Research Methodology

Lecture notes on Research Methodology: Prepared by: Deepak Basyal (Dept. of Pharmacy, MMC, IOM-TU)
Research: It is systematic process of collecting & analysing information in order to increase our knowledge
& understanding of the phenomenon about which we are interested.
Research is an endeavor to discover answers to intellectual and practical problems through the application of
scientific method. Research is done with the help of study, experiment, observation, analysis, comparison and
reasoning.
Research is in fact ubiquitous. For example, we know that cigarette smoking is injurious to health; heroine is
addictive; cow dung is a useful source of biogas; malaria is due to the virus protozoan plasmodium; AIDS
(Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) is due to the virus HIV (Human Immuno Deficiency Virus). How did
we know all these? We became aware of all these information only through research. More precisely, it seeks
predictions of events, explanations, relationships and theories for them.
Why do we conduct Research Projects?
 To invent new things
 To solve a prevailing problem
 To support development programmes of a country
 To uplift living standards
 Because we are inquisitive about things happening around us
Objectives of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers through the application of scientific procedures.
The objectives are:
 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (Exploratory or Formulative
Research)
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (Descriptive
Research)
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something
else (Diagnostic Research)
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (Hypothesis-Testing Research)
Characteristics of Research
 Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.
 Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
 Research demands accurate observation and description.
 Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or using existing data for a new purpose.
Research activities are characterized by carefully designed procedures.
 Research requires expertise i.e., skill necessary to carryout investigation, search the related literature and to
understand and analyze the data gathered.
 Research is objective and logical – applying every possible test to validate the data collected and
conclusions reached. Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.
 Research requires courage. Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
 Research is carefully recorded and reported.
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Scope / significance of research for decision making
 Throws light on risks and uncertainty
 Identify alternative courses of action
 Helps in economic use of resources
 Helps in project identification
 Provides the basis for all government policies
 Helps social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems
 For philosophers and thinkers, research means the outlet for new ideas and insights
 For literary men and women, research means development of new styles and creative work.
 For analysts and intellectuals, research means generalizations of new theories.
 For professionals in research, it may mean a source of livelihood.
Types of research
 Descriptive vs Analytical Research: Descriptive Research is a fact finding investigation which is aimed at
describing the characteristics of individual, situation or a group (or) describing the state of affairs as it exists
at present. Analytical Research is primarily concerned with testing hypothesis and specifying and
interpreting relationships, by analyzing the facts or information already available.
 Applied vs Fundamental Research: Applied Research or Action Research is carried out to find solution to
a real life problem requiring an action or policy decision. Fundamental Research, which is also known as
basic or pure research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice.
It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity and is not necessarily problem-oriented.
 Quantitative vs Qualitative Research: Quantitative Research is employed for measuring the quantity or
amount of a particular phenomena by the use of statistical analysis. Qualitative Research is a non-
quantitative type of analysis, which is aimed at finding out the quality of a particular phenomenon.
 Conceptual vs Empirical Research: Conceptual Research is generally used by philosophers and thinkers
to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. Empirical Research is a data based research, which
depends on experience or observation alone. It is aimed at coming up with conclusions without due regard
for system and theory.
Research process
 Selection of a research topic
 Definition of a research problem
 Literature survey and reference collection
 Assessment of current status of the topic chosen
 Formulation of hypotheses
 Research design (Including Sample Design)
 Actual investigation/Collect Data (Execution)
 Data analysis (Test Hypothesis if any)
 Interpretation of result

 Report
 Feed Back Feed Forward
Research problem/ Statement of problem
Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need which a researcher experiences in the context of either
theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same. Statement of problem will help to:
 make foundation for the further development of research proposal
 make it easier to find information and reports of similar studies from which your own study design can
benefit.
 enables you to systematically point out why the proposed research on the problem should be undertaken
and what you hope to achieve with study results.
Criteria of selection:
 It must come from an existing unsolved problem
 It must be an interesting field for the researcher
 It should not be long (Vast) beyond the level and too short
 It must be ethically acceptable. Controversial subject should not be chosen
 The subject should be familiar and feasible so that the related research material may be within one’s
reach.
 Always avoid the duplication: If same research is done before it should be reviewed.
 Feasibility: The project should be attainable by allocated budget and within the time frame.
 Political acceptability: Selected topic must have the interest and support of the authorities or policy
makers of government.
Information to be included in statement of problem
 A brief description of socio-economic and cultural characteristics and overview of health status and health
care system in the country.
 A concise description of the nature of the problem ( what is and what should be) and its size, distribution
and severity.
 An analysis of major factors that may influence the problem and a convincing argument that available
knowledge is insufficient to solve it.
 A brief description of any solution that have given in past, how well they have worked and why further
study needed
 A description of the type of information expected to result from the project and how this information will
be used to solve the problem.
Literature review
It is a systematic identification, location, scrutinizing and presentation of summary of written materials that
contain information on the related research problems.
It is the review of research studies or other relevant proposition in the related area of the study so that all the
past studies, their conclusions and deficiencies may be known and further research can be conducted.

