Research Study

Has the ‘Glass-Ceiling’ Shattered?
Reﬂections of female middle-managers
by
Rubina Brar
Student Id: 1463340
MSc Human Resource Management
Supervisor: Professor Robyn Thomas

DECLARATION
This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being
currently submitted in candidature for any degree.
Signed - Rubina Brar (Candidate)
Date - 07/12/15
STATEMENT 1
This dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated.
Where correction services have been used, the extent and nature of the correction is
clearly marked in a footnote(s).
Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. A bibliography is
appended.
Date - 07/12/15
STATEMENT 2
I hereby give consent for my work, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for
inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside
organisations.
Date - 07/12/15
Please tick to conﬁrm that the required Ethic Forms have been completed, stamped,
and included in your submission.
ii

ABSTRACT
This dissertation focuses on the analysis of the phenomenon of ‘glass-ceiling’ through the
lens of women middle ranking managers in the male dominated sectors of construction
and development, communications, and law. It explores the barriers faced by women, and
considers the factors that might improve their prospects for career advancement. The
qualitative data was collected through semi-structured interviews of nine women. The
results reveal various barriers at play in the women’s working lives, with the most
signiﬁcant being gendered assumptions and stereotypes, and the operation of informal
male networks. The ﬁndings indicate also a variety of individual and organisational
strategies undertaken to break the ‘glass-ceiling’. The dissertation concludes by arguing
that gender based stereotypes and informal male networks are two strong barriers. To
increase the participation of women at senior positions it is important to encourage them
through development programs, and network building exercises. It points to future
research and possible implications from the study.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my supervisor Professor Robyn Thomas, for the support, guidance
and imparting expert knowledge throughout the preparation and writing of this dissertation.
In addition I would like to express my thanks to my lecturer, Dr. Deborah Hann, for her
support in getting access to the woman networking organisation for the research.
I am also grateful to ‘The Association of Women in Networking’ organisation for providing
me with participants for the research. I would also like to thank my friends Agnieszka
Gniadowicz and Usama Jamshaid for their help and encouragement.
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Table of Contents Page No.
DECLARATION………………………………………………………………………..ii
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………….iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………….iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………v
1. Introduction
1.1 Notion of ‘Glass-ceiling’…………………………………………………………..1
1.2 Research Objectives ……………………………………………………………..1
1.3 Outline of the Dissertation………………………………………………………..2
2. Literature Review
2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………..3
2.2 Gender Inequalities in Organisations…………………………………………..3
2.2.1 Gender Inequality Statistics ..…………………………………………4
2.2.2 Gendered Organisations ..…………………………………………….5
2.3 Persistent ‘Glass-ceiling’ .………………………………………………………9
2.4 Breaking Barriers..……………………………………………………………….11
2.5 Summary…….……………………………………………………………………12
3. Research Methodology
3.1 Introduction…………….…………………………………………………………13
3.2 Research Questions and Methods ……………………………………………14
3.2.1 Research Questions .…………………………………………………14
3.2.2 Research Methods.……………………………………………………14
3.3 Data Collection Methods………………………………………………………..17
3.4 Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………….19
3.5 Research Constraints……………………………………………………………20
3.6 Ethical Considerations…………………………………………………………..20
3.7 Summary……..…………………………………………………………………..20
4. Findings
4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………….21
4.2 Barriers Due to Gendered Images and Behaviours………………………….21
4.2.1 Working Mothers……………………………………………………….22
4.2.2 Management Styles……………………………………………………23
4.3 Barriers Due to Organisational Structure………………………………………24
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4.3.1 Performance Evaluation Systems…………………………………….24
4.3.2 Absence of Work-life Balance Policies……………………………….25
4.3.3 Informal Male Networks………………………………………………..26
4.4 Internal Obstacles…………………………………………………………………27
4.4.1 Lack of Conﬁdence……………………………………………………..27
4.5 Factors Enabling Women’s Progression……………………………………….28
4.5.1 Supportive Mentors…………………………………………………….28
4.5.2 Building Networks………………………………………………………28
4.5.3 Career Development Programs………………………………………39
4.5.4 Motivators……………………………………………………………….30
4.5.5 Positive Discrimination Strategies…………………………………….31
4.6 Summary…………………………………………………………………………..31
5. Discussion and Conclusion
5.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………33
5.2 Summary of Key Findings………………………………………………………..33
5.2.1 Gendered Images and Behaviours……………………………………33
5.2.2 Organisational Structure ..……………………………………………..34
5.2.3 Internal Factors within Women………………………………………..35
5.2.4 Enablers of Women’s Progression……………………………………35
5.3 Discussion of the Emerging Issues……………………………………………..36
5.4 Evaluation of Research Methods………………………………………………..39
5.5 Implications for Practice…………………………………………………………..40
5.6 Future Research…………………………………………………………………..41
5.7 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………41
PERSONAL LEARNING STATEMENT……………………………………………..43
BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………………45
APPENDICES
Appendix A Standard Ethical Approval Form……………………………………….52
Appendix B Consent Form……………………………………………………………54
Appendix C Semi-Structured Interview Template………………………………….55
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LIST OF GRAPHS
2.2.1.a The graph represents the tortuously slow growth of women
in executive positions in Fortune500 companies………………………………..4
2.2.1.b The graph represents the dramatical slipping of Britain’s
global rank over the years…………………………………………………………5
LIST OF FIGURES
3.1.a The diagrams outlines the relationship between the literature,
the research study, and the case study of female middle-managers…………13
3.2.2.a The diagram represents the method of conducting a research………14
vii

1. Introduction
1.1 Notion of ‘Glass-ceiling’
In the recent decades, there has been a growing interest in the study of the notion of
‘glass-ceiling’ in organisations. During this period, there have been many initiatives to
improve the situation of women in workplaces. Women have made signiﬁcant advances in
achieving higher levels in education, but they still lag behind men in terms of equality to
pay and promotions. According to the report by The World Economic Forum (2014), there
are very few women in senior ranks, and their elevation to these positions is quite slow.
This is concerned with both theories and practices of gendered cultures in organisations.
Itzin (2001) argues that even in organisations with equal opportunity initiatives, their
cultures may be resistant; the creation of new policies and practices are limited in their
effectiveness. Acker (1990) points out that this is due to the creation of gender differences
in organisations. Drawing upon the rich literature and various theories and practices
presented, this study aims to develop theory and explore how theories of gender, and of
organisational culture can assist in the processes of bringing about positive change for
women. This study analyses how gender inﬂuences the culture, structure and practices of
organisations, and the experiences of women who work in the middle levels of hierarchies.
It has three core aims; to explore the notion of ‘glass-ceiling’ and to consider the extent to
which it still persists in organisations; to consider the factors that enable in breaking off the
‘glass-ceiling’; and to consider the implications for practice for organisations and for
women managers.
1.2 Research Objectives
The issue of gender inequality has been under scrutiny of many researchers for
considerable number of years. This issue gave rise to the concept of ‘glass-ceiling’ that
was popular in 1980s, and since then many efforts have been made by various
researchers and organisations to address this issue. A great deal of research has been
devoted to understanding the horizontal division of labour in organisations, from across the
theoretical spectrum (see, for example, Acker, 1990; Brink, 2002; Gherardi, 1994; Kumra
and Vinnicombe, 2008; Oakley, 2000; Vanderbroeck, 2010). Despite this plethora of
research as well as many practice based initiatives, the ‘glass-ceiling’ still seems to hold
strong in organisations. This raises the question as to what extent is the glass ceiling still a
relevant issue in the UK organisations, particular in male dominated sectors such as
1

