပါသောကဏ္ဍတွင် ရှိနေသည်။ မျ ိုးသုဉ်းမည့် အန္တရာယ် ရှိနေသော ဧရာဝတီလင်းပိုင်များ နေထိုင်ရာ၊ ရေလုပ်ငန်းအတွက် အထွက်နှုန်းကောင်းရာ၊ မြန်မာ့ စီးပွားရေးကဏ္ဍအတွက် အခြေခံရင်းမြစ်များ ဆက်လက်ပံ့ပိုးနိုင်သည့် စက်မှုနှင့် သတ္တုတွင်း လုပ်ငန်းများ ဖွံ ့ဖြိုးရာ ဧရာဝတီမြစ်ကြီး၏ တမူထူးခြားသည့် အခြေအနေကို ဆက်လက် ထိန်းသိမ်းနိုင်စေရန်အတွက် ဤဒေသဆိုင်ရာ စီမံဆောင်ရွက်မှုများသည် အားလုံးပါဝင် ညှိနှိုင်းဆောင်ရွက်သည့် ပုံစံ ဖြစ်ရန် အရေးကြီးလှပါသည်။ စီးပွားရေးစီမံချက်များအတွက် ဆုံးဖြတ်ချက်ချမည့်သူများသည် မတူညီသော ဖွံ ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်မှု လမ်းကြောင်းများအကြား အချင်းချင်း ဆက်နွယ်မှုများနှင့် အပေးအယူများ (trade-off) အကြောင်း စုံစမ်းလေ့လာရန် လိုအပ်ပါသည်။ ထို့ပြင် ၎င်းကဏ္ဍများနှင့် လူတို့ အမှီပြုနေသော သဘာဝအရင်းအမြစ်များနှင့် ဂေဟစနစ် လုပ်ဆောင်မှုများအကြား မည်ကဲ့သို့ အပြန်အလှန် ဆက်နွယ်နေသည်ကိုလည်း လေ့လာသိရှိရန် လိုအပ်ပါသည်။ ပုဂ္ဂလိကကဏ္ဍအနေဖြင့် အချ ို့သော အခြေအနေများတွင် စည်းမျဉ်းစည်းကမ်းများသည် မသေချာမရေရာလှသော်လည်း နိုင်ငံအတွင်း ကောင်းမွန်သော ရေ စီမံခန့်ခွဲမှုကို အကောင်အထည်ဖော် လုပ်ဆောင်ကြရန် လိုအပ်ပါသည်။ ဧရာဝတီ မြစ်ဝှမ်းလွင်ပြင် ဒေသကြီးတစ်ခုလုံးတွင် ရုပ်ပိုင်းဆိုင်ရာ၊ စည်းမျဉ်းစည်းကမ်းပိုင်းဆိုင်ရာနှင့် ဂုဏ်သိက္ခာပိုင်းဆိုင်ရာအရ ရေနှင့်သက်ဆိုင်သော ဘေးဖြစ်နိုင်ချေများကို လျှော့ချရန်မှာ ၎င်းတို့၏ ရေရှည်စီးပွားရေးအတွက်ပါ လိုအပ်ပါသည်။ လူမှုအဖွဲ့အစည်းများသည်ဆုံးဖြတ်ချက်ချနိုင်သူများ၊ပုဂ္ဂလိကကဏ္ဍနှင့်လူမှုအဖွဲ့အစည်းများအကြားဧရာဝတီမြစ်ဝှမ်းဒေသနှင့် ပတ်သက်၍ နှစ်ခြိုက်လိုလားဖွယ်ကောင်းသည့် ရေရှည်တည်တံ့အကျ ိုးရှိသော ဖွံ ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်မှုနှင့် ဆက်စပ်သည့် ပွင့်လင်းမြင်သာရှိသော ဆွေးနွေးတင်ပြနိုင်ခွင့်များကို ဆက်လက် တောင်းဆိုသွားရန် လိုအပ်ပါသည်။
  • 142.