It is documentation of a comprehensive review of the published and unpublished work from secondary sources
of data in the areas of specific interest to the researcher. The main aim is to find out problems that are already
investigated and those that need further investigation. It is an extensive survey of all available past studies
relevant to the field of investigation. It gives us knowledge about what others have found out in the related field
of study and how they have done so. It gives theoretical rationale of problem being studied, what research has
been done and how it relates to the problem
Source of literature review
a. Primary sources: The articles published by person who conducted the research study. Most of the articles,
published in journals are the original reports and are considered as primary source. It can be from
individuals, groups or organizations or in book form also. E.g. Books and Journals, Electronic Databases,
Bibliographic Databases, Abstract Databases, Full-Text Databases, Govt. and Industry Reports, Research
Dissertations / Thesis.
b. Secondary sources: The articles written up on the basis of findings of other investigations (not original)
e.g. review articles, papers read on seminars, agreement signed between government and personnel.
Purposes of literature review
 To gain a background knowledge of the research topic.
 To identify appropriate methodology, research design, methods of measuring concepts and techniques of
analysis.
 To identify data sources used by other researchers.
 To learn how others structured their reports
 It helps to generate or focus on research problems.
 It ascertains which is already known in relation to topic of interest.
 It helps to avoid unintentional duplication of the information which is useful in identifying assumptions
or truth about certain aspect of the phenomena being studied.
 It helps in understanding the insight necessary for the development of a broad conceptual context.
 It seems to be function of providing a perspective on the problem in terms of interpreting the result of
the study.
 It helps to be familiar with the research strategy and specific methods and procedure, measuring,
instrument and statistical analysis that could be used in the study. (i.e. a theoretical framework for the
study)
Importance/usefulness of literature review
 Identification of problem with relevant variable.
 Avoid the repetition.
 Build a perspective base for future research.
 Determine a relationship among variables.
 Identify its limitations and assumptions
 Verify the significance of the title.
 Select the research design and appropriate tool.
 Interpret the finding or result.

Variables: All experiments examine some kind of variable(s). A variable is not only something that we
measure, but also something that we can manipulate and something we can control for.
Types of Variables
a. Explanatory vs Extraneous Variable: The variables selected for analysis are called explanatory variables
and all other variables that are not related to the purpose of the study but may affect the dependant variable
are extraneous.
b. Dependant vs Independent Variable: The variable that changes in relationship to changes in another
variable(s) is called dependant variable. The variable whose change results in the change in another
variable is called an independent variable. An independent variable is the one that influences the dependent
variable in either a positive or negative way. An independent variable, sometimes called
an experimental or predictor variable, and a dependent variable, sometimes called an outcome variable.
Level of measurement of variables
A variable has one of four different levels of measurement: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, or Ratio. (Nominal and
ordinal level of measurement are called Categorical variables whereas Interval and Ratio levels of measurement
are called Continuous/Scale variable).
a. Nominal: It has two or more categories, but which do not have an intrinsic order (unordered categorical
variables). These can be either binary/dichotomous (only two categories, like gender: male or female) or
multinomial (more than two categories, like marital status: married, divorced, never married, widowed,
separated). The key thing here is that there is no logical order to the categories.
b. Ordinal: This level of measurement depicts some ordered relationship among the variable’s observations.
For example, in a customer satisfaction survey you may ask a client if they are “very satisfied”, “satisfied”,
“dissatisfied”, or “very dissatisfied.”
c. Interval: This level of measurement depicts fixed unit of measurement but no natural zero point. E.g.
Temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius)
d. Ratio: This level of measurement depicts fixed unit of measurement and a natural zero point. E.g. height,
mass, distance.
Formulation of research objectives
Research objectives describe what will be demonstrated, evaluated, confirmed or compared and tested.
Research objectives summarize what is to be achieved by the study or project. The expected solution of the
problems are the objectives of the study. Formulation of Objectives will help to
 Focus the study or narrowing it down to essentials
 Avoid collection of data or facts not strictly necessary for understanding and solving the problem you
have identified.
 Organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases
Criteria for good objectives
 It should be closely related to the statement of the problem and should cover the different aspect of the
problems and its contributing factors in a intelligible way and in a logical sequence.
 It should be clearly phrased in operational terms specifying exactly.
 What you plan to do?

 To whom it will be done?
 When it will be done?
 For what purpose?
 It should be realistic and measurable
 It should have action verbs that and specific enough to be evaluated [ Example of action verbs: to
determine, to identify, to calculate, to describe and to establish] [Avoid the use of vague how-action
verbs such as to appreciate, to study etc]
Formulation of hypothesis
A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables. Hypothesis can be defined as a logically
conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement. A
research hypothesis is a predictive statement, capable of being tested by scientific method. It relates an
independent variable to a dependant variable. Hypothesis must contain atleast one independent variable and one
dependant variable.
 Hypotheses are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the solution of the problem.
 Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction.
 It describes in concrete terms what you expect to happen in the study.
 Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of the study. I
 It delimits the area of research and keeps the researcher on the right track.
Characteristics of hypothesis
 Conceptual Clarity - It should be clear and precise.
 Specificity - It should be specific and limited in scope.
 Consistency - It should be consistent with the objectives of research.
 Testability - It should be capable of being tested.
 Expectancy - It should state the expected relationships between variables.
 Simplicity - It should be stated as far as possible in simple terms.
 Objectivity - It should not include value judgments, relative terms or any moral preaching.
 Theoretical Relevance - It should be consistent with a substantial body of established or known facts or
existing theory.
 Availability of Techniques – Statistical methods should be available for testing the proposed hypothesis.
Sources of hypothesis
 Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and objectives in seeking a
solution. Examination of data and records for possible trends, peculiarities.
 Review of similar studies.
 Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.
 Logical deduction from the existing theory.
 Continuity of research.
 Intuition and personal experience.