construction and development, communications, and law.
The objectives of this research are to explore women’s experience of the ‘glass-ceiling’ in
organisations, with the aims to: (1) critically explore barriers to advancement for women in
the industry sectors mentioned above; and (2) to consider various individual and
organisational strategies to breaking these barriers. The study aims to achieve these
objectives through a qualitative methodology taken in the form of a case study. The
qualitative study involves semi-structured interviews with nine women middle ranking
managers, focusing on their own experiences over their advancement in organisations.
1.3 Outline of the Dissertation
The dissertation consists of five chapters. The first chapter provides an introduction to the
research study undertaken. The next chapter presents the evaluation of literature on
gender inequalities in organisations, specifically on the notion of ‘glass-ceiling’. The
chapter discusses various arguments presented and contributions made by various
authors and feminists in the field of organisational culture and its influence on the career
progression of women. Chapter three provides the research methodology adopted for this
research study. The research methods and approach have been described with the
rationale for undertaking the chosen approach. The following chapter presents the findings
from the research study structured around the two main research questions. The data
produced from the qualitative study through interviewing women middle-managers is
analysed in relation to the literature reviewed. Chapter five discusses the empirical
research findings in relation to the literature, and contributes to the existing knowledge of
gender and organisations. The concluding chapter of the dissertation presents the key
recommendations and points towards future research.
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2. Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
The aim of this chapter is to give a detailed review of the literature in the area of gender
inequality in organisations, and specifically on the notion of ‘glass-ceiling’. By drawing on
the main feminist theories, and their application to the gendered analysis of organisations,
the chapter discusses the influence of organisational culture on the career growth of
women. The chapter focuses on the various barriers that women face in organisations
generally, focusing specifically on middle ranking women and their ability to get through
the ‘glass-ceiling’. Finally, the chapter discusses the various efforts made to break these
barriers.
The issue of gender inequality has been under scrutiny for a considerable number of
years. Authors have explored different barriers and how they serve to limit women’s
advancement. In addition, studies have considered the efficacy of various policies and
practices designed to enable and encourage women to move up the organisational
hierarchy. Building upon the theories of Liberal, Radical and Poststructuralist feminism the
chapter examines the how their contributions have helped in understanding the gendered
nature of organisations. The chapter also considers the statistical analysis of women at top
positions in organisations, to provide a context to the existing study.
2.2 Gender Inequalities in Organisations
There is plethora of literature on women and organisation and it has made important
contribution in the understanding of gender in organisations. Kanter (1977) opened the
door for research in this field through her book ‘Men and Women of the Corporation’, but
the most remarkable contribution is made by Acker(1990) through her article ‘A Theory of
Gendered Organisations’. In her article, she emphasises that organisational processes
and practices are responsible for the gendered segregation of work and that organisations
are the places where gendered images are created and recreated, particularly patriarchal
images. Gendered segregation is observed horizontally and vertically. Horizontally is
where the male dominance, in terms of occupations, is observed across all job sectors
even in the female dominated areas such as nursing, caring and school teaching.
Vertically is where the progress of women to top authority positions is extremely slow. This
dissertation analyses the vertical gender segregation in organisations in depth to
understand the reasons behind the slow progression of females to top positions in the UK.
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2.2.1 Gender Inequality Statistics
Over the years, various arguments have been brought forward to explain the gender
inequality that still exists and why it still exists in organisations. The report by The World
Economic Forum (2014) highlights that no country, as yet, has achieved gender equality.
Although there have been signiﬁcant improvements in many industries in the gendered
division of labour, the elevation of women to leadership positions has relatively been slow.
The report on ‘Women in Labour Market (2013)’ reveals that the senior managerial jobs
are still dominated by males while the lower level jobs such as customer service, caring
and administrative roles are dominated by females. This has also been discovered by the
report on ‘Statistical overview of women in the workplace’ produced by Catalyst (2014),
according to which there has not been much change in the participation of women in
leadership positions of Fortune 500 companies.
2.2.1.a The graph shows the tortuously slow growth of women in executive positions in
Fortune 500 companies.
A similar analysis is presented by Equality and Human Rights Commission (EHRC) in the
‘Review of Equality Statistics (2008)’. This review maps the equality statistics of the
government departments and bodies and other public sector organisations in the UK.
According to the ‘Sex and Power Report (2014)’, the global rank of Britain has drastically
been falling when it comes to the representation of women in politics.
2.2.1.b The graph represents the dramatical slipping of Britain’s global rank over the years.
These statistics present a clear picture of the status of women, particularly in the UK and
raise questions about the much debated topic of the gendered cultures in organisations.
2.2.2 Gendered Organisations
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Gender in organisations is a widely researched area. Broadbridge and Simpson (2011)
deﬁne gender as the ‘socio-cultural construction of sex differences that involves the beliefs
about what is appropriate for one sex more than the other, including feelings, behaviour
and interests’. The work on gender has received a huge amount of recognition and has
been explored in diverse areas such as gendered organisational cultures, career barriers,
leadership, power, work-life balance, and masculinities. Recent articles have presented
even more diverse themes such as work-family culture (Chang et al.,2014), women
leaders (Grandy and Williams, 2015), performance evaluation systems (Vanderbroeck,
2010) and Festing et al., 2015) and male networks (Gregory, 2009). Gherardi (1994)
describes organisational culture as the atmosphere where one experiences masculine and
feminine values not only in physical realities, but also in language. She thus argues that
gender is deeply embedded in organisational culture. Drawing on the work of Kanter
(1977), Acker (1990) argues that organisational practices and processes are responsible
creating gender difference in the workplace.
5
2009 2013
14.6%
13.5%
Percentage of Women in Executive Positions
2001 2010 2014
65
62
33
Global Rank

The issue of gender inequality has been under scrutiny for a considerable number of
years. The research is strongly influenced by debates of feminists and around critical
studies that involve both empirical and theoretical analysis of gender in organisations, in
particular, in management. Broadbridge and Hearn (2008) note that management in
organisations are gendered in ways that put the career of women in difficulties. These
ways are: valuing men’s work over women’s, gendered segregation of labour, gendered
division of authority in management, creating power difference between hierarchies,
producing and maintaining gendered images and symbols, and the practice of masculine
culture. Various authors such as Acker (2009), Brink (2002), Kakabadse (2014) , Kumra
and Vinnicombe (2008), Noble and Moore (2006), Vanderbroeck (2010), have explored
different barriers and how they serve to limit women’s advancement in different industries.
This dissertation aims to identify barriers to senior-management positions for women by
reviewing the vast empirical literature present in this field and through the voice of
feminists.
There are various barriers such as gendered beliefs and stereotypes and structural
barriers that exist in organisational culture. The focus on gendered cultures has opened
the field into the critical analysis of masculine practices and values which, according to
Broadbridge and Simpson (2011), have intensified over time. The presence of masculine
culture and its dominance in organisational practices and processes is assumed to be the
biggest barrier in the career path of women. Vanderbroeck (2010) analysed the
performance evaluation systems and identified two traps that prevent women from
reaching the top positions. The first is the assumption that men and women should have
same leadership qualities. This, he argues, is based on the idea that performance
evaluation systems are influenced by what men believe to be effective leadership qualities.
The second is the belief that women should adopt masculine behaviour such as
assertiveness, toughness and decisiveness, to succeed. This belief puts women in double-
binds; if they display such behaviour they are taken negatively and if they do not they are
considered not fit for the role.
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In addition to these beliefs and assumptions, there is the presence of structural barriers
such as selection, recruitment and promotions which block the career advancement of
women (Oakley, 2000). It has been argued by Billing (2011) that it is not only the presence
of masculine culture but the requirements of job itself, such as too many travels and longer
working hours which may hinder the career growth; in particular for working mothers.
These are often found in the management practices and are led by the widespread belief
that women choose family over work and hence would not be good enough for the role.
Oakley (2000) argues that the presence of ‘old boys networks’ at the top of the hierarchy
and gender based stereotypes are strong barriers and these are very slow to change.
These networks are also observed by Gregory (2009) and Festing et al. (2015) in their
empirical studies. Since women are shown resistance from entering into these networks,
they are barred from the chance to gain access to prestigious clients, projects and
promotions. Reflecting on the past 25 years on gender and management, Broadbridge and
Simpson (2011) comment that current challenges that women face are in the form of new
and evolving forms of gender hierarchies and power. From these findings, it can be said
that these stereotypes and beliefs may not be practiced as they were a few decades ago,
but they have evolved over time and their presence can still be felt.
Women have always found ways to resist and fight discrimination. Various groups of
feminists such as liberal, radical and poststructuralist have voiced their opinions through
their movements and theories (Calas and Smircich, 2006). They have made incredible
efforts in contributing towards the cultural analysis and in improving the situation of women
at work. One major wave towards achieving equality in workplace, which started in 1960s
and 1970s, is the women’s liberation movement. The framework of liberal feminism is
popularly taken by policy makers to achieve the agenda of equal opportunity. They argue
that the causes of barriers are the individual limitations. Although they believe that
traditional and cultural norms still pose as barriers to women’s career growth, but
organisations are gender neutral. They assert that these barriers can be broken through
legal interventions. These ideas have underpinned many equal opportunities policies and
practices designed to protect women’s right to the present day. Their concepts have
assisted Equal Opportunities Commission in the UK through their arguments and
evidence, to shape legislation to protect women from discrimination. These legislations
are: Equal Pay Act (1970), and Sex Discrimination Act (1975) (Gatrell and Swan, 2008).
7