    3736 မြစ်မှ ထောက်ပံ့ပေးနေသော ဝန်ဆောင်မှုများ မရှိဘဲမြန်မာ့စီးပွားရေးသည် ယနေ့အခြေအနေသို့ ရောက်ရှိလာနိုင်မည် မဟုတ်ချေ။ သို့သော် လူသားတို့၏ လုပ်ဆောင်ချက်များသည် မြစ်အပေါ် များစွာသော ဆိုးကျ ိုးများ သက်ရောက်စေလျှက် ရှိသည်။
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    3938 အစီရင်ခံစာများ Asian Development Bank(ADB) Economics Working Paper Series No. 470. 2015. Myanmar’s Agricultural Sector. http://www.themimu. info/sites/themimu.info/files/documents/Ref_Doc_Myanmars_ Agricultural_Sector_ADB_Dec2015.pdf Ayeyarwady Integrated River Basin Management Project (AIRBM), 2017. State of the Basin (SOBA) Synthesis Report. Ketelsen, T., Taylor, L., Mai Ky Vinh, Hunter, R., Johnston, R., Shaoyu Liu, Kyaw Tint, Khin Ma Ma Gyi and Charles, M. 2017. State of Knowledge: River Health in the Ayeyarwady. State of Knowledge Series 7. Vientiane, Lao PDR, CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems. MoEE, Power Development Opportunities in Myanmar, Myanmar Investment Forum 2017, 6 - 7 June 2017. World Bank, 2016. Myanmar Economic Monitor. Accessed: http://www. worldbank.org/en/country/myanmar/publication/myanmar-economic- monitor-december-2016 World Bank. 2016. Assessing Farm Production Economics: Myanmar. Assesst_Farm-Production-Economics_WB_Feb2016.pdf World Bank. 2017. Myanmar Economic Monitor. Accessed: http:// documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/271301485510327677/ pdf/112317-WP-MEM-Jan27-17-final-PUBLIC.pdf WWF, 2017. Alternative vision for Myanmar’s power sector. Accessed: https://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/alternative_vision_ for_myanmar_s_power_sector_draft.pdf ဝက်ဘ်ဆိုက်များနှင့် သတင်းများ IIED, 2013. “IIED shines a light on small-scale mining” Extractives Industry Transparency Initiative (EITI), Myanmar. Accessed: https://eiti.org/myanmar Mekong Flows, Biodiversity. Accessed 9 April 2018: http://mekongriver. info/biodiversity Myanmar Times. 2016. Can eco-tourism save the Ayeyarwady’s dolphins? https://www.mmtimes.com/lifestyle/13738-can-eco-tourism- save-the-ayeyarwady-dolphins.html WCS. 2017. Dolphins in Myanmar. Accessed: https://programs.wcs.org/ myanmar/Wildlife/Dolphin.aspx WWF, 2017. Accessed 9 April 2018. http://www.wwf.org.mm/en/news_ room/publications/?uNewsID=303391 Databases Observatory of Economic Complexity, https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/ visualize/tree_map/hs92/export/mmr/show/0713/2016/ Myanmar Information Management Unit, (MIMU) http://themimu.info/ ကျမ်းကိုးစာရင်း
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    Why we arehere To stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature. http://www.wwf.org.mm/en/
  • 145.