Types of hypothesis
a. Null Hypothesis: When a hypothesis is stated negatively, it is called null hypothesis. It is a ‘no difference’,
‘no relationship’ hypothesis. ie., It states that, no difference exists between the parameter and statistic being
compared to or no relationship exists between the variables being compared. It is usually represented as HO.
Example: There is no relationship between a family’s income and expenditure on recreation.
b. Alternate Hypothesis: It is the hypothesis that describes the researcher’s prediction that, there exist a
relationship between two variables or it is the opposite of null hypothesis. It is represented as HA or H1.
Example: There is a definite relationship between family’s income and expenditure on recreation.
Functions or role of hypothesis
 It gives a definite point to the investigation and provides direction to the study.
 It determines the data needs.
 It specifies the sources of data.
 It suggests which type of research is likely to be more appropriate.
 It determines the most appropriate technique of analysis.
 It contributes to the development of theory.
Research design: The research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. It is the framework that has been
created to find answers to research questions.
 What is the study about?
 Why is the study being made?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can the required data be found?
 What periods of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analysed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?
 How the research purpose can be achieved with minimum expenditure of money, time and energy?
Research Methodology concerns how the design is implemented, how the research is carried out. It provides us
the principles for organizing, planning, designing and conducting a good research. Hence, it is the science and
philosophy behind all researches.
Research design can be split into four phases:
 The sampling design: It deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the given study.
 The observational design: It relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be made.
 The statistical design: It deals with the question of how many subjects are to be observed and how the
observations are to be analyzed.
 The Operational design: It deals with the specific techniques by which the procedures specified in the
sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.

Features of a good design
 The means of obtaining information
 The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any
 The objective of the problem to be studied
 The nature of the problem to be studied
 The availability of time and money for the research work.
Types of research designs
A. Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where, and how
associated with a particular research problem; a descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain answers to why.
Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena and to
describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation. These types of experiments are
often used by anthropologists, psychologists and social scientists and market researchers to observe natural
behaviors without affecting them in any way. Descriptive research is often used as a pre-cursor to quantitative
research designs.
B. Analytic study design: may be defined as studies used to test hypotheses concerning the relationship
between a suspected risk factor and an outcome and to measure the magnitude of the association and its
statistical significance. Analytical study designs can be divided into two broad design strategies: Non-
interventional (Observational) and Interventional (Experimental).
In Descriptive studies you're describing your population/sample : distribution of the variables, frequency of
outcomes of interest (e.g. diseases) whereas in Analytical studies you're trying to decipher what are the risk
factors, associated factors, mediating factors, etc.
Descriptive studies do not include a comparison group unlike analytical studies that include control
(comparison) group. Analytic studies measure the association between exposure and outcome and also
include a comparison group.
a. Cross-Sectional Studies
It provides a clear 'snapshot' of the outcome and the characteristics associated with it, at a specific point in time.
It can estimate prevalence of an outcome of interest because the sample is usually taken from the whole

population. Generally use survey techniques to gather data, they are relatively inexpensive and take up little
time to conduct.
Studies cannot be utilized to establish cause and effect relationships. This design only provides a snapshot of
analysis so there is always the possibility that a study could have differing results if another time-frame had
been chosen. There is no follow up to the findings. An example of a cross-sectional study would be a medical
study looking at the prevalence of breast cancer in a population.
Advantages: Data on many variables, data from a large number of subjects, data from dispersed subjects, data
on attitudes and behaviors, good for exploratory research, generates hypotheses for future research, data useful
to many different researchers
Disadvantages: Increased chances of error, increased cost with more subjects and each location, cannot
measure change, cannot establish cause and effect, no control of independent variable, difficult to rule out rival
hypotheses, static
b. Experimental/Interventional studies: In this study, the researcher manipulates the independent variables
(Exposure) to see the effect this has on the dependent variables (Outcome). Experiments are powerful
techniques for evaluating cause-and-effect relationships. Many researchers consider experiments the "gold
standard" against which all other research designs should be judged. Experiments are conducted both in the
laboratory and in real life situations. There are two basic types of experimental research design:
 True experiments
 Quasi-experiments
In a true experiment, participants are randomly assigned to either the treatment or the control group, whereas
they are not assigned randomly in a quasi-experiment since this design is used in existing naturally occurring
settings. Some quasi-experimental research designs do not include a comparison with a control group known as
before-and-after, pre-test/post-test, or pre-experimental designs.
RCTs are true experiments because subjects are assigned to control group and treatment group on a purely
random basis. Random assignment ensures that any characteristics of the subjects, which may be associated
with the outcome of interest will be distributed throughout the two groups according to the laws of
probability. When performing an experiment, a researcher is attempting to demonstrate that variable A
influences or causes variable B to do something. They want to demonstrate cause and effect. Random
assignment helps ensure that there is no pre-existing condition that will influence the variables and mess up the
results. Often it is not possible for researchers to randomly assign subjects to groups, for either practical or
ethical reasons. Quasi-experimental research designs therefore use alternative ways of assigning subjects to the
treatment and control groups.

c. Observational studies/Non-experimental studies: In this study, researchers record information about their
subjects without manipulating the study environment. The researcher simply measures the exposure or outcome
of the groups. It includes case control studies, cohort studies and some population (cross-sectional) studies.
These studies all include matched groups of subjects and assess of associations between exposures and
outcomes. Observational studies investigate and record exposures (such as interventions or risk factors) and
observe outcomes (such as disease) as they occur. It cannot demonstrate a true cause-and-effect relationship,
cannot manipulate predictor variables and the methods of study are often correlation, surveys or case studies.
Non-experimental research tends to have a high level of external validity, meaning it can be generalized to a
larger population.
Study group
Control
Intervention
No intervention
Study group
Control
Before After
Before After
Compare
Quassi experimental design
Subject meeting
entry criteria
Experimental subjects
Controls
With Outcome
Without Outcome
With Outcome
Without Outcome
TimeStart of study
Intervention
Experimental study/Randomized controlled trials