An alternative prospective is offered by radical feminists which differs from that of liberal
feminists. Under this cluster of feminists there are two strands of thoughts: libertarian and
cultural. Radical-libertarian feminists argue that patriarchy is the root cause of women
oppression and men as a group dominate women. However, Radical-cultural feminists
assert on the importance and significance of the essential traits attached to the femininity
such as emotions, peace, relations, motherhood. They argue that these characteristics
should be embraced and perceived as their strengths and power. They believe that the
barrier of masculine culture can be overcome by establishing women centric organisations
and institutions such as women health care centres, centres to address violence against
women, providing skills to women often related to men as well as through organisations
such as music festivals, art galleries and films to encourage women’s expression.
A contrasting theory is put forward by Poststructuralist feminists which have been inspired
in particular, by the work of Foucault (1972), who analysed power as constantly shifting
between participants in an interaction. They are concerned with the power relations
constituting gendered identities and the impact this has on managerial practices in
organisations. They argue that, masculine norms are present in organisational knowledge
which is produced by language. This representation of language and knowledge is
engaged in politics within organisations and thus creates gendered organisations. They
draw upon the discourse analysis by analysing texts such as conversations and media
representations of gender to understand power relations. Their analysis is not a
transformative one but it aims to represent women’s voices that have been silenced in
many cultures. Thomas and Davies (2000) examined ‘new public management’ relating to
managerialism in higher education which influences professional identities of women in
academics in the UK through their responses.
Although these groups of feminists voice their opinions on gender in different ways but
they share a common underlying assumption, that is the dominance of patriarchy and their
aim to alter this form of domination. This dissertation draws upon the theories of radical
and poststructuralist feminists, as it aims to examine the influence of gendered cultures on
the career growth of women middle-managers by reflecting on their perspectives and
experiences within organisations. The barriers discussed in this section have often been
described by the phrase ‘glass-ceiling’. This dissertation contributes to ongoing debates
about the ‘glass-ceiling’ phenomenon.
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2.3 Persistent Glass-ceiling
The phenomenon of ‘glass-ceiling’ came into existence in the mid 1980s when it first
appeared in the Wall Street Journal in 1986. It is defined as the concept that describes the
presence of an invisible transparent barrier that prevents women from advancing to senior
positions. Boyd (2012) further throws light upon this concept by elucidating the idea behind
this expression. She explains that the word ceiling implies that one can advance only up to
a certain limit before he or she knocks into a barrier of any kind. To state that this ceiling is
of glass denotes that although it is real, it is transparent and not visible to the observer.
This reality that, despite women moving up the organisational ladder only a few to actually
make it to the top positions is important to understand as it exposes the gap in our
understanding of the persistent ‘glass-ceiling’. Boyd (2012) also states that the term ‘glass-
ceiling’ has been adapted to address barriers to women in specific industries such as
stained glass-ceiling, to describe the barriers associated with women advancing to senior
roles in ministry. Grass-ceiling, when examining difficulties women face in agriculture-
related industries; and political glass-ceiling, that accounts for factors that hamper
women’s growth in politics.
Some authors such as Acker (2009), and Schmidt and Bendl (2010) suggest different
metaphors to address subtle discrimination factors that they assume remain untouched in
the concept of ‘glass-ceiling’. Acker (2009) uses the term ‘Inequality Regimes’ as she
believes it accounts for gender, race and class barriers that obstruct women at all levels of
organisations. Schmidt and Bendl (2010) on the other hand, suggest the term ‘Firewalls’ to
describe discrimination process in organisations as they argue that it is not only the ceiling,
but the whole structure of organisation that holds women back. This dissertation uses the
notion of ‘glass-ceiling’ as it aims to look at the barriers that women, in the middle levels of
organisational hierarchy, face to advance to senior roles.
The effect and intensity of ‘glass-ceiling’ varies in different ways. It varies with the
inequality in society, history, culture, economic conditions, politics, and geographically.
There is huge amount of research that involves empirical and academic study on the
concept and the pattern of ‘glass-ceiling’. Many authors have tried to understand and
examine this phenomenon through the reflection of women managers who are fighting
against and those who have managed to break this barrier; through the perceptions of
men: how they view women as professionals and their reactions towards women in
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leadership positions; the analysis of organisational practices and processes to understand
their fairness and validity; and reflecting on the pattern of ‘glass-ceiling’: how it has
transformed over the years.
Drawing upon these studies I outline various characteristics of ‘glass-ceiling’. It is based on
inequality that is constructed by underlying cultural beliefs and stereotypes. It usually
involves gender, class or race of a person. The degree of this inequality varies according
to the structure of organisation; Acker (2009) elucidates that flat organisations are
assumed to have more equality and opportunities for women as compared to hierarchical
organisations. This degree of inequality is also visible in the form of power difference and
wage difference. It has been observed that in some organisations women have less
authority than men, in similar roles while in other organisations where they have equal
authority they have to follow male managerial model. Acker (2009) has also pointed out
that although earning gaps have reduced over time but male managers still earn more
than women managers. It is widely argued that practices such as recruitment, selection
and promotions, and performance evaluation system are often guided by gendered images
and beliefs in which women, especially working mothers, get blocked from getting an
access to opportunities. Acker (2009) also argues that, organisations have lack of
awareness of the presence of inequalities. Researchers such as Prime et al. (2008), Billing
(2011), Festing et al. (2014) who have discussed about organisational practices and
gendered cultures with managers have found that some subtle inequalities produced by
these practices are overlooked. In addition to these, Sandberg (2013) in her book ‘Lean
In’, argues that internal obstacles such as lack of self-confidence hold women back. She
shares her experience of when she was negotiating about joining Facebook. She
expressed that she was willing to accept the first offer that was made to her, but her
husband encouraged her to make a counter-offer and she was offered a much more
lucrative proposal. She points out that this is partly because women want to be liked, and
please everyone.
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2.4 Breaking Barriers
From the above review, we can see how gender inequality in organisations has changed
since its formation. In this section, the discussion revolves around various efforts made by
organisations by introducing practices and policies assumed fair by policy makers, by
government by providing legislative support to women, and by women themselves to help
in breaking these barriers. Organisations have introduced practices and policies such as
work-family policies, 360 degree performance evaluation systems and selection and
recruitment processes based on meritocracy system, to ensure the maintenance of gender
equality in workplace. Norris (2001) argues that countries adopt positive discrimination
strategies to achieve gender equality; they set a mandatory quota for the selection of
candidates from a particular group. In 2011, Lord Davies set a target for the UK’s FTSE100
companies to achieve 25% of female representation in its boardrooms by 2015. According
to the annual review report on ‘Women on Boards(2015)’ by Davies, the FTSE100 boards
have managed to bring the female representation on board up to 23.5% from the initial
number of 12.5% and we can notice that the British business seems to be on its way of
achieving the set target of 25%.
Oakley (2000) mentions that women who have managed to get past the ‘glass-ceiling’,
adopted masculine behaviour and methods. From the discussion surrounding feminists
theories, we can observe how their concepts have been inﬂuential in shaping the views
and beliefs about female advantage. Wittenberg-Cox (2015) argues that organisations
should ensure that both men and women work together effectively, by encouraging a
learning environment and not just creating women only networks. She emphasises that
leaders should display strong leadership by acknowledging that a change is needed to
strive in a competitive changing environment and should create a culture that prioritises
gender balance. She also stresses that leaders should not only focus on setting up of
mentoring and coaching programs but also make sure that these are carried out
effectively. Individual factors such as career aspirations, self-motivators and the
recognition of promotion opportunities in an organisation also play a part in enabling
women to step up on their career ladder. Despite these efforts, the slow progress of
women to leadership positions makes us question about what more needs to be done to
help their further advancement.
11

2.5 Summary
This chapter sets out the literature on ’glass-ceiling’ which acts as a barrier for women to
reach senior positions in organisations and presents a theoretical framework from which
the organisational culture for various female middle-managers may be analysed. It
presents statistical analysis of women in executive positions as an evidence and discusses
the reasons behind these statistics. Building upon the theories presented by liberal, radical
and poststructuralist feminists, it analyses their contribution in uplifting the situation of
women in organisations. Looking at this barrier, the chapter emphasises the efforts made
by organisations, government bodies and women to break it. It encourages to further
research deeper into the factors that would enable promotions of women at the middle
levels to clearly understand the scenario and in determining what more could be done to
support them.
12

3. Research Methodology
3.1 Introduction
This chapter outlines the research methodology adopted for the study. It identiﬁes the
research questions and discusses the rationale for adopting the research approach,
design and methods chosen. Finally the chapter concludes by recognising the constraints
faced and the ethical guidelines considered while conducting the research.
3.1.a The diagram outlines the relationship between the literature, the research study and
the case study of female middle-managers.
RQ - Research Questions
13
Gendered Organisations
Glass-ceiling
Female
Middle-ManagersRQ

3.2 Research Questions & Methods
3.2.1 Research Questions
The aim of this research study is to investigate factors enabling women’s progression to
leadership positions through the reflection of female managers, who lie in the middle levels
of organisations, on their career advancement.
The overarching research questions are:
• What are the barriers facing women in reaching senior positions in the hierarchy?
• What practices enable the breaking of these barriers?
Drawing upon these questions, the study aims to shed more light on the presence and
influence of gendered cultures in organisations. The vast literature on gender and
organisations has mainly focused on the difficulties that women face in all levels of
organisation, specifically in the board positions. Although it gives an important empirical
evidence; but there is more research required to seek women’s voices, particularly of
those lying in the middle levels of organisational hierarchy in male dominated sectors of
construction and development, communications, and law. The objectives of this research
are to:
• To explore women’s experience of gendered cultures in organisations.
• To critically explore barriers to advancement for women in construction and
development, communications, and law.
• To consider various individual and organisational strategies to breaking barriers.
3.2.2 Research Methods
Bryan and Bell (2015) define Research Methodology, as an approach to understand the
social world when undertaking a research. It is concerned with the philosophical
assumptions of what should be studied, how the research study should be undertaken and
how the data collected should be interpreted.
3.2.2.a The diagram represents the method of conducting a research.
14
Philosophical
Assumptions
Research
Design
Research
Methods
Research
Methodology