    1/15/2019 River SandExtraction in Myanmar - News https://www.myanmar-responsiblebusiness.org/news/river-sand-extraction-myanmar.html 1/3 Search Search English Burmese Jobs June 21, 2018 Bethia Kadoe, a Myanmar student who is studying for a Masters’ in Environmental Science and Policy, International Development, Community and Environment (IDCE), at Clark University, Worcester MA, USA, was attached for a month in 2017, as an intern with MCRB, and worked in collaboration with WWF to study river sand mining in the Ayeyarwady/Yangon area. This is her paper from her research. Although mining of sand and aggregates was not covered directly in MCRB’s Sector Wide Impact Assessment of Mining, MCRB has engaged stakeholders on various cases of sand mining related to wider social and environmental impacts including beach sand extraction in Ngapali and Ngwesaung, and marine sand extraction in Tanintharyi. In May 2018 WWF published a study of The Ayeyarwady River and the Economy of Myanmar: Volume 1 Risks and opportunities from the perspective of the people living and working on the river, in English and Burmese. This noted that: Approximately 10 million tonnes of gravel and sand a year are reportedly extracted from Ayeyarwady River sites for construction. This is believed to be a gross underestimate of the total sand extraction from the Ayeyarwady River (estimated to be 20 million tonnes, or approximately 10% of the total estimated sediment budget of 220 million tonnes). Since the Latest News River Sand Extraction in Myanmar Extracting sand on Ayeyarwady River, August 2017. Photo: B Kadoe MCRB Expresses Concern About the Impact on Responsible Investment of the Amendments to the Virgin, Vacant and Fallow Lands Law Jan 10, 2019 About News SWIA Pwint Thit Sa Report Dialogues Submissions to Consultations eNewsletters Useful Resources Contact
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    1/15/2019 River SandExtraction in Myanmar - News https://www.myanmar-responsiblebusiness.org/news/river-sand-extraction-myanmar.html 2/3 majority of construction and development is taking place in the basin, it is safe to assume the majority of the buildings, roads and bridges being built are using sand from the river. Given the volumes of materials recorded during the survey, the level of development in Myanmar, and the large volumes of sand and gravel required for construction, road building and dam building, it is highly likely that continued risks such as bank erosion and the increasing vulnerability of a sinking delta will continue. Read also Experts object to firms’ plans to mine sand in Tanintharyi Region Consultation Begins on Draft EIA Guidelines for the Mining Sector A New Mineral Resources Policy and Fresh Laws are Needed if Mining in Myanmar is ever to be Sustainable Distinguish Between the Legal Obligations and Voluntary E orts Needed for a Mine to Earn a ‘Social Licence to Operate’ MCRB Discusses Beach Sand Mining in Ngwesaung with Pathein Township O icials Findings from the Mining Sector-Wide Impact Assessment Presented in Geneva and KL Consultation Meetings Held on the Mining Sector Wide Impact Assessment Community Engagement with the Private Sector - How to be E ective Recommend Sign Up to see what your friends recommend. Email Facebook LinkedIn Twitter MCRB has sent a letter to the Chair of the National Land Use Council expressing concerns that the rapid implementation of the amended VFV Lands Management Law will cause significant problems for investors seeking to operate responsibly in Myanmar. Strengthening Public Understanding Of Environmental Impact Assessment Jan 02, 2019 MCRB recently worked with Vermont Law School (supported by Heinrich Boll Stiftung), in cooperation with the Environmental Conservation Department (ECD) of MONREC, and local civil society networks, to hold workshops in Mandalay... ‘Tone from the Top’ is Essential in Combatting Corruption Dec 14, 2018 On 5 December 2018, MCRB and the Union of Myanmar Chamber of Commerce and Industry co-hosted the third of MCRB’s ‘responsible business seminars’, with a focus on combatting corruption.