Cohort study Case-control study
Before study: Only exposure has occurred
Before study: Both exposure as well as outcome
have occurred
Synonyms:
 Prospective study
 Forward looking study
 Cause --> effect study
 Exposure to outcome study
 Risk factors to disease study
 Incidence study
 Follow up study
Synonyms:
 Retrospective study
 Backward looking study
 Effect --> cause study
 Outcome to exposure study
 Disease to risk factor(s) study
 Trohoc study
 Case-referent study
 Case-comparison study
 Analyse-history
Advantage:
Gather data regarding sequence of events; can assess causality
Examine multiple outcomes for a given exposure
Good for investigating rare exposures
Can calculate rates of disease in exposed and unexposed
individuals over time (e.g. incidence, relative risk)
Advantage:
Good for examining rare outcomes or outcomes
with long latency
Relatively easy, quick and inexpensive to conduct
Requires comparatively few subjects with no risk to
subjects
Minimum ethical problems
Multiple exposures or risk factors can be examined
Disadvantage:
Susceptible to selection bias
May be time consuming & expensive to conduct
Susceptible to loss to follow-up (attrition)
Ethical problems
Disadvantage:
Susceptible to recall bias or information bias
Difficult to validate information
Control of extraneous variables may be incomplete
Selection of an appropriate comparison group may
be difficult
Rates of disease in exposed and unexposed
individuals cannot be determined
Strength of association:
Relative risk; Attributable risk Strength of association: Odds ratio

Risk/exposure factor Lung cancer No lung cancer Total
Smokers 18 582 600
Non-smokers 6 1194 1200
Risk for Smokers = 18/600 = 0.03 and Risk for Non-smokers = 6/1200 = 0.005
Relative risk = 0.03/0.005 = 6
Risk/exposure factor Disease (Case) No Disease (Control) Total
Smokers a b a+b
Non-smokers c d c + d
Total a+c b+d a+b + c + d
Proportion of exposed cases: a / a+c
Proportion of exposed controls: b / b+d
Odds ratio = Proportion of exposed cases/ Proportion of exposed controls
Population
of Interest
Exposed
Unexposed
With Outcome
Without Outcome
With Outcome
Without OutcomeOneset of study
Time
Cohort study
Exposed
Unexposed
Exposed
Unexposed
Cases/Disease
Control/No-disease
Start of study
Time
Case- control study

e. Longitudinal study: Studies in which data is collected at specific intervals over a long period of time in
order to measure changes over time. Researchers conduct several observations of the same subjects over a
period of time, sometimes lasting many years. Longitudinal study is more likely to suggest cause-and-effect
relationships than a cross-sectional study by virtue of its scope. Cross-sectional studies can be done more
quickly than longitudinal studies. That’s why researchers might start with a cross-sectional study to first
establish whether there are links or associations between certain variables. Then they would set up a
longitudinal study, to study cause and effect.
Sampling
A population is a group of individuals persons, objects, or items from which samples are taken for
measurement. A sample is a finite part of a statistical population whose properties are studied to gain
information about the whole. ‘Sampling is the process of selecting a few (a sample) from a bigger group (the
sampling population) to become the basis for estimating or predicting the prevalence of an unknown piece of
information, situation, or outcome regarding the bigger group.
Sampling is the process of learning about the population on the basis of a sample drawn from it. Process of
selecting a subset of randomized number of members of the population of a study and collecting data about their
attributes. A process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of observations will be taken
from a larger population. The sample should be a representation of the general population.
When conducting research, it is almost always impossible to study the entire population that you are interested
in. If you were to survey the entire population, it would be extremely timely and costly. As a result, researchers
use samples as a way to gather data.
The limited member of population selected for sampling are called as Sampling Units. The complete list of all
members/ unit of the population from which each sampling unit is selected is known as Sampling Frame.
Characteristics of a Good Sample
 A good sample is the true representative of the population corresponding to its properties.
 A good sample is free from bias.
 A good sample is an objective one.
 A good sample is comprehensive in nature.
 A good sample maintains accuracy.
 A good sample is economical from energy, time and money.
 The subjects of a good sample are easily approachable.
 The size of a good sample is such that it yields accurate results.
 A good sample makes the research work more feasible.
 A good sample has the practicability for research situation
Characteristics of a Good Sample Design
 Sample design must result in a truly representative sample
 Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
 Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study

 Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way
 Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied
Steps in Sampling Process
 Define the population
 Identify the sampling frame
 Select a sampling design or procedure
 Determine the sample size
 Draw the sample
Advantages of sampling
 Very accurate.
 Economical in nature.
 Very reliable.
 High suitability ratio towards the different surveys.
 Takes less time.
 In cases, when the universe is very large, then the sampling method is the only practical method for
collecting the data
Disadvantages of sampling
 Inadequacy of the samples.
 Chances for bias.
 Problems of accuracy.
 Difficulty of getting the representative sample.
 Untrained manpower.
 Absence of the informants.
 Chances of committing the errors in sampling
Classification of sampling Techniques
1. Probability Sampling Techniques (Representative Sampling): Simple Random Sampling, Systematic
Sampling, Stratified Sampling, Cluster Sampling/Multistage cluster sampling.
2. Non probability Sampling Techniques (Non-representative Sampling): Purposive Sampling
(Judgmental Sampling, Quota Sampling), Snowball Sampling, Convenience Sampling.
1. Probability Sampling Techniques
a. Simple Random Sampling: It refers to that sampling technique in which each and every unit of population
has an equal opportunity of being selected in the sample. Every unit has equal chances of being selected. Two
ways of performing simple random sampling
 Random sampling with replacement
 Random sampling without replacement
Procedures for Drawing Probability Samples:
 Select a suitable sampling frame
 Each element is assigned a number from 1 to N (population size)
 Generate n (sample size) different random numbers between 1 and N
 The numbers generated denote the elements that should be included in the sample.