Bryman and Bell (2015) discuss two main philosophical foundations of research - Ontology
and Epistemology. Ontology is concerned with the nature of social world which is viewed
through two lenses: Objectivism and Constructionism. Objectivism is where the reality is
objective and is independent of the researcher. Constructionism is where the reality is
subjective and is seen as multiple and ever-changing by the participants in a study.
Epistemology is concerned with understanding the relationship between the research and
the researcher. This philosophy is separated into two categories: Positivism and
Interpretivism.
Positivism involves natural science where the research methodology is quantitative and
consists of statistical analysis. The researcher is independent of the research and the
knowledge gathered is considered valid only if it is objectively visible. The quantitative data
collected is through large samples and involves testing of hypothesis (or hypotheses). The
drawback is that, the research adopting positivist approach is not taken in natural locations
and hence, it fails to capture the context of the environment and complexities of
organisations. An alternative approach to positivism is the interpretivism approach
according to which, understanding the human behaviour requires a subjective view and
interpretation. The data gathered is personal and value-bound, that is qualitative. The
proposition is that human behaviour is different from inanimate objects and so, the
researcher should undertake the research process through observation of the participant
of the study. The qualitative data collected is through small samples and concerned with
generalising theories. Researchers such as Leitch et al. (2010) took an interpretivist
approach in their study, as it involved examining experiences of women business owners
regarding the growth of their business from start-up to nurturing phase.
This research study takes the interpretivist approach as the data collection methods
aligned to this approach involve interviews of female middle-managers with the aim to
obtain an in-depth analysis and collection of rich data by reﬂecting on their experiences
and views of their career growth in gendered cultures of the organisations. Furthermore,
the studies of similar nature within the literature review have adopted this approach.
In considering the research strategy both deductive and inductive approaches were taken
into account. Bryan and Bell (2015) identify inductive approach as a theory building
approach, where the data is collected and a theory is build as a result of the data analysis.
15

It is less structured and is flexible. On the other hand, a deductive approach aims at
developing a theory by testing that theory or hypothesis (or hypotheses). A hypothesis (or
hypotheses) is put under critical evaluation and aim lies in identifying if theory can be
confirmed or falsified and needs more refinement. It is more structured and rigid. In many
cases researchers use a mix of both these approaches, a hybrid approach called iterative
approach. This approach examines the literature and aims to test a range of theories, but
also seek to produce new findings.
This research study adopts the combination of deductive and inductive approaches, that is
an iterative approach. It aims to gather a range of theoretical perspectives from the
existing literature of gender and organisations and seeks to analyse these perspectives
through the voices of female middle-managers, in male dominated sectors. The nature of
this study is exploratory as it seeks to clarify an understanding of the existing issue of
‘glass-ceiling’ and to get new insights into it.
Bryman and Bell (2011) outline five main types of research design in the social sciences
including experimental, survey, cross-sectional, ethnography, and case study. This
research study adopts a case study as the most appropriate research design. Researchers
such as Billing (2011), and Buswell and Jenkins (1994), who carried out studies into
gendered cultures followed this design. Bryman and Bell (2011) define case study as a
strategy to explore topics within their real-life context using a variety of research methods
such as interviews, surveys and observational techniques. It is considered to be highly
flexible. The rationale behind taking up a case study design is to identify if the research
involves understanding context of the subject, social processes, power relations and
cultures, examining processes over time and analysing change (Kitay and Callus, 1998).
This research study focuses on the internal context of organisations, the organisational
culture, as discussed in chapter two. Stake (1998) identifies three types of case studies:
intrinsic, instrumental and collective when understanding organisations. Intrinsic is aimed
at understanding a particular case e.g. a specific organisations type. Instrumental is aimed
at getting an insight into a particular issue e.g. study of work-life balance and collective is
where a number of cases are studied together to understand a phenomenon. This study is
instrumental in nature as it seeks to gain an in-depth understanding of the ‘glass-ceiling’
phenomenon.
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Hakim (1987) gives five different types of case studies that can be applied to the study of
organisations. These are individual case histories, community studies, case study of social
groups such as teachers, middle-managers, case study of organisations based on location
and industry and case study of events, roles and relationships. This research study uses
the case study of social groups as it involves gaining the views of nine female middle-
managers in organisations. It takes a theoretical sampling strategy provided by Silverman
(2000) and Yin (2003). This strategy seems fit with the study as the aim is to examine the
theoretical framework discussed in chapter two, and develop on it based on the research
questions.
Gummesson (2000) notes that the issues with the case studies are that they lack
generalisability. This issue is addressed by making a theoretical sampling strategy as it will
help to answer the research questions, and test and develop the theories that this
research study is based on, thus giving an analytical generalisability. However, this issue is
not feasible with this study as it involves a small sample size.
3.3 Data Collection Methods
The data collection methods for this research study are driven by the nature of the
research, the philosophical assumptions of the researcher, the approach and strategy
selected. The qualitative data is collected through primary empirical data collected during
the research and secondary data outlined in the literature review. Patton (2005) identifies
three kinds of data collection methods within qualitative research: interviews, direct
observations and written documents. Interviews involve direct interaction with people and
gathering direct quotations from them about their experiences. Observations include
detailed description of people’s activities by observing them. Written documents are
quotations or entire passages from reports or publications.
This research study has taken up semi-structured interviews as a method of collecting the
primary empirical data through exploratory research questions. This data collected is
evaluated jointly with the existing knowledge from the literature review. The rationale for
selecting this interview type is that, the study involves reflecting on individuals’
perspectives and this is a suitable way to explore participants’ knowledge, views,
experiences and interpretations (Mason, 2002). This form of interview will give the
participants’ a flexibility to raise their own themes as the interview feels more like a
17