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    1/15/2019 River SandExtraction in Myanmar - News https://www.myanmar-responsiblebusiness.org/news/river-sand-extraction-myanmar.html 3/3 Previous Meeting Between MCRB, International Investors and Myanmar Investment Commission to Discuss Responsible Investment in Myanmar Next Working with Community Groups in Shan State on Responsible Business and EIA MCRB contributes to Australia-Myanmar Chamber of Commerce’s Good Governance in Mining Seminar in Nya Pyi Taw MCRB Inputs into the Consultation on Rules to Implement the Mining Law Sector-Wide Impact Assessment of Myanmar’s Mining Sector Blended Learning Course on Business and Human Rights at MNHRC by DIHR and MCRB Amnesty International slams abusive, poorly regulated Myanmar mining industry Funding from governments of UK (DFID), Norway, Switzerland, Netherlands and Ireland. © 2019 Myanmar Centre for Responsible Business | Privacy Policy | Website by Ethical Sector
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    1/15/2019 Amnesty Internationalslams abusive, poorly regulated Myanmar mining industry - News https://www.myanmar-responsiblebusiness.org/news/amnesty-international-myanmar-mining-industry.html 1/7 Search Search English Burmese Jobs March 17, 2015 Amnesty International is calling for investigations by Canada and China into potential human rights abuses and illegal activity relating to the Monywa copper mining operation in Myanmar. Article Source: Angela Kean, SNL Financial Amnesty International is calling for investigations by Canada and China into potential human rights abuses and illegal activity relating to the Monywa copper mining operation in Myanmar. The human rights advocate claims large-scale forced evictions and serious pollution linked to the operation have destroyed livelihoods and exposed thousands of people to health risks. Amnesty International said it also found evidence of illegal activity including possible breaches of economic sanctions. "Myanmar o ers the perfect storm of a rich natural resource base, a weak legal system and an economy dominated by military and special interests," Meghna Abraham, Amnesty International corporate crimes researcher, said in February. "The government has forcibly evicted people, crushed all attempts at peaceful protest and displayed a complete unwillingness to hold companies to account." Latest News Amnesty International slams abusive, poorly regulated Myanmar mining industry Open-Pit Copper Mining in Myanmar. Photo: Roger Price/Flickr MCRB Expresses Concern About the Impact on Responsible Investment of the Amendments to the Virgin, Vacant and Fallow Lands Law Jan 10, 2019 About News SWIA Pwint Thit Sa Report Dialogues Submissions to Consultations eNewsletters Useful Resources Contact
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    1/15/2019 Amnesty Internationalslams abusive, poorly regulated Myanmar mining industry - News https://www.myanmar-responsiblebusiness.org/news/amnesty-international-myanmar-mining-industry.html 2/7 The Monywa complex comprises the Sabetaung and Kyisintaung, or S&K, and the Letpadaung copper mines and is jointly owned by China's Wanbao Mining Ltd. and the military-backed Union of Myanmar Economic Holdings. The Canadian miner formerly known as Ivanhoe Mines, now Turquoise Hill Resources Ltd., and Myanmar government-owned Mining Enterprise No. 1 were the original joint venture partners in the project from 1996 until March 2007, when Ivanhoe divested its 50% stake into the third-party Monywa Trust. In 2010, Wanbao parent China North Industries Corp., also known as NORINCO, and Union of Myanmar Economic Holdings entered into an agreement over the Monywa project. Amnesty International alleges that thousands of people in the 1990s were evicted to make way for Ivanhoe's mining investment and that the company was aware of the situation but did nothing. Thousands more people have allegedly been evicted since 2011 to make way for the new Letpadaung mine that is still under construction and has been continually delayed due to ongoing community protests. In late December 2014, a clash between Myanmar authorities and protesters left one person dead and a dozen wounded. Protests were ignited after Wanbao announced it would resume construction at the site after a two-year delay and villagers were ordered to vacate their land to enable the building of a fence around the mine area. Vicky Bowman, director of the Myanmar Centre for Responsible Business (MCRB) told SNL Metals & Mining that mining companies in Myanmar are generally poorly regulated. "Very few have environmental impact assessments and established environmental management plans, let alone have made them public," she said. However, the Letpadaung mine is a rare exception in that it has a publicly available EIA and EMP, which were completed by Australian consulting firm Knight Piesold. The problem is that neither have been the subject of public consultation with all stakeholders, including national-level nongovernmental organizations, and neither the government nor Wanbao appear to have any plans to engage with stakeholders, according to Bowman. She said the EIA is incomplete due to the government not allowing Wanbao to engage with the most a ected rights holders in the villages to be resettled. "It is also unclear how far the commitments in the draft EMP are being followed as the company is not engaging face to face with those who have the most serious concerns about its operations, and has not established any plans for community-based monitoring that could build trust," Bowman said. MCRB has sent a letter to the Chair of the National Land Use Council expressing concerns that the rapid implementation of the amended VFV Lands Management Law will cause significant problems for investors seeking to operate responsibly in Myanmar. Strengthening Public Understanding Of Environmental Impact Assessment Jan 02, 2019 MCRB recently worked with Vermont Law School (supported by Heinrich Boll Stiftung), in cooperation with the Environmental Conservation Department (ECD) of MONREC, and local civil society networks, to hold workshops in Mandalay... ‘Tone from the Top’ is Essential in Combatting Corruption Dec 14, 2018 On 5 December 2018, MCRB and the Union of Myanmar Chamber of Commerce and Industry co-hosted the third of MCRB’s ‘responsible business seminars’, with a focus on combatting corruption.