b. Systematic Sampling: It is a method of probability sampling in which the defined target population is
ordered and the sample is selected according to position using a skip interval. The sample is chosen by selecting
a random starting point and then picking every ith element in succession from the sampling frame. The
sampling interval, i is determined by dividing the population size N by the sample size n and rounding to the
nearest integer.
For example, there are 100,000 elements in the population and a sample of 1,000 is desired. In this case the
sampling interval, i, is 100. A random number between 1 and 100 is selected. If, for example, this number is 23,
the sample consists of elements 23, 123, 223, 323, 423, 523, and so on.
c. Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into specific set of strata such that the members within each
stratum have similar attributes but the members between strata have dissimilar attributes. Each stratum is
homogenous when compared to the population. Example: First divide the population into groups of similar
individuals, called strata. Then choose a separate simple random sample (SRS) in each stratum and combine
these SRSs to form the full sample. This type of sampling is used when the researcher wants to
highlight specific subgroups within the population.
d. Cluster Sampling: In this sampling, the total population is divided into groups (clusters) and a simple
random sample of the groups is selected. The elements in each cluster are then sampled. In single-stage cluster
sampling, all the elements from each of the selected clusters are sampled. In two-stage cluster sampling, a
random sampling technique is applied to the elements from each of the selected clusters. Cluster sampling is
appropriate when it is very time consuming or expensive to choose the individuals one at a time. In cluster
sampling a cluster is perceived as a sampling unit, whereas in stratified sampling only specific elements of
strata are accepted as sampling unit. In cluster sampling, a researcher will only study selected clusters; with
stratified sampling, a random sample is drawn from each strata.
2. Non-probability Sampling Techniques: The probability of selecting one element over another is not known
and therefore the estimates cannot be projected to the population with any specified level of confidence
a. Convenience Sampling: Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a sample of convenient elements. Often,
respondents are selected because they happen to be in the right place at the right time. It includes gathering data
as per your convenience without following any hard and fast rules for sampling
b. Judgment Sampling: Judgmental sampling is a form of convenience sampling in which the population
elements are selected based on the judgment of the researcher, knowledge of a population and the purpose of
the study. The researcher applies his/her intuitive judgment and previous experience in selecting the sampling
unit.
Also called as Purposive Sampling. There is more chances of personal biases.
c. Quota Sampling: Population is classified into a number of groups based on some criteria like age of the
members of population viz old age, middle age, young age.
d. Snow-ball Sampling: Selection of additional respondents is based on referrals from the initial respondents
(friends of friends). An initial group of respondents is selected, usually at random. After being interviewed,

these respondents are asked to identify others who belong to the target population of interest. Subsequent
respondents are selected based on the referrals. The method is appropriate where the development of sampling
frame is a difficult & time-consuming task. Used to sample from low incidence or rare populations. It is
appropriate to use in research when the members of a population are difficult to locate.
Data Collection Tools and techniques
The process by which the researcher collects the information needed to answer the research problem is called
data collection. The selection of data collection method should be based on the following:
 The identified hypothesis or research problem
 The research design
 The information gathered about the variables
Research instrument or a Tool is described as a device used to collect the data. The type of instrument used by
the researcher depends on the data collection method selected.
Guidelines for Developing an Instrument
 The research tool will only be effective only as it relates to its particular purpose
 The instrument must be based on the theoretical framework selected for the study
 The instrument should be valid
 The content of the instrument must be appropriate to test the hypothesis or answer the question being
studied
 The instrument should be reliable
 The devised research tool should provide comparable data every time the subject uses the instrument.
 An instrument should include an item that directly asks the hypothesis
 The research tool should be designed and constructed in such a way that cheating is minimized
 The instrument should be free of bias
 A good instrument is free of build-in clues
 The response given by each respondent in the research study should solely be his own

Questionnaire: Questionnaires are written instruments that present respondents with a series of questions or
statements to which they are to react either by writing out their answers or selecting from among existing
answers. This data collection method is a useful instrument not only for collecting information, but also for
providing respondents with structured, often numerical and analysing data in a straightforward way. The
popularity of a questionnaire is usually due to the fact that this tool is easy to administer since it is versatile
and uniquely comparable of gathering a large amount of information quickly and in a form that is readily
processible.
Advantages of a Questionnaire
 Relatively simple method of obtaining data
 Less time is consumed
 Researcher is able to gather data from a widely scattered sample
Disadvantages of a Questionnaire
 Responses to a questionnaire lack depth.
 Respondent may omit or disregard any item he chooses.
 Some items may force the subject to select responses that are not his actual choice.
 Length of the questionnaire is limited according to the respondent’s interest.
Technique Key Facts
Interviews  Interviews can be conducted in person or over the telephone
 Interviews can be done formally (structured), semi-structured, or informally
 Questions should be focused, clear, and encourage open-ended responses
 Interviews are mainly qualitative in nature
Questionnaires and
Surveys
 Responses can be analyzed with quantitative methods by assigning numerical values to
Likert-type scales
 Results are generally easier (than qualitative techniques) to analyze
 Pretest/Posttest can be compared and analyze
Observations  Allows for the study of the dynamics of a situation, frequency counts of target behaviors,
or other behaviors as indicated by needs of the evaluation
 Good source for providing additional information about a particular group, can use video
to provide documentation
 Can produce qualitative (e.g., narrative data) and quantitative data (e.g., frequency
counts, mean length of interactions, and instructional time)
Focus Groups  A facilitated group interview with individuals that have something in common
 Gathers information about combined perspectives and opinions
 Responses are often coded into categories and analyzed thematically
Ethnographies, Oral
History, and Case
Studies
 Involves studying a single phenomenon
 Examines people in their natural settings
 Uses a combination of techniques such as observation, interviews, and surveys
 Ethnography is a more holistic approach to evaluation
 Researcher can become a confounding variable
Documents and
Records
 Consists of examining existing data in the form of databases, meeting minutes, reports,
attendance logs, financial records, newsletters, etc.
 This can be an inexpensive way to gather information but may be an incomplete data
source