conversation. It also gives the researcher the advantage to gain important insights into the
specific issues which may not be possible through observations. Keeping these issues in
mind, the researcher framed the questions in a set format where relevant and follow-up
questions were asked, where necessary. The study consists of interviews of nine female
managers out of which six are working mothers. They lie in the middle hierarchies of
organisations as project/senior managers and directors/partners looking forward to step up
on senior roles. The ages of women in the sample range from 25 - 55 years. Seven
women from the sample work in large organisations and two from small-medium
organisations. Seven Interviews were conducted via video(Skype), one via telephone and
one face-to-face, according to the convenience of the participants. The participants for the
study were recruited from ’The Association of Women in Property’ (Women in Property)
organisation. It is a national organisation which seeks to enhance the careers of women.
The interviews lasted for about forty-five minutes to an hour and were carried out over a
time period of eight weeks, between September 2015 and October 2015 at the
convenience and availability of the participants. Most of the interviews were audio-
recorded and transcribed while notes were taken for the telephonic interview.
Saunders et al. (2012) outlines a few limitations of interviews and argues that they lack in
validity, reliability and may involve bias of the interviewer. In some cases, the interviewee
may be nervous and unwilling to expand on responses. To address the validity of the
research a flexible interaction between the interviewer and interviewee was ensured by
giving the respondents opportunity to expand on their responses. Their views were
interpreted accurately by re-reading the transcripts. The bias of the researcher was kept in
mind while conducting the interviews. The bias of the interviewees might be involved in the
study as the interviewer was also a female; the emotions of the respondents may have
been different if it was a male interviewer. The reliability of the data is usually tested by
repeating the exercise. However, interviews express concerns at a certain point of time
and may change with time. They give flexibility to research rather than standardisation.
The secondary data gathered is the official statistics presented in the literature review. It is
collected from the officially recognised reports such as Catalyst (2014), Equality and
Human Rights Commission (2014), Sex and Power (2014), Women in Labour Market
(2013), Women on Boards (2015), and World Economic Forum (2014). The secondary
data was helpful in providing clarification while forming research questions.
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3.4 Data Analysis
Blaxter et al. (1996) suggest that, ‘analysis is about the search for an explanation and
understanding, in the course of which concepts and themes are likely to be advanced
considered and developed’. To aid the process of data analysis, the researcher conducted
preliminary analysis. It involved taking notes while audio-recording the interviews. These
helped in drawing out interviewees feelings and impressions about their experiences of
events.
The semi-structured interviews conducted, provided an in-depth analysis into the emerging
themes. The data analysis accords with the philosophical assumption outlined earlier in
this chapter. The data accessed was considered relevant and irrelevant based on: the
identification of gendered cultures in organisations based on radical and poststructuralist
feminist theories, the depth of ‘glass-ceiling’ embedded into organisational culture,
determining of enablers of women’s progression and the identification of emerging issues
and themes from the data.
The data analysis was conducted according to the three processes provided by Miles and
Huberman (1998), which are: Data reduction, Data display and Conclusion drawing and
verification. Data display and conclusion drawing and verification will be discussed in the
next chapter. They define data reduction as the ‘process of selecting, simplifying,
abstracting and transforming the data we have in transcriptions and field notes’. The
process of data reduction commenced before the data was collected, when the researcher
was building the framework and questions for the research. Data reduction involved
summarising the data, coding and developing key themes.
Miles and Huberman (1994) define coding the data as, ‘to review notes transcribed,
synthesised, to dissect them meaningfully, while keeping the relations between the parts
intact’. Following their suggestion, the coding of data was done by highlighting important
parts of the interview transcriptions and labelling relevant parts of the texts such as quotes
and sentences. This phase helped in drawing interpretations and developing themes from
which conclusions were drawn and implications for practice and future research were
proposed. According to Miles and Huberman (1994), the data display is the ‘organised,
compressed assembly of information that permits conclusion drawing and action’. This will
be presented in the next chapter.
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3.5 Research Constraints
This study faced a number of constraints while conducting the research. The research was
time consuming as the process of preparing the study, collecting details, processing
information and gathering results were time consuming. There is a huge amount of
literature in the field of gender and organisations and the researcher could not possibly
access all the literature within the time period of three months given for the research. In
addition, the process of gathering participants for the study was time consuming. The cost
of printing the material was considered. The limitation of Skype interviews was the
technology failure which was overcome by instant messaging function in Skype. The
disadvantage of conducting telephonic interview was that it was not possible to study the
body language of the interviewee as an extra source of information. The interviewer had to
rely on the voice and intonations and concentrated more on the questions needed to be
asked.
3.6 Ethical Considerations
The study was undertaken by keeping ethical considerations in mind. All the participants
were given a brief description of the study and provided with a consent form that assured
their anonymity, informed about the audio-recording of their responses and ensured their
confidentiality. They were given the autonomy to withdraw from the study at any point of
the research study.
3.7 Summary
The aim of this dissertation is “To investigate the factors enabling women’s career
progression to leadership positions through reflections of female middle-managers on their
career advancement”. This chapter highlights the research methods adopted by the
researcher and the rationale for undertaking the chosen approach and strategies. The
researcher has considered the importance of ethics, validity and reliability and has taken
steps to address these concerns. The chapter also outlines the constraints related to the
research study.
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4. Findings
4.1 Introduction
This chapter sets out the findings from the research, structured around the two research
questions. It aims to identify and explore the barriers facing the respondents in reaching
the senior positions in organisations, and the practices that enable them in breaking these
barriers. The analysis of interview transcripts and notes produced insightful findings. In the
first section, the analysis centres on the barriers faced by the respondents due to the
presence of gendered stereotypes in organisations. Following this, the second section of
the chapter sets out the respondents’ responses in relation to the barriers identified in
organisational structure, covering performance evaluation systems, work-life balance
policies, and informal male networks on their career progression. The section also
discusses the internal factors that impede women from succeeding to top positions.
Finally, the chapter presents the respondents’ reflections on the individual and
organisational strategies that might break these barriers, and that can enable their further
advancement. This section also discusses the influence of women networking
organisations and other networking platforms in supporting their career development.
Finally, the chapter discusses the respondents’ perceptions on the positive discrimination
strategies adopted worldwide, to appoint women to top positions.
4.2 Barriers Due to Gendered Images and Behaviours
It has been argued in the literature that stereotypically, men are associated with
behaviours such as assertiveness, decisiveness, and toughness. If a woman displays such
behaviours, she is perceived as aggressive, whereas men are seen as powerful
(Vanderbroeck, 2010). All the interviewees commented on the prevalence of such
stereotypical assumptions over how they were expected to behave. Sally commented1
that:
I have been in situations where I have behaved in a certain way and been criticised,
and when I pointed out the same for a male colleague it was said that it is okay for
him to behave like that (…) it is difficult to deal with and there are times you feel
frustrated because of it.
She went on to recount an incident where she was in a meeting with clients along with her
male team member, and she was automatically assumed to be his secretary.
All names are pseudonyms to protect confidentiality.1
21

She recounted an incident from her previous workplace and stated that:
the HR refused to acknowledge my point, and to prove my point I had to get a male
colleague (…) because I challenged the status quo, I was seen as a trouble maker.
It adversely affected my confidence and made me feel that I didn't do my job well.
Daisy and Johanna also pointed out that gendered stereotypes vary according to different
age groups. They elucidated that it is prevalent in the older age groups, but not in the
younger ones.
These findings point to how gendered stereotypes are very much prevalent in
organisations in one form or another. These gendered behavioural assumptions normalise
women to behave in certain ways: going against these assumptions puts them in a difficult
position within the organisation, which could affect their confidence negatively. As Acker
(1990) observes, such assumptions over gendered images and behaviours serve to
contribute to a gendered culture whereby women are seen as the ‘other’ to the assumed
normality of men, male and masculinity.
The following sections consider in more detail the influence of gendered images and
behaviours on the careers of the respondents, in particular on working mothers. The
findings also discuss the management styles of the respondents in order to examine the
gendered stereotypes attached to these.
4.2.1 Working Mothers
The gendered stereotypes were mainly seen towards working mothers, and posed as one
of the biggest inhibitors to their progression. These stereotypes are led by the assumption
that women, at some point in their lives, would have children which would affect their
commitment at work. This assumption reinforces the idea that women would choose
children over work, thus giving priority to men for promotions. Respondents asserted how
they, and some of their colleagues had to face the stereotypical barrier of starting a family
in their career. Sally, for example commented that:
the expectation that at some point you would get married and have children is seen
as a massive barrier to promotion, and it is mainly because women are seen a
primary child carer and not men.
Lilly had a similar view, and also mentioned that:
there are societal issues attached to it as well. Women have to pick up kids from
child care centres or schools and it doesn't seem to be a man’s duty to do the
same. In addition to this, there’s a lot of peer pressure on women from other women
to be seen as a good mother. I have friends from school who raised eyebrows when
22