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    1/15/2019 Amnesty Internationalslams abusive, poorly regulated Myanmar mining industry - News https://www.myanmar-responsiblebusiness.org/news/amnesty-international-myanmar-mining-industry.html 3/7 Acid factory a health risk Most of the sulfuric acid needed for the S&K mine within the Monywa complex is supplied by a factory operated by Union of Myanmar Economic Holdings and located about 200 meters from Kankone village. Villagers told Amnesty International that they su er respiratory, skin and eye problems that they believe are caused by the factory. They also described damage to crops in fields adjacent to the factory. According to Amnesty International, Union of Myanmar Economic Holdings set up the factory in 2007 without approval from the Ministry of Industry, and operated it without permits until July 2013, when the ministry gave permission for the continued operation of the factory. The Letpadaung mine and the associated factory are the focus of a parliamentary commission, and the Myanmar government has established an implementation committee to address the recommendations put forward by the commission. Bowman said the mine has been the subject of the most extensive intragovernment consideration of any foreign investment project in Myanmar, with numerous discussions and visits to the mine. However, it is still unclear as to what has changed, particularly with respect to the regulation of pollution from the acid factory. "Neither government nor company has engaged directly with or responded to the questions of civil society organizations," Bowman said. "This means that the activities of the committee do not inspire public trust. Some discussion has taken place in the margins of the Extractives Industries Transparency Initiative, but it remains to be seen whether this will provide answers to the issues being raised by communities and those working with them." Miners respond to allegations Wanbao Mining, Turquoise Hill Resources-owner Rio Tinto and Ivanhoe Mines founder Robert Friedland responded to Amnesty International's allegations in its report, "Open for Business? Corporate Crime and Abuses at Myanmar Copper Mine." Friedland, who founded Ivanhoe in 1994, labeled Amnesty International's claims a "fishing expedition," saying that Ivanhoe had "severed all connection" to the Myanmar assets almost four years ago, when the assets were sold by the Monywa Trust. "I perceive a fishing expedition, the purpose of which, at least as it relates to me, would appear to involve adding two parts innuendo to two parts insinuation and suggesting that the answer is five," he said in a Jan. 30 letter to Amnesty International. "I have no interest in contributing to an exercise Subscribe to our mailing list * indicates required Subscribe Email Address * First Name Last Name
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    1/15/2019 Amnesty Internationalslams abusive, poorly regulated Myanmar mining industry - News https://www.myanmar-responsiblebusiness.org/news/amnesty-international-myanmar-mining-industry.html 4/7 in sensationalism." Friedland noted that he resigned as a director and CEO of Ivanhoe in 2012, the same year Rio Tinto took control of the company and renamed it Turquoise Hill Resources. In his letter to Amnesty International, he took the opportunity to "set the record straight" by emphasizing that Ivanhoe was never involved in the development or mining of the Letpadaung deposit during the time that the company was a partner in the Monywa project. Friedland also stated that Ivanhoe was never secretive about its ownership of the project and disputed Amnesty International's claim that the Monywa Trust was created solely as a means to obfuscate the ownership of the Myanmar assets. "The company retained no interest in the Myanmar assets nor had any interest in any other assets in Myanmar," he said. "The company had no right to oversee or otherwise involve itself in the trustee's e orts to dispose of the Myanmar assets." Meanwhile, Wanbao said in its letter to Amnesty International that the company undertook an environmental and social impact assessment that took two years to complete, which was based on community consultations and followed an "exhaustive process." "During the consultation process a number of environmental and technical issues were raised and these issues were able to be addressed and resolved," Wanbao said. The company claims its ESIA has undergone extensive reviews over a 12-month period by a team formed by the Ministry of Environment Conservation and Forestry and comprising