 Printing may be costly especially if it is lengthy.
 Data are limited to the information that is voluntarily supplied by the respondents.
 Some items maybe misunderstood.
 The sample is limited to those who are literate
Criteria of a Good Questionnaire
 Clarity of Language: It must meet the level of understanding of the respondents in order to generate
needed responses.
 Singleness of Objective: An item must have one and only one answer
 One-to-One Correspondence: The questionnaire as a whole must correspond with the objectives of the
study
 Correct Grammar, Spelling, and Construction: The questionnaire must be constructed observing
grammatically correct sentences, correctly spelled words, coherence in construction of sentences, etc
Characteristic of a Good Questionnaire
 Well-stated title
 Has statement of purpose
 It assures the respondents about the confidentiality of responses
 It is designed to achieve the objectives of the study
 It has a clear direction
 There are no double-negative questions
 It avoids double barreled questions
 The design corresponds to an easy tabulation of data

Data processing
It is concerned with editing, coding, classifying, tabulating and charting and diagramming research data into
meaningful information. The essence of data processing in research is data reduction. The data, after collection,
has to be prepared for analysis. Collected data is raw and it must be converted to the form that is suitable for the
required analysis. The result of the analysis is affected a lot by the form of the data. So, proper data preparation
is must to get reliable result. Data processing in research consists of eight important steps.
a. Questionnaire checking: When the data is collected through questionnaires, the first steps of data
preparation process is to check the questionnaires if they are accepted or not. NOT ACCEPTED IF:
 Incomplete partially or fully.
 Answered by a person who has inadequate knowledge.
 Which gives the impression that the respondent could not understand the questions.
b. Editing of Data: It is the process of examining the data collected in questionnaires/schedules to detect
errors and omissions and to see that they are corrected and the schedules are ready for tabulation.
c. Coding of Data: Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put into limited number of categories or classes.

d. Classification of Data: Classification of data is the process of arranging data in group or classes on the
basis of common characteristics. It is the process of grouping the statistical data under various
understandable homogeneous groups for the purpose of convenient interpretation. A good classification
should have the characteristics of clarity, homogeneity, equality of scale, purposefulness and accuracy.
e. Tabulation of Data: It is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying it in compact form for
further analysis. Tabular presentation enables the reader to follow quickly than textual presentation. It is
an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows. Table may be divided into: (i) Frequency tables,
(ii) Response tables, (iii) Contingency tables, (iv) Uni-variate tables, (v) Bi-variate tables, (vi) Statistical
table and (vii) Time series tables.
f. Data Diagrams: Diagrams are charts and graphs used to present data. These facilitate getting the
attention of the reader more. These help presenting data more effectively.
 Charts: A chart is a diagrammatic form of data presentation. Bar charts, rectangles, squares and
circles can be used to present data. Bar charts are uni-dimensional, while rectangular, squares and
circles are two-dimensional.
 Graphs: The method of presenting numerical data in visual form is called graph, A graph gives
relationship between two variables by means of either a curve or a straight line. Graphs may be
divided into two categories. Graphs of Time Series and Graphs of Frequency Distribution.
g. Data cleaning: Checking the data for consistency and treatment for missing value.
h. Data adjusting: Data adjusting is not always necessary but it may improve the quality of analysis.
Reliability and validity
Reliability and validity are the two most important and fundamental features in the evaluation of any
measurement instrument or tool for a good research. The purpose of establishing reliability and validity in
research is essentially to ensure that data are sound and replicable, and the results are accurate. Validity and
reliability are two factors, which any qualitative researcher should be concerned about while designing a study,
analysing results and judging the quality of the study.
a. Reliability: It measures consistency, precision, repeatability, and trustworthiness of a research. It refers to the
extent to which the same answers can be obtained using the same instruments more than one time i.e. if the
same researcher would get the same results if he or she did the same study at a different time. In simple terms, if
your research is associated with high levels of reliability, then other researchers need to be able to generate the
same results, using the same research methods under similar conditions. It addresses the overall consistency of a
research study's measure.
The coefficient of reliability falls between 0 and 1, with perfect reliability equaling 1, and no reliability equaling
0. Reliability is a necessary, but not a sufficient condition for the validity of research.
Common measures of reliability include internal consistency, test-retest, and inter-rater reliabilities.
 Internal consistency: Internal consistency reliability estimates how much total test scores would vary
if slightly different items were used. It is usually measured with Cronbach's alpha, a statistic calculated

from the pairwise correlations between items. Internal consistency ranges between negative infinity and
one.
 Test-retest reliability: Test-retest reliability measures the reliability of the measure over a period of
time. In social sciences, a test is administered more than one time over a period of time to check or retest
its reliability. In natural sciences, the researcher conducts experiment more than one time to ascertain its
reliability.
 Parallel forms reliability: It measures the reliability of the test by administering it in two different
forms. Both forms of the test measure the same variables under study, but the format of the measure is
different. The researcher must be able to formulate two different tests that measure the same variables.
 Inter-rater reliability: Inter-rater reliability check is used to measure the test by more than one rater or
judge. The researcher asks more than one people to rate the reliability of his test.