I said I want to go back to work. They feel women should compromise their career
for children.
These findings coincide with the arguments of Billing (2011) and Acker (2009) that there
are gendered stereotypes towards working mothers, with the assumption that women will
always prioritise children over careers. This finding shows that women are judged against
masculine standards that include the assumption of long working hours, high levels of
commitment to organisation, over and above non-work issues, and emotional detachment,
thus inhibiting their promotion prospects. It aligns with the arguments of Brink (2012)
according to which, women are excluded from selection for promotions because of the
masculine values attached to them.
4.2.2 Management Styles
It is often argued that men and women have different leadership styles. The stereotypes
attached to the feminine leadership style portrays women as less compatible leaders than
men. They are led by the assumption that women engage in soft communication; they take
inputs from others in order to make them feel included in decision making. As they do not
force their authority, therefore they are less likely to be recognised as effective leaders
(Oakley, 2000). When asked about their management styles respondents stated that they
did not think they managed in a way that was stereotypically feminine. In particular, they
were keen to emphasise that they were both fair and a bit hard at the same time. Sally
expressed that:
it’s about how a person should behave. As a manager you need to be fair, and there
are situations where you need to be firm. You need to behave in a way appropriate
to your position and role in the company. There is an expectation from me, I have to
demonstrate how fair, how reasonable, understanding I am and also firm at the
same time.
The respondents stated that they were quite straight-forward when taking decisions. If they
felt the decision did not need much time, then they take it. They also emphasised that the
management style is more about the personality of an individual and not about being a
woman or a man. On this, Stephanie commented that:
I know a few male colleagues who are not decisive, and go for consensus
whenever making decisions. It could be said, for them, that they have feminine traits
as they take inputs from others when making decisions but I feel it’s more about the
personalities of individuals.
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The remaining respondents expressed that they were quite relaxed, friendly and involving
with their team members, and are less directive. Denice remarked that:
I am very open with my team, I take team decisions. If people have got problem
they come and see me, I feel they should be motivated. I rarely get upset or
annoyed, I have a friendly approach. I feel you get to know them better like that.
These findings differ with the arguments of Oakley (2000) and Vanderbroeck (2010),
according to which women and men have different leadership styles. Certainly for these
women, they felt that there was nothing particularly gendered about their approach to
leadership. Of course, this is their perception and whether or not they differ in practice is a
different issue, beyond the remit of this study. The variation in response directs to the
assumption that there is no such masculine and feminine management style, but based on
the personalities of individuals, according to the respondents.
4.3 Barriers Due to Organisational Structure
This section discusses the barriers that women face, related to the organisational
structure. The aim was to discover how organisational practices and policies influence the
careers of women. Respondents pointed out towards the performance evaluation systems,
absence of work-life balance policies, and informal male networks at the top positions as
the organisational practices inhibiting their progression.
4.3.1 Performance Evaluation Systems
Performance evaluation systems are often criticised to be influenced by qualities that are
mostly found in men (Vanderbroeck, 2010). Women lag behind in recognising new
opportunities during these assessments. When asked how fair they consider their
performance assessment systems to be, there were mixed views about them. A few
respondents expressed that they did not have a formal system of performance
evaluations. They were mainly judged on the targets which was quite stressful. Lilly
mentioned that this could probably be because of the industry they work in. Judith
commented that:
there is no formal performance assessment system. It’s only the targets. If we have
performance system it would reduce stress in a big way.
This was evident in the case of a small organisation.
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Most respondents stated that their performance evaluation systems were quite fair and
transparent. It gave them a clear idea of what was expected of them. A few women also
expressed the flaws attached to them, such as judging women on behavioural stereotypes,
and the unconscious bias of people conducting the assessments. Sally remarked that:
we are in the process of putting together some KPIs, it’s based on growth of new
business, client management and also behavioural competencies but is largely
around targets. However, I feel females are strongly judged both on their skills and
behaviours. I suspect if a man is ever judged strongly on his behaviour.
She expanded on it by mentioning that if she oversteps the line of being firm, she is seen
as a trouble for the company whereas her male colleagues are rarely judged on this
behaviour within the company. Johanna pointed out the unconscious bias attached to
these systems. She argues that:
if some people are similar to the people in management, that kind of affects their
assessments of their capabilities.
These varied responses elucidate that performance evaluation systems are practiced in
different ways in organisations. They are led by the behavioural stereotypes for women
and are also influenced by the unconscious bias attached to the people carrying out
assessments. In addition to these, there are other factors such as the size of
organisations, and the industrial sectors that influences the evaluation systems.
4.3.2 Absence of Work-life balance Policies
Many respondents also pointed that the absence of work-life balance policies, particularly
for working mothers, affects their career. Lilly commented that:
I feel the organisation is quite terrible at their policies. They’re aren't good with
work-life policies. I did talk to my boss about that, but they never came back to me
on that. Many of my friends work only 3 days a week and that is not possible in my
job. Once you go down to three day a week you cannot go anywhere else, you stay
in the same role because you want stability.
She highlighted the importance of work-life balance policy and stated that:
I have a few friends who are on work-life balance policies, and I feel it’s
really good for work-life balance (…) you get quite a lot of work done and
also you get time to spend with your child every evening.
Judith also had similar views. She disappointedly remarked that:
I would really want flexible working in company. I think we need it and I approached
this subject (…) got very much shut down. It helps you work better.
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Only two respondents claimed that their organisations provided them with work-life policies
which were beneficial for balancing their work life and personal life. It gave them time to
spend with their family and friends.
These findings points out to the importance of having a work-life balance, particularly for
working mothers. It is not only beneficial for the maintaining a balance between work and
personal life of individuals, but also helps them work better. This finding aligns with the
arguments of Chang et al. (2014) in asserting that work-family policies affect working
mothers’ commitment to work positively.
4.3.3 Informal Male Networks
It has been argued in the literature that masculine culture in organisations is often seen
through the presence of informal male networks. These networks or the so called ‘old boys
networks’ in top hierarchies of organisations, is argued to be the strongest barrier in
women’s career progression. Participants were asked about the presence of these
networks in their organisations and to what extent they influence their career. All the
respondents commented that these networks were very prevalent in their organisations,
specifically at the top positions. Some women commented that a lot of networking is
required in their industries, and they find it difficult to build and expand these networks.
They were of the view that men are better at it than women. Judith, for example, stated
that:
men are really forceful with it, they give you their business cards and follow you up
and make contacts. I am more like if you need any help; I am more than happy to
help but don’t phone me just to call me for a chat, I don’t know what to say to you.
Men are good at organising sports it’s not something I do at all, and in that I feel I
lose out a lot.
Similarly, Stephanie commented that:
guys are better at networking and it comes much naturally to them. I am getting
confident at it, but I am not completely comfortable at doing it. I feel awkward in
asking a guy come have lunch with me. Guys do like golf or a game of football.
Clients also tend to go to men than women.
It was also brought out that there is an age criteria for women for their entrance to male
networks. On this, Daisy remarked that:
as a young woman its quite hard because men don’t see you as serious, they take
you as a pretty girl. As you get older they take you seriously. I had a hard time when
I was younger. They would dismiss me as a blonde girl.
26

One of the respondents stated that she had taken up golf. Although she claimed she felt
odd at it, but it was a way to build and increase networks with clients.
The presence of informal male networks at the top positions, as pointed out by all the
respondents, is another identification of the presence of gendered cultures in
organisations. These findings show that this practice of informal male networks keeps
them from getting access to prestigious clients, as is also discussed by Festing et al.
(2015), and Gregory (2009) in the literature. It is evident that women not only find it hard to
get into male networks, but also to build networks. As their work involves bringing in new
clients through networks, they feel men have easier and more access to them through
their informal male networks.
4.4 Internal Obstacles
In addition to the presence of gendered cultures in organisations which are mainly seen in
the gendered stereotyping during selection for promotions, and through informal male
networks that discriminate women; internal factor such as lack of confidence keeps women
from progressing.
4.4.1 Lack Of Confidence
Some women pointed out that women do not have that self-confidence and drive that men
do. They argued that men are more strategic about certain situations, such as pay rise and
promotions and know how to do things quicker. Women hesitate in asking questions about
these things. Lilly also brought up the issue that women often lack in confidence when
applying for jobs. She stated that:
people joke about it that, if there’s a job and it has a list of qualities you need for it
(…) if a woman lacks in one quality she won’t apply for it, whereas if a guy lacks in
three qualities he would go for it. That is really true (…) when I talk to women even
the blokey women, they still lack in confidence. There is an issue around pushing
yourself forward among women. I think it’s related with gender pay gap. Women
don’t ask for pay rise whereas men do every year.
These respondents emphasised that women should be serious about their objectives to
succeed. They need to ask questions about promotions and make their organisations
aware that they are serious about them. This view aligns with the assumption of Sandberg
(2013), discussed in the literature, that women lack in confidence and do not put
themselves forward because they want to please others and be liked by them.
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4.5 Factors Enabling Women’s Progression
This section discusses the factors that helped women to get to the position they currently
are in, and what according to them would help in their further advancement. Drawing upon
the identification of the barriers to women’s progression mentioned above, the aim was to
identify the individual and organisational strategies that have helped and will further help in
their progression.
4.5.1 Supportive Mentors
When asked about what kind of relationship do they share with their mentors, most women
were glad to express that their managers were really supportive of their career growth.
Sally commented that,
my senior is really supportive, she pushed me to ask for my promotion (…) beyond
that I am viewed as a trouble maker because I challenge the status quo.
The respondents mentioned that they had open and honest conversations with their
managers. They remarked that they would not have had enough confidence to go for
meetings or ask for promotions on their own if they had not pushed them. Stephanie also
mentioned that her manager was really understanding about how difficult it was for her to
build networks with new people. She added that, he pushed her to go to women
networking events to meet new women which built up her confidence. Only two
respondents remarked that their managers did not show any particular interest in their
career development. They stressed on the view that, women want to be encouraged.
These findings align with the views of Wittenberg-Cox (2015) according to which,
managers and leaders need to create an environment that creates gender balance. They
should ensure that mentoring and coaching programs are focused on and carried
effectively.
4.5.2 Building Networks
All the respondents elucidated that women networking organisations such as ‘Women In
Property’ and other social networks such as LinkedIn and Twitter, have helped them build
up their confidence and expand their networks. Lilly commented that:
I wouldn't have had the confidence to ask for my maternity pay leave, if not because
of women in property. I have my mentor in there, and she gave me really good tips
on how to stop working before having a kid and how to get back into work again.
28

One of the respondents also mentioned that she got her current job through an
acquaintance from a women networking organisation.
Daisy advised about using male networks to increase the social network. She emphasised
that:
I use men to social network. The best thing is to buddy up with them, that’s the best
advice I would give anyone. You have to play smart about these male networks. I
feel you should learn a bit about men’s interest like sports. Men are simple
creatures they will engage with you.
Drawing upon her advice, it can be argued that women should adopt masculine interests
such as those in sports to be a part of male networks. However it again brings up the
question of, if it is necessary to adopt masculine behaviours and interests to succeed; as is
also argued by Oakley (2000). These findings show that women networking organisations
are making great efforts to give that extra support needed by women regarding their
career. In addition to these, online social networking has build up a great platform for
everyone to keep in touch with each other and expand their connections.
4.5.3 Career Development Programs
Half of the respondents stated that their organisations provided them with career
development programs which they find are really beneficial for them. Denice mentioned
that her organisation is very strong on the policy of inequality. She commented that:
rigorous training and leadership programs are present in the organisation,
especially the graduate schemes (…) it is one of the best in the building industry. I
am frequently sent for these programs. They take it seriously. If you apply for any of
these and fail to go, then you are fined heavily. I find these programs really
good.
Similarly, Rachel stated that:
we used to have very in-depth training program and team building exercises. We’ve
slipped due to recession. It’s not that we don’t have a budget to do it now, it’s just
that it’s a lot less now but we’re trying to bring it back.
The remaining respondents remarked that their organisations did not have any formal
development programs, but were encouraged to be proactive in those provided by external
organisations such as ‘Women In Property’. They also mentioned that have regular
development reviews with their line managers.
29