top environmental and social experts as well as ministries, nongovernmental organizations and community representatives. Wanbao added that since March 2014, when Amnesty International visited the mine site, its relationship with the community has been "steadily improving," with 71% of impacted villagers consulted across 35 villages supporting the project. The company said it had gauged community interest in receiving regular payments of between US$70 and US$120 a month for the life of the mine, in addition to land compensation, until they get a job with Wanbao or if they turn down a job o er. Villagers take legal action over tin mine damage The Monywa operation is not the only project disrupting communities in Myanmar, with the Heinda tin mine understood to also be causing serious environmental damage. The mine is owned by Thailand's Myanmar Pongpipat Co. in partnership with the Myanmar government. The dumping of material from the mine into a river is believed to have caused flooding that has damaged houses, plantations and farmland, and contaminated drinking water supplies,
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    1/15/2019 Amnesty Internationalslams abusive, poorly regulated Myanmar mining industry - News https://www.myanmar-responsiblebusiness.org/news/amnesty-international-myanmar-mining-industry.html 5/7 a ecting the health of villagers. In May 2014, Myaung Pyo villagers in the Dawei district launched legal action against Myanmar Pongpipat and state-owned Mining Enterprise No. 2, seeking compensation for the damage caused by the Heinda mine. "The mine has not engaged adequately with communities to address these problems and villagers are now suing the mine for damages under tort, in the absence of other available remedies," Bowman said. "Since the mine had successfully been running for decades without causing such damage, prior to it being leased to [Myanmar Pongpipat Co.], it is not clear whether one factor leading to the damage is a short lease term and a lack of regulation and enforcement, which combined are leading the mine to high-grade the asset without taking the time to make appropriate HSE e orts." Moves to encourage greater transparency Bowman said the MCRB has participated in mining- related discussions with government and the Myanmar Federation of Mining Associations to raise awareness of international standards such as those of the IFC and good practices such as those of the International Council of Mining and Metals. Good practice in community engagement in mining was also the subject of a two-day MCRB multistakeholder workshop in January which involved government, companies and civil society. The center has also contributed advice on operational-level grievance mechanisms in the context of the Extractives Industries Transparency Initiative. However, Wanbao failed to attend despite being invited, according to Bowman. "Their failure to engage with civil society groups is one contributing factor to ensuring that the company continues to lack a social license to operate," she said. Read also River Sand Extraction in Myanmar Recommend Sign Up to see what your friends recommend. Email Facebook LinkedIn Twitter
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    1/15/2019 Amnesty Internationalslams abusive, poorly regulated Myanmar mining industry - News https://www.myanmar-responsiblebusiness.org/news/amnesty-international-myanmar-mining-industry.html 6/7 Previous MCRB Wants Public Input into its Business Transparency Report Next MCRB Submits Feedback on the draft Myanmar Companies Law Experts object to firms’ plans to mine sand in Tanintharyi Region Consultation Begins on Draft EIA Guidelines for the Mining Sector A New Mineral Resources Policy and Fresh Laws are Needed if Mining in Myanmar is ever to be Sustainable Distinguish Between the Legal Obligations and Voluntary E orts Needed for a Mine to Earn a ‘Social Licence to Operate’ MCRB Discusses Beach Sand Mining in Ngwesaung with Pathein Township O icials Findings from the Mining Sector-Wide Impact Assessment Presented in Geneva and KL Consultation Meetings Held on the Mining Sector Wide Impact Assessment Community Engagement with the Private Sector - How to be E ective MCRB contributes to Australia-Myanmar Chamber of Commerce’s Good Governance in Mining Seminar in Nya Pyi Taw MCRB Inputs into the Consultation on Rules to Implement the Mining Law Sector-Wide Impact Assessment of Myanmar’s Mining Sector Blended Learning Course on Business and Human Rights at MNHRC by DIHR and MCRB Funding from governments of UK (DFID), Norway, Switzerland, Netherlands and Ireland.