b. Validity: It refers to how well the results of a study measure what they are intended to measure. It refers to
the extent to which requirements of scientific research method have been followed during the process of
generating research findings. It is a compulsory requirement for all types of studies. There are two different
forms of research validity: internal validity and external validity
 Internal validity indicates whether the results of the study are legitimate because of the way the groups
were selected, data were recorded or analyses were performed. It refers to whether a study can be
replicated. It refers to the ability of the research design to rule out alternative explanations of the results.
High degrees of internal validity are associated with experimental design, where the effect of an
independent variable on a dependent variable is studied under strictly controlled conditions.
 External validity indicates whether the results given by the study are transferable to other groups of
interest. It concerns with generalizability of the research findings. In other words, if the study is repeated
in a different place or with different people, would the results be the same? A key factor for ensuring
external validity is obtaining a sample that is representative of the population being studied.
Measures to ensure validity of a research
 Appropriate time scale for the study has to be selected;
 Appropriate methodology has to be chosen, taking into account the characteristics of the study;
 The most suitable sample method for the study has to be selected;
 The respondents must not be pressured in any ways to select specific choices among the answer sets.
GANTT CHART
A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart that illustrates a research/project schedule, named after their
inventor, Henry Gantt. This chart lists the tasks to be performed on the vertical axis, and time intervals on the
horizontal axis.The width of the horizontal bars in the graph show the duration of each activity. It is commonly
used in project management as one of the most popular and useful ways of showing activities (tasks or events)
displayed against time. It can be utilized to represent to the aggregate timing required to finish an assignments
project.
This allows you to see at a glance:

 What the various activities are
 When each activity begins and ends
 How long each activity is scheduled to last
 Where activities overlap with other activities, and by how much
 The start and end date of the whole project
To summarize, a Gantt chart shows you what has to be done (the activities) and when (the schedule).
Originally Gantt charts were prepared laboriously by hand; each time a project changed it was necessary to
amend or redraw the chart and this limited their usefulness, continual change being a feature of most projects.
Nowadays, however, with the advent of computers and project management software, Gantt charts can be
created, updated and printed easily.
Today, Gantt charts are most commonly used for tracking project schedules. For this it is useful to be able to
show additional information about the various tasks or phases of the project, for example how the tasks relate to
each other, how far each task has progressed, what resources are being used for each task and so on.
Research Proposal and research report
A research proposal, is a written proposal to do a specific research and it has an major objective that can be
divided into several sub-objectives and then the study methods and the analysis of the data obtained to
determine if the sub objective has been achieved.
A research report contains the information to explain, through the results, how the objective has been reached.
The main differences between research proposal and research report
 Research proposal describes the proposed research and research design whereas a research report describes
the completed research, including the findings, conclusion, and recommendations.
 A research proposal is the beginning of a research and research report is the final conclusion of the
research.
 Research proposal describes what you intend to do and why you intend to do it and Research report
describes what the researcher has done, why he has done it, and the results he has achieved.
The stages of research project 1st
Week 2nd
Week 3rd
Week 4th
Week
Selection of research topic
Collection of data from Books and Journals
Formulating research design
Conducting literature review
Creation of research methodology
Selection of appropriate research techniques
Collection of primary data
Data analysis and data interpretation
Analysis of finding
Conclusion and recommendation
Formation of rough research report
Submission of final report
Presentation preparation

 Research proposals contain sections such as introduction/background, literature review, research questions,
methodology, aims and objective. Research reports contain sections such as introduction/background,
literature review, research questions, methodology, aims and objective, findings, analysis, results,
conclusion, recommendations, citation.
Research Proposal
Purpose
 Determine what the researcher wants to do?
 Why the research is important, convincing, and worth undertaking?
 How the researcher wish to undertake it?
 What benefit will result from the effort or attempt?
Section/Elements of Research Proposal
 Introduction to area and questions
 Study objectives
 Proposed research design
 The setting of the study
 Instruments planned to be used
 A sample design and a sample size
 Outline the proposed chapters for the dissertation
 Study's problems, limitations and future areas of research
 A proposed time frame
A Research Report should generally include:
 Statement of problem
 Review of relevant literature
 Statement of hypothesis or research objectives
 Description of research design
 Selection and operationalization of variables
 Description of sample selection procedure
 Description of how data was collected
 Data presented and summarised in words
 Conclusion and implications
 Budget
 Ethical statement
 Statement of limitation
 Bibliography or references cited
 Appendices