These findings show that a few organisations are making efforts to support women in their
career development by not only providing them with development opportunities, but also
making sure they are effectively taken up. These findings align with the arguments of
Wittenberg-Cox (2015); according to which to ensure gender balance, organisations
should encourage women through effective career development and leadership programs.
4.5.4 Motivators
Self-motivation plays a huge role in giving women a drive to succeed. Adams (2013)
argues that, the level of self-motivation is different for different people. Various factors such
as parenting, the achievements of peers, educational opportunities, connections, and
expectations and prejudices of those around us influence the level of motivation within an
individual. When asked about what motivates them to keep going in their career, there
were mixed responses by the respondents. Many women mentioned the satisfaction and
recognition they achieved in accomplishing various challenging projects in their work as a
big motivator. Lilly stated that:
I really enjoy the projects, and changing places for development. I'm a problem
solver. As a kid I used to play lego. I find it immensely satisfying when I do my work.
I like the recognition that comes with it as well as the feeling that you're doing well in
your job.
Daisy also mentioned that:
motivation comes from within, if you are ambitious you will go for it. Also, seeing
your friends achieve things in life motivates you in life. I always looked at my friends
and their achievements, and was motivated by those.
In addition to these, women acknowledged the need of having female representation at the
top for other women in the organisation. On this Sally remarked that:
I wanna be a board director because I feel am good enough to be. Also because
there needs to be someone there, who is female, to have representation there to
make the company look at how women are treated and also to make positive
changes within the company.
A few respondents had different views and mentioned that they were quite satisfied with
their position and did not want to step up any further. This was because they wanted
stability in their lives and did not wish to take extra responsibilities that would keep them
away from their families and friends. Stephanie stated that:
I am not a career orientated person. I am not looking to get promoted all the time. I
want to do a good job and give the best I can. I don’t want to be challenged too far
and not be able to do a good job.
30

These findings show a variation in the level of motivation in the respondents regarding
their career advancement, and accords with the arguments of Adams (2013). It is evident
that the level of motivation comes down to the personalities of individuals. It may be that
not all women want to be leaders, but just to give their best in what they do.
4.5.5 Positive Discrimination Strategies for Women
Norris (2001) argues that countries adopt positive discrimination strategies to achieve
gender equality; they set a mandatory quota for the selection of candidates from a
particular group. The literature discusses the positive discrimination strategy adopted by
Lord Davies for the UK FTSE100 companies in 2011 to achieve 25% of women
representation in its’ board positions by 2015. All the respondents had negative views
about positive discrimination strategies for women, and believed that promotions in
general or to leadership positions should be based on meritocracy. Denice pointed out the
drawback of implementing these policies and commented that:
I think it is good to encourage females, but if it’s just ticking the box then don’t
employ them. If you employ someone and they might not be very good, it can be
negative on the people around you and consequently for the company.
Johanna also remarked that:
I don’t think its necessary to have positive discrimination because, you never have
equal candidates; everyone has different blends of skills and capabilities.
The respondents also stated that it would make them doubt their skills and capabilities, if
they were employed or promoted only because they were women.
These findings reveal that although positive discrimination strategies are set up to
encourage gender equality, they could have a negative influence on organisations. The
respondents’ responses exhibit that they could also have a negative impact on the
confidence of women selected or promoted, on its basis.
4.6 Summary
This chapter aims to discuss the findings of this research by focusing on each research
question at a time. It reveals the existence of gendered cultures in organisations by
exploring gendered stereotypes related to the selection criteria for promotions that, in
particular, hampers working mothers’ career growth; and in the practice of informal male
networks at the top positions. From the findings it is clearly evident how gendered
stereotypes, organisational structure, and internal factors within women inhibit their
31

careers, particularly for working mothers. The presence of male networks and their
inﬂuence on women is still a major issue. The issue of building and expanding networks for
women is also highlighted in the discussion. Drawing on the experiences of the
respondents, various factors that enabled them to reach their current position and that can
help them in their further advancement have been identiﬁed. In addition to it, respondents
have expressed negative views about the implementation of positive discrimination
strategies for women, which are assumed to bring gender equality in organisations
particularly at board positions.
32

5. Discussion and Conclusion
5.1 Introduction
The aim of this chapter is to discuss the empirical findings of the research study. It starts
with summarising the key findings of the research and then follows with the discussion of
the emerging issues. Next, it provides a critical evaluation of the research methodology
adopted for the study. It follows by providing implication for practice and opens the door to
future research to be undertaken on some of the issues highlighted from this research
study. Finally, the chapter concludes by bringing out the aim of the research and the key
findings and recommendations proposed in the research study.
The aim of this dissertation has been to investigate the factors enabling women’s
progression to leadership positions. The research study draws upon two main research
questions; to explore the barriers facing women in their career progression, and to
consider practices enabling their advancement. It reflects on the experiences and
perspectives of nine women, who lie in the middle levels of organisational hierarchies, on
their career advancement. It has explored the organisations in male dominated sectors of
construction and development, communications, and law. The qualitative study
undertaken in this dissertation has provided insightful findings, presented in the previous
chapter.
5.2 Summary of Key Findings
In order to understand the gendered cultures in organisations and the way they inhibit
women’s progression, the arguments and discussions by various authors who have
considered the gendered nature of organisations, (see, for example, Acker, 1990, 2009;
Gherardi, 1994; Vanderbroeck 2010; Kumra and Vinnicombe, 2008), and groups of
feminists are presented in the literature. Drawing upon this literature, the research has
carried out using a qualitative methodology through the use of semi-structured interviews
with women managers. The study has identified three main barriers; gendered images and
behaviours, organisational structure, and internal factors within women that inhibit their
progression. This section outlines the key findings and considers them relation to the
overarching research questions.
5.2.1 Gendered Images and Behaviours
The findings revealed that all the respondents experienced the impact of the gendered
stereotypes related to their behaviours in organisations, which confine them to behave in
33

certain ways. The gendered stereotypes were particularly observed towards working
mothers, who were judged against masculine standards that include the assumption of
long working hours, level of commitment, and emotional detachment thus inhibiting their
promotions. The findings concurred with the arguments of Billing (2011), Brink (2012) and
Acker (2009), according to which women are perceived as primary child carers and
therefore are excluded from selection for promotions because of the masculine values
attached to them. It has been discussed in the literature by Oakley (2000), that there are
stereotypes attached to the feminine leadership style which portrays women as less
compatible leaders than men. However, from the findings it was observed that all the
respondents have different styles of managing which is based in their personalities. This
finding differed with the arguments of Vanderbroeck (2010) and Oakley (2000) according
to which men and women have different leadership or management styles.
5.2.2 Organisational Structure
The findings showed that organisational practices of performance evaluation systems,
absence of work-life balance policies, and informal male networks at the top positions
block them from stepping up their career ladder. It was found that not all organisations
have formal evaluation systems due to which some respondents face stress in their work
lives. In the organisations with formal assessment systems, it was observed by the
respondents that these systems gave them a clear view of their career development.
However, they pointed out the flaws in their assessment systems that involved judging
women on behavioural stereotypes, and the unconscious bias of the people conducting
these assessments. It was also found that most organisations do not have work-life
balance policies which adversely affected the career growth of the respondents,
particularly of working mothers as they struggle in juggling their professional and personal
lives.
The findings also exhibited the masculine culture in organisations through the presence of
informal male networks at the top positions. The respondents expressed that these
networks keep them from getting access to prestigious clients, which is also argued by
Gregory (2009) and Festing (2015). It was highlighted that the issue of entry to these
networks is particularly challenging for young women, as they are not taken seriously. In
addition to this, it was found that the respondents struggle in creating networks although
they are comfortable in maintaining their relations within their networks.
34

5.2.3 Internal Factors within Women
The findings revealed that women often lack confidence in putting themselves forward,
according to the respondents. They do not ask questions and do not make themselves
clear about asking for promotions. The respondents’ views concur with the arguments
presented by Sandberg(2013), according to which women lack in confidence and do not
put themselves forward because they want to please others and be liked by them.
5.2.4 Enablers of Women’s Progression
Following the critical exploration of the barriers to women’s advancement, the factors that
help in breaking those barriers were explored. Most respondents mentioned the support of
their mentors and managers as one of the factors that gave them the confidence and a
push to ask for promotions. This finding supports the discussion of Wittenberg-Cox (2015),
that effective mentoring programs encourage and support women to put themselves
forward. The findings revealed that women networking organisations (‘The Association of
Women in Property’), and online social networking platforms such as LinkedIn and Twitter,
provide women assistance in building and expanding their networks. In addition, women
networking organisations also provide career development opportunities, and help build
their confidence. The findings showed that only a few organisations have formal career
development programs, which they ensure are effectively taken up.
Despite the barriers that women face in their organisations, it was found that the one factor
that keeps them going in their career is their self-motivation. Respondents expressed that
having an ambition and also seeing the achievements of peers motivates an individual.
Although not all participants wanted to achieve top positions, but their satisfaction of
working in a challenging environment and the recognition that they receive, keeps them
motivated. It is discussed in the literature that to ensure gender equality, countries adopt
positive discrimination strategies that set a mandatory quota for the selection of candidates
from a particular group (Norris, 2001). On this, all the respondents expressed negative
views as they believed the criteria for selection or promotions should be based on
meritocracy and not on quota system.
35