Sections/Elements of research report
Section Purpose
Title page Title of report, Researcher name, Course/subject, Date
Table of contents Shows the sections of the report
Executive summary
or Abstract
 Gives a summary of the whole report
 Outlines/summarize -purpose, research method, findings, main conclusions and
recommendations
 Mainly past tense
 Written last
Introduction  Outlines context, background and purpose
 Defines terms and sets limits of the research
 The reader/audience can easily identify what, how, why
 (Mainly uses past tense and can be written later although presented first)
Methodology Explains how research was done and outlines how the data was collected
Results/Findings  Presents findings of the research
 Facts only - no interpretation
 Uses graphic form (e.g. tables & graphs)
Discussion  Presents an interpretation and evaluation of the results.
 Analyses results - draws together different aspects of the findings, findings
of other studies and refers to literature
Conclusion Brief statement of what was found
Recommendation Suggest suitable changes/solutions
Appendix Attachments of additional information (eg. surveys, questionnaires, glossary etc)
Reference All references used
Budgeting in research
The budget is a line item (tabular) representation of the expenses associated with the proposal project. It is
a full analysis of research project costs- not just the costs requested of a Sponsor. It ensures that sufficient
resources (such as salaries and on-costs of staff employed to work on the project, student stipends, computing
costs, materials and supplies, equipment, freight, communications, services, rent or facility charges, workshops
and travel/accommodation) have been considered to complete the research work. It aims to get the sponsor to
pay the costs of doing the research project (within Sponsor guidelines), and includes all direct and indirect
costs, and in-kind costs.
It is a key element of most grant proposals and serves as a blueprint for spending the project’s funds. Budget
details usually reveal whether a proposed project has been carefully planned and may ultimately be feasible.
The proposed budget must give an accurate assessment of all cost items and cost amounts that are deemed
necessary and reasonable. It should be complete; that is, it should include all the costs of any personnel,
supplies, and activities required by the project. The project needs to be feasible within the budget presented. A
reasonable budget is one that is based upon actual costs when possible.
The budget has two functions:
 It estimates, as realistically as possible, the cost of completing the objectives identified in the proposal.
The sponsor will use the budget details to determine whether the proposal is economically feasible and
realistic.
 Provides a means to monitor the project's financial activities over the life of the project. In this way, it's
possible to determine how closely the actual progress toward achieving the project objectives is being
made relative to the proposed budget.

Common Components of a Budget
A. Salaries and Wages
 Academic personnel
 Research assistants
 Stipends (training grants
only)
 Consultants
 Interviewers
 Computer programmer
 Data managers or
analysts
 Administrators
 Editorial assistants
 Technicians
 Study/clinical
coordinators
 Hourly personnel
 Staff benefits
 Salary increases in proposals that extend into a new year, e.g., Cost of Living increases
B. Equipment
 Fixed equipment
 Movable equipment
 Office equipment
 Equipment installation
C. Materials and Supplies
 Office supplies specifically for project
Communications
 Test materials or samples
 Questionnaire forms
 Data access
 Animals
 Animal care
 Laboratory supplies
 Glassware
 Chemicals
 Electronic supplies
 Report materials and supplies
D. Travel
 Professional conferences
 Field work
 Sponsor meetings
 Travel for consultation
 Consultants' travel
 Mileage for research participants
 Subsistence
 Automobile rental
E. Services
 Computer use/data storage
 Duplication services (reports, etc.)
 Publication costs
 Photographic/graphic services
 Data analysis
F. Other
 Space rental
 Alterations and
renovations
 Purchase of data,
periodicals, books
 Subjects/Research
participants
 Patient reimbursement
 Tuition and fees
 Hospitalization
 Subcontracts

Data analysis/Plan for use of statistics
Computer applications in statistical tool: Statistical software are specialized computer programs for
analysis in statistics. There are many software options available for data and statistical analysis. Choosing the
right statistical analysis tools can be a complex decision.
Computers are useful tools that make the research process easier and faster with accuracy and greater reliability
and little error. Some important role of computer in data and statistical analysis include
 Sample Size Calculation
 Hypothesis testing and calculating the power of the study.
 Monitor the accuracy and completeness of the data as they are collected.
 Reviewing research plan and pilot study.

 Collecting and preparing the data for analysis.
 Data entry, data editing, data management including follow up actions
 Performing Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
 Statistical analysis of the data and interpretation of results (Many software are now available to perform
the ‘mathematical part’ of the research process)
Some common statistical analysis software are:
 Minitab – general statistics package
 SAS (software) – comprehensive statistical package
 SPSS – comprehensive statistics package
 Statistica – comprehensive statistics package
 StatsDirect – statistics package designed for biomedical, public health and general health science
 Stata – comprehensive statistics package
 MATLAB – programming language with statistical features
 R : Software environment for statistical computing and graphics
 SigmaPlot: Scientific data analysis software.
Bibliography: A bibliography is a list of works (such as books and articles) written on a particular subject.
A bibliography is works cited or reference list. It is a complete listing of all cited resources used to create your
document. A bibliography may appear at the end of a book, report, online presentation, or research paper. The
list gives authority to the paper, indicating that the information that was collected is accurate.
The bibliography is the key element of a thesis, which is used to judge the quality of the work done by the
researcher. It exhibits your critical thinking, it proves you have read and understood your sources, it establishes
your work as a valid source and you as a competent researcher, and it situates your study and topic in a
continuing professional conversation.
Bibliography might stimulate other researchers to carry on further work on your chosen topic of research.
There are various formats used in the creation of bibliographies such as the American Psychological
Association (APA), Modern Language Association of America (MLA).
a. APA style uses both in-text citations and a list of references to document the sources. This style is used
in social sciences. For Example,
Quattrone, G.A., Tversky, A. (1984). Causal versus diagnostic contingencies: On self-deception and
on the voter's illusion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46 (2), 237-248.
b. MLA style is used in English and humanities. MLA bibliography uses in-text citation to list sources
within the text of your research document and a list of works cited at the end of research document. For
example,
Quattrone, George A. and Amos Tversky. "Causal versus diagnostic contingencies: On self-
deception and on the voter's illusion." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46.2 (1984):
237-248.
Bibliography Generator: BibMe, CiteThisForMe, RefDot, OttoBib, EasyBib

Research Methodology

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