5.3 Discussion of the Emerging Issues
The findings have revealed three main issues that keep the ‘glass-ceiling’ in place. The
first is the gendered stereotypes embedded in organisational culture particularly towards
working mothers. The second is the organisational structure involving the absence of
work-life balance policies, informal male networks, and the performance evaluation system
guided by gendered stereotypes and unconscious bias of performance assessors. The
third is the individual factors within women that keep them from putting themselves forward
and getting recognised for promotional opportunities. The presence of masculine culture is
seen through the practice of stereotypes during selections for promotions, and the informal
male networks at the top positions.
There is a general perception about strong women, who are assertive and decisive, to be
taken as aggressive. It adds to the existing concern that, this perception about women is
deeply embedded in organisations and is slow to change. Furthermore, from the findings it
is observed that male domination is observed in the older age groups but not in the
younger ones. This helps in explaining the isolation of women at the top ranks. As the
senior roles are mostly held by men, they are often led by gendered stereotypes when
making selections for promotions. This concurs with the arguments presented by
Vanderbroeck(2010), and Oakley(2000). It has been expressed by the respondents, that
women aiming to get on to leadership positions lie in the age bracket of 30s’ to 50s’ and
start their families at the same time; this leads to the widespread belief that women choose
children over career. As women are perceived to be the primary child carers, the
assumption of not being able to devote much time to their job and not being able to travel
long distances regularly, blocks their advancement. This argument aligns with those of
Acker(2009) and Billing(2011). From this, it is observed that the issue of the presence of
gendered stereotypes in organisational culture is largely influenced by the societal norms
and beliefs.
It has been widely argued by various authors such as Oakley(2000), Eagly and
Schmidt(2001), and Vanderbroeck(2010) that men and women have different leadership
styles. This assumption is led by the belief that female associate with characteristics, such
as affectionate, helpful, kind, sensitive, nurturant, and gentle that are not suitable enough
for leadership positions. However, through this study we observe that leadership or
management styles do not vary according to genders, but according to the personalities of
36

individuals. The participants mentioned that they engage in behaviours and management
styles that are appropriate for their position and role in the companies. The findings have
revealed that organisations’ structures influence the career growth of women through
practices and policies such as performance evaluation systems, work-life policies, and
informal male networks. The varied responses about the performance evaluation systems
from the respondents reveal that only a few organisations, mainly large organisations,
have implemented formal assessment systems. Other organisations, small-medium
organisations, have informal evaluation systems that are largely focussed around targets
which is quite stressful. The respondents mentioned that their formal evaluation systems
provide them with a clear picture of their career development. However, there are subtle
forms of biases attached to these systems. It has been pointed out by the respondents that
these biases involve the behavioural stereotypes, and the unconscious bias of the
performance assessor who may value individuals with similar nature more than the others.
This exhibits that the flaw lies not in the performance evaluation systems but in the gender
beliefs, and assumptions of those conducting them.
The absence of work-life policies has a negative impact on the careers of women,
particularly working mothers. Women struggle in finding a balance between their work and
family lives. This conflict leads to stress, tension, and less commitment at work which
adversely affects their careers, this is also argued by Chang et al.(2014). The findings
showed that very few organisations have implemented this policy, which not only
increased the job satisfaction and commitment at work, but also gave women time to
spend with their families and friends.
The results also showed that informal male networks are present in all the organisations,
specifically at top positions. These networks are all male networks or groups and the
conversations within them are around the interests of men such as sports. Not all women
relate themselves with such interests and because they don’t have much to contribute into
these conversations they feel left out. Moreover, the organisations in the study involve
bringing in new clients for the business through networks, and due to male networks at the
senior positions women lose access to prestigious clients. This finding aligns with those of
Gregory(2009) and Festing et al.(2015) as discussed in the literature. In addition to it, it is
evident from the findings that younger women have difficulties in getting into these
networks as they are not taken seriously.
37

However it gets better when they get older, they are taken seriously and are valued more
for their views and opinions. The major issue that emerged from these findings is that,
women find it difficult to form and build networks with new people, although they are good
at maintaining relations within their networks.
Apart from the barriers related to gendered stereotyping and organisational structure, there
is internal obstacle such as lack of confidence that keeps women from climbing up their
career ladder. It is observed by the respondents that women lack in confidence when
asking for promotions and putting themselves forward. This concurs with the arguments
presented Sandberg(2013) who argues that women are taught and expected to please
others and want to be liked by others, and this thought holds them back.
Following the critical examination of the barriers to progression, the findings discuss the
factors that challenge the presence of ‘glass-ceiling’. It was found that mentors and
managers play a key role in supporting and encouraging women to bring themselves
forward for promotions and major projects in organisations. This support gives them
confidence and also builds an environment of gender equality (Wittenberg-Cox, 2015). It
was also found that career development programs such as leadership and management
programs are implemented and are effectively carried out by a few organisations. The
respondents expressed that these programs boost up the confidence, and careers of
women.
It is important to understand the problems faced by women in building networks because it
is essential for their career growth not only in industrial sectors of those in the study, but
also in every field. The women networking organisations such as ‘The Association of
Women in Property’ make great contributions and efforts in building up the confidence of
women by providing them with support and mentorship for the issues faced at work. Along
with these, they provide women with career development programs and the opportunity to
get connected and interact with other women through their events. The findings also
revealed the contribution of social networking platforms such as linkedIn and twitter not
only for women but for everyone to remain connected with others, and expand their
connections. In addition to these factors it is observed from the findings, that self-
motivation acts as a great force to break the barrier of ‘glass-ceiling’. Respondents have
pointed out that motivation comes from achieving satisfaction in the work they do and
receiving recognition for that work. They also expressed that it comes from seeing the
38

achievements of the peers. These factors are also discussed by Wittenberg-Cox(2015) in
the literature. From the findings it is also evident that, not all women want to attain the top
ranks in their organisations; some of them only want to give their best in what they do. This
relates with the arguments of Adams (2013), according to which the level of motivation is
different for different individuals.
The literature has also discussed the positive discrimination strategies adopted by
countries to ensure gender equality (Norris, 2001). The findings brought out the views of
the respondents on these strategies, and it was evident that although these strategies aim
for positive action in the society; they are not suitable to ensure gender equality in
workplaces, according to the respondents. The views of the respondents show that
positive discrimination strategies are not the best way to encourage the participation of
women in organisations; but there should be more focus and aim on encouraging and
empowering women to keep moving forward in their careers.
5.4 Evaluation of Research Methods
This dissertation has provided an in-depth analysis of the phenomenon of ‘glass-ceiling’. A
number of research methods were considering for conducting the research study, but the
researcher selected the case study approach to gather data through semi-structured
interviews of women in the middle-levels of organisations. This approach was considered
the most appropriate method since the aim of the empirical data was to provide an in-
depth analysis of the barriers to the career progression of women through the reflection of
their experiences and perceptions. The semi-structured interviews provided the
opportunity to achieve a thorough investigation, which enabled the researcher to achieve
the aims and objectives of the dissertation.
The limitations of this qualitative research related to the validity and generalisability are
discussed in this dissertation. The researcher acknowledges that the research could have
benefited more by having a large sample size, but the time constraints and the access to
participants hindered this aim. The sample size can raise questions about the
generalisability of the study. The researcher has tried to achieve the validity of the study by
analysing the empirical data through the data analysis process provided by Miles and
Huberman(1994).
39

5.5 Implications for Practice
The aim of the research was to reﬁne the understanding of the phenomenon of ‘glass-
ceiling’ by considering the experiences of women middle-managers. This section focuses
on the perceptions of women on what changes could be brought in organisations to help
break the ‘glass-ceiling’. A few women expressed their concern that, there have to be
some positive actions taken by the HR department to ensure gender equality in the
workplace. Respondents elucidated that there is a need to ensure that proper behaviours
are maintained by everyone in the workplaces. They want to see a positive cultural shift in
organisations.
Furthermore, the respondents stated that they want to be encouraged. This, according to
Wittenberg-Cox(2015), can be achieve through the support of their managers and mentors
that will boost their conﬁdence. In addition to it, bringing in career development
opportunities in workplaces and ensuring that they are taken up effectively will create a
nurturing culture in organisations. Ibarra (2011) suggests that organisations should put into
place leadership development programs to support and encourage women. These
leadership development programs can include leader-identity construction program which
gives equal chance to women to develop and work on their strengths, regular 360 degree
formal and informal feedbacks and coaching, coach women to not only build strong
networks but also avail them with networking strategies, and everyday negotiations. The
respondents also expressed their concern regarding organisational policies of work-life
balance. Chang et al.(2014) discusses the importance of implementing these policies and
argues that they will increase the level of job satisfaction and thus, the commitment at
work. Organisations want to increase gender diversity at the top positions; respondents
have pointed out that organisations need to ensure that the behaviours of women are
appreciated in their true value, and should update their assessment systems. Schein
(2001) suggests that, legal and structural efforts to tackle the negative impact of
stereotypical behaviours on women’s opportunities should be made within the
organisations.
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